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amazons. (Discovered by the Argonauts.) (F. Simm.) 



(pp. 2.) 




tory'*£ Nations 



iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 




r— < rom the Creation of Man 
to the Present Day 



BY 

DR. GEORGE WEBER 

ji 

of Heidelberg 



AUTHOR OF "HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL," "HISTORY OF GERMAN LITERATURE," 
" HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION," ETC., ETC. 

INCLUDING A COMPREHENSIVE 

HISTORY OF AMERICA 

BY 

CHAS. J. LITTLE, Ph. D., LL. D. 

i 

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, NOW PROFESSOR OF HISTORICAL 
THEOLOGY IN GARRETT BIBLICAL INSTITUTE. 



Profusely illustrated with 997 engravings, from drawings by DeNeuville, 
Vierge, Meissonier, Phillopoteaux, Lix, Delort, and others. 



FEB, J?81896) , 




COPYRIGHT 1894 and 1896. 

BY 

■CHARLES J. LITTLE 



D 3,1 



c 



- . 



PREFACE. 

George Weber, the author of the great work herewith presented to the reader, 
was born in the Bavarian Palatinate in 1808. The only son of a poor widow, his 
youth was one of labor and privation. But, like the poet Goethe, he inherited from 
his mother, the gift of story-telling. From her also he learned a courageous self- 
reliance and a cheerful trust in God. His pastor encouraged him to study, so he pre- 
pared himself for the gymnasium at Speyer, whither he started with two dollars in his 
pocket, and his mother's blessing in his memory. Industry, a powerful constitution, 
unusual mental power, and moral pith combined to help him work his way through 
the school and to the University of Erlangen, where he studied for a year and acquired 
the friendship of Anselm Feuesbach and Franz Schwerdt, the choicest spirits of the 
faculty. Thence he went to Heidelberg, and became the favorite pupil of the celebrated 
Hermann. The latter procured him a tutorship in a wealthy English family ; this 
gave him opportunity to support his aged mother, complete his course at the Univer- 
sity, pursue his historical studies, and to travel through Switzerland, France, Italy and 
the Mediterranean islands. After a brief career in his native town, Bergzabern, as 
principal of the Latin school, he was called to Heidelberg, where he remained for half 
a century. His new position in the famous University town, though difficult and 
exacting, did not prevent his literary labors. In 1845 he published a " History of the 
English Reformation," and in 1852 " Milton's Prose Writings," a work of careful lit- 
erary history. In 1847 appeared "His Manual of Universal History " which has gone 
through twenty editions and appeared in every language of civilized Europe. In 1880 
his " Universal History " was published in fifteen volumes and received with unusual 
favor. This latter was the matured expression of deep and careful investigations into 
every branch of human history. Weber died in 1889 beloved and honored, by his 
prince and his fellow-citizens, by his University and his pupils, by a great circle of 
friends at home and abroad. 

The present work is distinguished for its breadth, its accuracy, its fulness, its 
conciseness, the skill with which its topics are arranged, the quiet ease and dignity 
of the narrative, the deft introduction of anecdote and maxim, and the warmth 
of noble feeling with which great men and great events are handled. It is con- 
servative in tone, yet abounds in proofs of critical learning ; the author is not 
an iconoclast, much less a destroyer of well-grounded traditions ; nevertheless the 
truth is the object of his search and of his reverence. He sketches a character by the 
selection of essential facts in a man's career, by the reproduction of characteristic 
phrases, and tell-tale phases of his speech and conduct. So too with an epoch. The 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

trivial and unfruitful details are discarded, so as to make room for the events that 
have decided crises, and determined the fate of nations and the destiny of the world. 
And all this portraiture of men and narration of events is wrought into an effective 
unity, in which the author's favorite aphorism "Die Welt-Geschichte ist das Welt-ge- 
richt " receives constant and startling illustration. "The course of human history is 
God's judgment upon the deeds of men." So he thought and so he taught. 

But every true man is a patriot ; and to the patriot his native land stands first. 
Weber was a German. Accordingly his own country, especially in the recent years of 
triumph and consolidation under the leadership of Prussia, somewhat obscured for him 
his judgment of contemporary events. This was especially true in the case of the 
United States. It was deemed best therefore, while presenting a free but accurate 
translation of the latest German edition of the Universal History, to write an entirely 
new history of the American Republic, and upon an entirely new plan. Instead of 
beginning with the English colonies, the settlements of other Europeans are first de- 
scribed; so that the English may appear in their character as the makers of homes, and 
the conquerors of a continent. Others preceded them and surpassed them in discovery ; 
but they were chosen to shape the political institutions, the moral and the religious ideas 
and habits of the future North American Union. In the following sections, the aim has 
been to present, as vividly as possible, the story of the fight for independence, of the 
formation of the " more perfect union," of the consolidation of the states, and of the 
struggles that issued in the civil war. The author has refrained from comment, but he 
has told the truth ; simply as he could, fully as his space would allow. Facts are the 
stuff of history ; the rhetoric that dazzles the reader, blinds his judgment and keeps 
alive his prejudice. The art of the genuine historian lies not in the skill with which 
he presents and supports his view of the meaning of events, but in the genius with 
which he separates opinion from realities and compels occurrences to justify or to con- 
demn themselves. 

C. J. L. 



CONTENTS. 



FIRST BOOK. 

HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



INTRODUCTION, Page 23. 
1. Primeval man. 2. Early modes of life. 3. Early forms of government ; caste. 4. Early religions. 

A. THE EASTERN RACES, Page 29. 

1. The Asiatics. 2. The Chinese. 3. The Indians; their religion, literature, art. 4. Babylonians 
and Assyrians; Nirnrod, Semiramis, Salmanasser; the Chaldeans in Babylon; Nebuchadnezzar. 5. Egyp- 
tians; division of Egypt ; religion and arts; history. 6. Phoenicians; navigation, commerce, discoveries; 
history of Tyre and Sidon. 7. The people of Israel ; the Patriarchs ; Exodus ; Moses as lawgiver ; divi- 
sion of the promised land; the Judges; Samuel and Saul; David ; Solomon; division of the kingdom; idol- 
atry and the prophets; the Assyrian and Babylonian captivities. 8. Medes and Persians ; Zoroaster's re- 
ligion ; Astyages and Cyrus; Crcesus of Lydia ; death of Cyrus ; Cambyses ; Ammonium; Darius; manners 
and customs of the Persians. 

B. THE GREEK WORLD, Page 75. 

1. Geographical survey, a. The Greek mainland. b. The Greek islands. 2. The religion of the 
Greeks. 

I. Greece before the Persian War, Page 81. 

1. The time of the Trojan war; Pelasgi; eastern immigration; Hellenic races; voyage of the Argo- 
nauts; Trojan war; Homer; epic poetry; immigration of the Dorians; Codrus: colonies. 2. The period 
of the wise men and lawgivers, a. Greeks and barbarians ; Amphictyonic council; Delphic oracle ; Olym- 
pic games, b. Lycurgus the Spartan lawgiver; laws of Lycurgus. a. Institutions of state, b. Mode of 
life; war with the Messeuians. c. Solon, the lawgiver of the Athenians; Draco; laws of Solon, d. The 
tyrants ; their origin ; Periander of Corinth ; Polycrates of Samos ; Pisistratus of Athens ; the seven wise 
men ; Pythagoras, e. Lyric poetry. 

II. The Flourishing Period of Greece, Page 100. 

1. The Persian wars ; insurrection of the Greeks of Asia Minor; battle of Marathon; Aristides and 
Themistocles ; Thermopylae; Salamis; Platsea; Mycale ; Eurymgdon. 2. The supremacy of Athens, and 
the age of Pericles; Pausanias, the traitor; deaths of Themistocles and Aristides; Cimon ; Pericles. 3. 
The Peloponnesian war (b. c. 431 — 404) ; origin of the war; the war to the peace of Nicias ; Alcibiades; 
battle of Mantinsea ; disasters of the Athenians in Sicily ; death of Alcibiades ; the fall of Athens ; 
the thirty tyrants. 4. Sophists; Socrates; Plato; Xenophon. 5. The retreat of the ten thousand 
(b. c. 400). 6. The time of Agesilaus and Epaminondas ; the Corinthian war and the peace of Antalcidas ; 
expedition against Olynthus and siege of Thebes ; the Theban war and the battle of Leuctra ; Epaminondas 
in Peloponnesus ; battle of Mantinsea. 7. The most flourishing period of Greece in literature and the arts; 
dramatic poetry; iEschylus ; Sophocles; Euripides; Aristophanes; prose literature; Plato; Herodotus; 
Thucydides ; Xenophon ; oratory ; Isocrates ; Demosthenes ; iEschines ; the fine arts of the Greeks. 

III. The Macedonian Period, Page 127. 

1. Philip of Macedon (b. c. 361 — 336) ; character of Philip ; the sacred war ; battle of Chseronea ; 
Philip's death. 2. Alexander the Great; fall cf Thebes; Granicus; Issus; Tyre and Alexandria ; Arbela 
and Gaugemala ; expedition into Bactria ; march to India ; last years of Alexander. 

(5) 



6 CONTENTS. 

IV. The Alexandrian Period, Page 141. 

a. Alexander's successors. 6. Greece's last struggle; the Acbaian league.; Athens; Phocion ; Demos- 
thenes; Demetrius; Sparta and the Achaiau league, c. The Ptolemies and the Seleucidae. d. The Jews 
under the Maccabees, e. State of civilization during the Alexandrian period ; Theocritus; Stoics and Epi- 
cureans. 

C. ROME, Page 147. 
The races and institutions of ancient Italy. 

I. Rome Under the Government of Kings and Patricians, Page 150. 

1. Rome under the kings (b. c. 753 — 509); Rome built; Rome under Romulus; Numa Pompilius; 
Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius ; origin of the plebeians ; Tarquinius Priscus and Servius Tullius ; 
Tarquinius Superbus. 2. Rome as a republic under the patricians, a. Horatius Codes ; the tribunes ; Cor- 
iolauus ; contest between the republicans and Porsenna and Tarquin ; emigration to the sacred hill ; Corio- 
lanus. b. The Fabii ; Cincinnatus ; the decemvirs ; war with the Veians and -<£qui ; Agrarian law ; Sp. 
Cassius; the decemvirs; military tribunes and censors, c. Sack of Rome by the Gauls (b. c. 389), and the 
laws of Licinius Stolo (b. c. 366) ; taking of Veii by Camillus ; Brennus in Rome ; M. Manlius and the 
laws of L. Stolo. 

II. Rome's Heroic Period, Page 165. 

1. The wars with the Samnites, and the battles with Pyrrhus ; first Samnite war; war with the Latins; 
second Samnite war; Caudinian passes; Sentinum ; war with Tarentum and Pyrrhus. 2. Punic wars. a. 
The first Punic war (b. c. 263 — 241); Carthage; Agathocles; the Mamertines ; Regulus; Hamilcar Barcas; 
end of the first Punic war. 6. The second Punic war (B. c. 218 — 202) ; Sicily and Gallia Cisalpina Roman 
Provinces ; Saguntum ; Hannibal's passage over the Alps and through Italy ; Fabius Maximus and the bat- 
tle of Cannae; Capua; Syracuse; Tarentum ; Hasdrubal's defeat on the Metaurus; Zama. e. Macedonia 
conquered; Corinth and Carthage destroyed; Philip III. and Autiochus III. conquered by the Romans; 
battle of Pydna and destruction of Corinth ; destruction of Carthage in the third Punic war. d. The man- 
ners and culture of the Romans; conflict of the old and new; Plautus ; Terence; Cato. 

III. Rome's Degeneracy and Republican Factions, Page 186. 

1. Numantia; Tiberius; Caius Gracchus; Rome's government of her provinces; Numantia's insurrec- 
tion and fall ; Tiberius Gracchus ; Caius Gracchus. 2. Marius and Sy 11a; the Jugurthine war ; Cimbri and 
Teutones; the Social war; the first Mithridatic war; the first civil war ; death of Marius ; the Cornelian 
law and Sylla's death. 3. Cneius Pompey and M. Tullius Cicero; Sertorius; the Servile war; war against 
the pirates ; the second Mithridatic war ; Cataline's conspiracy. 4. Caius Julius Caesar ; the first triumvi- 
rate ; Caesar's wars in Gaul ; the second civil war ; Caesar's victories ; Caesar's death. 5. The last years of 
the republic; the second triumvirate ; Cicero's death ; Philippi ; Actium. 

IV. The Roman Empire, Page 210. 

1. Ca?.sar Octavianus Augustus ; Rome's golden age ; Roman literature. 2. The struggles of the Ger- 
mans for liberty ; Hermann's victory in the Teutoburger forest; Germanicus; Tacitus on the manners and 
institutions of the Germans. 3. The Caesars of the Augustine race; Tiberius; Caligula; Claudius; Nero; 
Galba ; Otho ; Vitellius. 4. The Flavii and Antonines ; Vespasian ; the destruction of Jerusalem ; destruc- 
tion of the Jewish state; Britain conquered by Agricola ; Titus; Domitian ; Nerva; Trajan; Hadrian; 
Plutarch; Antonius Pius; Marcus Aurelius ; culture and morals. 5. Rome under military government ; 
Commodua ; Pertinax ; Septimius Severus ; Caracalla ; Heliogabalus ; Alexander Severus ; Philip the Arab ; 
Decius; Gallienus; Aurelian ; Tacitus; Probus ; Carus; reign of Diocletian; Constan tine's victory at the 
Milvian bridge and sole empire. 



SECOND BOOK. 

MIGRATION OF NATIONS AND THE MIDDLE AGE. 

A. MIGRATION OF NATIONS AND ESTABLISHMENT OF MONOTHEISM. } 

I. The Triumph op Christianity over Paganism, Page 243. 

1. The Christian Church of the first century ; persecutions of the Christians. 2. Constantine the Great 
and Julian the Apostate; Constantiue's proceedings iu Church and state; Arianism ; Augustine; the fathers 
of the Church ; Julian the Apostate. 



CONTENTS. 7 

II. The Migration of Nations, Page 249. 

1. Theodosius the Great; Huns and Goths. 2. West Goths; Burgundians and Vandals; Alaric; Stil- 
icho ; Radagais ; Alaric in Italy ; the Vandals in Africa. 3. Attila king of the Huns (a. d. 450) ; battle 
with the Huns; Aquileja. 4. Destruction of the Western Roman Empire (a. d. 476) 5. Theodoric the 
Ostrogoth (a. d. 500). 6. Clovis, king of the Franks and the Merovingians ; battle of Ziilpich ; the Merov- 
ingians and their Mayor of the palace. 7. The Anglo-Saxons. 8. The Byzantine empire and the Longo- 
bards; the court; Justinian; subjection of the Vandals and the Ostrogoths ; Alboin ; the Iconoclasts. 9. 
The Slavs. 

III. Mohammed and the Arabians, Page 266. 

Arabia; Mohammed the prophet; the Mohammedans in Persia and Egypt ; Ali and the Ommiads ; the 
Arabs in Spain and France; the Abbassides in Bagdad ; the battles between Christians and Mohammedans 
in Spain ; Arab culture and literature. 

B. THE MIDDLE AGE. 

I. The Period of the Karlings, Page 275. 

1. Pepin the Little (a. d. 752—768); Karl the Great (Charlemagne) (768—814); Bonifacius; Saxons 
and Longobards; war with the Saxons, and defeat at Eoncesvalles ; Karl, Roman emperor; his internal 
government. 2. Dissolution of the Frank empire; Ludwig the Gentle (Louis le DeBonnaire) ; treaty of 
Verdun ; Karl the Fat and Arnulf ; Charles the Simple and Hugh Capet. 

II. Normans and Danes, Page 287. 

Scandinavia; Iceland; Russia; England; Alfred; Canute; William the Conqueror; Lower Italy; Rob- 
ert Guiscard. 

III. The Supremacy of the Holy Roman Empire, Page 288. 

1. The House of Saxony (919—1024) ; Henry the Fowler; Otho the Great; Otho II. and III. ; Henry 
II.; German culture under the Othos. 2. The House of Franconia; Conrad II. and Henry III.; Henry IV. 
and the Saxons ; Henry IV. and pope Gregory VII. ; Henry IV. 's death ; Henry V. and Lothaire of Saxony. 

IV. The Ascendancy of the Church in the Time of the Crusades, Page 302. " 

1. The crusades; the Council of Clermont; Peter of Amiens and Walter the Penniless; the first cru- 
sade under Godfrey of Bouillon ; conquest of Jerusalem ; the first king of Jerusalem ; the second crusade; 
the third crusade ; the fourth crusade; the Latin empire in Constantinople; the fifth crusade; the emperor 
Frederick II.; the sixth crusade, under Louis IX.; the consequences of the crusades ; orders of knights; 
war against the Albigenses. 2. The Hohenstaufens (a. d. 1138 — 1154); Welfs and Waiblings ; Frederick 
Barbarossa in Ilaly ; Arnold of Brescia; Milan destroyed; Alexandria founded; battle of Legnano; peace 
of Constance ; Frederick Barbarossa and Henry the Lion; Henry VI. and Philip of Swabia; Pope Innocent 
III. and the Emperor Otho IV. ; Frederick II. 's contest with the papacy ; rival emperor in Germany; Fred- 
erick II. 's death; death of Manfred at Beneventum; Conradine's death ; the Sicilian vespers. 3. General 
view of the Middle Ages; the feudal system ; chivalry; hierarchy; monachism ; mendicant orders ; Fran- 
ciscans and Dominicans; state of the towns; literature (1), scholastics and mystics. (2) Science and his- 
tory. (3) Poetry. 

V. Decay of Chivalry and Corruption of the Church, Page 337. 

1. The Interregnum (a. d. 1250 — 1273) ; the law of might; confederations of towns. 2. Origin of the 
House of Hapsburg and the Helvetic confederation ; Rudolf of Hapsburg; Rudolf's proceedings in the em- 
pire; Adolf of Nassau and Albert of Austria ; the confederation of the Rutli ; William Tell; Morgarten. 
3. Philip the Fair of France and the emperor Ludwig the Bavarian ; Philip IV. and pope Bonifacius VIII. ; 
the popes at Avignon ; dissolution of the order of the Temple; Henry of Luxemburg; Ludwig the Bavarian 
and Frederick the Fair; diet at Rense; Louis's death. 4. The emperors of the House of Luxemburg; 
Charles IV.; Wenceslaus; the German town war; Rupert of the Palatinate and Sigismund. 5. The divi- 
sion in the Church and the great councils; Wiclif and Huss ; the council of Constance; the Hussite war; 
the council of Basle. 6. Germany under Frederick III. and Maximilian I.; Albert II. and Frederic III.; 
Maximilian I. ; change in the German constitution ; end of the middle age. 

VI. History of the Remaining European States During the Middle Age, Page 351. 

1. France, a. France under the House of Capet (A. D. 987 — 1328). 5. France under the House of 
Valois (A. D. 1328 — 1529); Philip VI. and John the Good ; Crecy and Poictiers; Charles V. and VI. ; civil 
war; battle of Agincourt; Maid of Orleans; Louis XL 2. England; Henry Plantagenet and Thomas a. 



8 CONTENTS. 

Becket; Richard Lion-heart and John Lackland; Edward I. and the war of liberty in Scotland ; Edward 
III. ; the House of Lancaster ; the wars of the red and white roses. 3. Spain ; state of Spain in the middle 
age ; Aragon and Castile ; Ferdinand and Isabella ; the Inquisition ; expulsion of the Moors. 4. Scotland. 
5. Ireland. 6. Italy, a. Upper Italy; Venice; Genoa; Milan; Savoy and Piedmont, b. Middle and 
Lower Italy; Florence; Cosmo de Medici ; Lorenzo the Magnificent ; SavonarCla; fine arts; the Papal Do- 
minion; Ferrara; Naples and Sicily. 7. The new Burgundian territory; condition of ihe kingdom under 
the first dukes; Charles the Bold; the new Burgundian territory after the death of Charles. 8. Scandi- 
navia; establishment of Christianity in the three Scandinavian kingdoms; Denmark before the union of 
Calmar ; Sweden before and after the union of Calmar. 9. Hungary; Stephen the Pious; the Saxons in 
Transylvania; the "Golden Privilege"; Louis the Great and Matthias Corvinus. 10. Poland; state of 
Polaud ; Casimir the Great ; the Jagellons ; formation of the power of the nobles. 11. The Russian Em- 
pire ; the imperial House of Ruric ; Ivan Vasilyevitsch. 12. Moguls and Turks ; Zengis-Khan and his 
sons; the Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor; Bajazet and Timur ; Murad II.; the Christian army defeated at 
Warna ; taking of Constantinople ; greatness and decay of the Ottoman empire. 



THIRD BOOK. 

THE MODERN AGE AND EUROPE. 

I. The Heralds of the Modern Epoch, Page 395. 

1. The sea passage to the East Indies, and the discovery of America; invention of the compass; gun- 
powder ; printing ; the Portuguese in the East Indies ; Christopher Columbus ; Balboa ; Cortez ; Pizarro ; 
consequences of the discovery of America. 2. The revival of the arts and sciences ; Italy ; Germany 
(Reuchlin, Erasmus, Hutten) ; Humanists and Obscurantists. 

II. The Time of the Reformation, Page 405. 

1. The German Reformation, a. Dr. Martin Luther; the sale of indulgences and the ninety-five theses 
Luther; Cajetan ; Frederick the AVise ; Miltitz; his disputation at Leipsic; burning of the pope's bull; 
Diet of Worms ; Dr. Carlstadt and the Anabaptists ; Philip Melancthon ; spread of the Reformation, b. 
The peasant war; Thomas Munzer; subjection of the peasants, c. The Augsburg confession; activity of 
Luther and Melancthon; Diet of Spire; Diet of Augsburg, d. Ulric Zwingle; Reformation in Switzer- 
land ; religious war ; battle of Kappel. 2. "Wars of the House of Hapsburg against France ; Charles V. and 
Francis I.; wars respecting Milan ; battle of Pavia; taking of Rome; Ladies Peace of Canibray ; campaign 
against Tunis; second and third war between Charles and Francis. 3. The war of religion in Germany ; 
the league of Smalcald; the gospel in Wirtetnberg; the Anabaptists in Munster; spread of the Reformation 
in Saxony, Brandenburg, the Palatinate, &c; the war of Smalcald; campaign on the Danube; Charles V.'s 
triumphant expedition into Southern Germany; battle near Muhlberg; the elector of Saxony and the land- 
grave of Hesse taken prisoners; the Augsburg interim ; Maurice of Saxony ; the treaty of Passau; the re- 
ligious war of Augsburg; Charles V. dies. 4. Progress of the Reformation through Europe, a. Lutheran- 
ism and Calvinism; Germany; the Lutheran and Reformed Churches; Switzerland; Calvinism ; Calvinism 
in France, in the Netherlands, in Scotland, b. Establishment of the Anglican Church ; England; Henry 
VIII.'s ecclesiastical innovations ; Heury VIII. and his wives; establishment of the Episcopal Church under 
Edward VI.; the English Church under Mary and Elizabeth, c. The Reformation in the three Scandinavian 
kingdoms; Scandinavia; Sweden under Gustavus Vasa ; the Reformation in Denmark ; Sweden under the 
sons of Gustavus Vasa; Poland, d. The Catholic Church; inquisition; papacy; Council of Trent; order 
of the Jesuits. 5. The times of Philip II. (a. d. 1556—1598) and Elizabeth (a. d. 1558—1603); Philip 
II.; character and mode of government, a. Portugal uuited with Spain ; King Sebastian. 6. Struggle for 
liberty in the Netherlands; Philip's attacks on the privileges of the Netherlanders; compromise; the 
Guises; sacrilege; Alba in the Netherlands; Don Juan; Alexander Farnese ; William of Orange; the Ar- 
mada ; termination of the war ; trade; government synod of Dort. c. France during the war of religion; 
position of parties ; the first three wars of religion; St. Bartholomew night; Henry III. and the holy league; 
Henry IV. d. Elizabeth and Mary Stuart; difference in the characters of the two queens; Knox; Mary 
Stuart in Scotland ; Mary Stuart in England ; progress of England, and death of Elizabeth; Essex, e. Cul- 
ture and literature in the century of the Reformation. 1. Germany; 2. Italy; 3. Spain and Portugal ; 4. 
England ; 5. France ; the fine arts. 

III. The Seventeenth Century, Page 466. 

1. The thirty years' war (a. d. 1618 — 1648). a. Bohemia; Palatinate; Lower < ermany; Tilly; ap- 
pearance of Wallenstein ; union and league; the letters patent, and the proceedings in Prague ; Frederick 
V. and the battle of the White Hill ; Tilly in the Palatinate; Wallenstein in the North of Germany ; edict 
of restitution; Diet of Regensburg; Wallenstein's deposition, b. Interference of Sweden; Gustavus 
Adolphus and Wallenstein ; Gustavus Adolphus in Pomerania; destruction of Magdeburg; battle of Breit- 
enfield and Leipsic ; triumphant course of Gustavus Adolphus; Nuremberg; Liitzen ; alliance of Heilbron ; 



CONTENTS. ■ 9 

Wallenstein's death, c. Termination of the war; peace of Westphalia ; Bernard of Weimar; Baoer ; Tor- 
stenson ; Wrangel ; Sweden under Christina and Charles X. ; change in the constitution of Denmark. 2. 
The revolution in England, and the expulsion of the Stuarts, a. The first two Stuarts (James I. 1603 — 
1625, Charles I. 1625 — 1649) ; James's character and principles ; the gunpowder-plot ; the Infanta of Spain ; 
the prince of Wales ; position in relation to parliament ; petition of right ; Strafford ; Laud ; Hampden and 
the Scottish covenant; the long parliament ; Strafford's fall; civil war; Cromwell's appearance; victory of 
the Independents ; Charles with the Scots ; death of Charles, b. Oliver Cromwell ; Cromwell's victories at 
Dunbar and Worcester ; Cromwell as Lord Protector ; the parliament ; restoration, c. The last two Stuarts 
(Charles II. 1660 — 1685, and James II. 1685 — 1688) ; government of Charles II. ; test act ; habeas corpus 
act ; Whigs and Tories ; government and fall of James II.; William and Mary ; bill of rights; union with 
Scotland. 3. The age of Louis XIV. a. Bichelieu and Mazarin ; Louis XIII.; government and activity of 
Richelieu ; Anne of Austria and Mazarin ; war of the Fronde. 6. Government and conquests of Louis 
XIV. ; Louis XIV. and his ministers and generals ; the Spanish and Dutch war ; peace of Aix ; Sasbach ; 
Fehrhellin ; peace of Nimeguen ; reunions ; Strasburg wrested from the enyrire. c. Austria's distress and 
triumph ; the Turks before Vienna ; peace of Carlowitz. d. The war of Orleans ; desolation of the Palatin- 
ate; peace of Ryswick. e. Life at the court; literature; Church ; industry; court of Versailles; art and 
literature ; Jansenists ; persecution of the Huguenots. 

IV. The Eighteenth Century, Page 510. 

1. The Spanish war of succession (1702 — 1714) ; origin of the war; position of parties; Hochsladtl 
Prince Eugene and Marlborough ; Ramilies ; Turin; Spain; humiliation of France; Malplaquet; change in 
affairs; peace of Utrecht; France; Orleans, duke-regent; Spain; Philip V.; Ferdinand VI.; England un- 
der the House of Hanover; attempts of the Stuarts frustrated. 2. Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter the 
Great of Russia in the Northern war (1700 — 1718); Sweden and Russia under the House of Romanoff; 
Peter's reforms; Poland under Frederick Augustus the Strong; Charles XII. in Denmark and Poland ; 
Stanislaus Leczinski ; Charles XII. in Saxony; his character; Peter on the Baltic; battle of Pultowa ; 
Charles XII. in Turkey ; death of Charles XII. ; reformation in Russia ; Alexis; Menzikoff; Elizabeth; the 
Polish war of succession. 3. The rise of Prussia; Frederick I.; Frederick William I.; youth of Frederick 
II. 4. The times of Frederick II. and Maria Theresa, a. The Austrian war of succession (a. d. 1740 — 
1748) ; cause of the war ; Pragmatic sanction ; Charles Albert ; the first Silesian war ; Charles's coronation ; 
the. Hungarians; difficulties of Bavaria ; Prague; Dettingen ; the second Silesian war; close of the war; 
peace of Aix. b. The seven years' war (a. d. 1756 — 1763) ; Austria's alliance with Russia, France, and 
Saxony; Dresden and Pirna ; Prague; Collin; Rosbach ; Leignitz; Torgau; Peter III. and Catharine II. of 
Russia ; close of war ; peace of Hubertsburg. e. The German empire and the age of Frederick ; condition 
of the German empire; Frederick's internal government; the Bavarian war of succession and the alliance 
of princes, d. Intellectual life in Germany ; poetry; religion; historical writing ; philosophy; education. 



FOURTH BOOK. 

THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

A. THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION, Page 543. 

1. The literature of illunjination ; character of French literature; Voltaire; Montesquieu; Rousseau; 
effects of the literature of illumination ; dissolution of the Jesuits; society of Uluminati ; disorder and 
contests in Holland. 2. Innovations of princes and ministers ; character of political and ecclesiastical re- 
forms ; Portugal under Pombal ; Spain under Charles III. and Aranda ; France ; Choiseul ; Turgot and 
Malasherbes; Struensee in Denmark; Gustavus III. of Sweden ; reforms of Joseph II. in Austria; internal 
government of Catharine II. in Russia. 3. The partition of Poland ; state of Poland ; king Stanislaus 
Pouiatowski ; the contest with the Dissidents; Confederation of Radom and Bar; first Turkish war; first 
partition of Poland ; Tauris ; second Turkish war; Poland's new constitution ; Confederation of Targowicz; 
second partition of Poland ; Poland's end. 

B. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, Page 555. 

1. The last days of absolute monarchy ; Louis XV. and the empire of the passions ; taxation ; parlia- 
ment; Louis XVI. and his court; increasing financial difficulties; Necker; Calonne; contest with the par- 
liament; summoning of the estates-general. 2. The period of the national assembly ; the third estate de- 
clares itself a national assembly; storm of the Bastile ; the new system; the king and the national assem- 
bly at Paris; ceremony of the federation ; death of Mirabeau ; flight of the king. 3. The legislative assem- 
bly and the fall of the monarchy ; position of parties ; Girondist ministers ; the tenth of August ; the days 
of September. 4. Republican France under the government of the National Convention ; execution of the 
king ; the war ; Dumouriez ; fall of the Girondists ; rule of the Jacobins. 5. Persecutions of the aristo- 
crats. 6. Horrors in the south ; bloody scenes in La Vendee ; fall of the Dantonists. 7. Wars of the re- 
public; first coalition ; peace of Basle ; Robespierre's fall ; the last days of the convention. 8. France under 
the Directory; Bonaparte in Italy ; internal state of France; Babeuf; Roj'alists; the Republicans in Italy ; 
revolution in Switzerland; war of the second coalition; Bonaparte in Egypt and Syria; the eighteenth of 
Brumaire. 



10 CONTENTS. 

C. GOVERNMENT OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, Page 591. 

I. The consulate (1800 — 1804); the consular constitution; Marengo and Hohenliuden ; Egypt; the 
peace of Amiens; murder of the emperor Paul; the new court and the concordat; conspiracies. II. Napo- 
leon emperor (1804 — 1814). 1. The empire. 2. Austerlitz; Presburg; confederation of the Rhine; Han- 
over; Italy; Prussia; Ulm; Trafalgar; Austerlitz; peace of Presburg; establishment of the Rhenish Con- 
federation. 3. Jena; Tilsit; Erfurt ; occasion of the Prussian war; battle of Jena, and its immediate con- 
sequences ; Preuss Eylau; Friedland; peace of Tilsit; proceedings in Sweden and Denmark; Napoleon and 
Alexander in Erfurt. 4. The events in the Pyrenean peninsula; Junot in Lisbon ; intrigues in Bayonne; 
Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain ; insurgent war in Spain; Dupont's capitulation; Guerilla war; La Ro- 
maua ; constitution of the year '12 ; end of the Peninsular war ; imprisonment of the pope. 5. The second 
Austrian war; Hofer; Schill (18f'9) ; Aspern aud Wagram ; popular war iu the Tyrol ; the peace of Vienna; 
Schill; William of Brunswick ; Stein; Scharnhorst; the French empire at its height. 6. The war against 
Russia (1812) ; origin of the war ; Napoleon in Polaud ; march to Moscow ; retreat of the grand army. 

D. DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE, AND ESTABLISHMENT OF 

NEW CONDITIONS, Page 619. 

1. The German war of liberation, and the fall of Napoleon ; rise of Germany; German war of liberty 
from the year 1813; battle of Leipsic, and its results; Napoleon's last struggle. 2. The restoration and the 
Hundred Days; Napoleon's abdication ; the first peace of Paris; Congress of Vienna, and the first period of 
the restoration; Napoleon's return, and the government of the hundred days; triumph of legitimacy, and 
Murat's death ; Waterloo ; St. Helena ; second peace of Paris ; second restoration. 

E. EUROPE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY 

OF METTERNICH, Page 635. 

1. The Holy Alliance and the position of parties; the Holy Alliance ; liberals and conservatives. 2. 
France; Louis XVIII.; reign of Charles X. 3. The constitutional struggles in the Pyrenean peninsula 
aud iu Italy ; Ferdinand VII. and the Camarilla ; victory of the constitutionalists; intervention of the Holy 
Alliance in Italy ; destruction of the Cortes' government in Spain ; constitutional struggles in Portugal. 4. 
Great Britain; state of England; increasing poverty; court and government; Ireland. 5. Germany ; 
struggle of opinions and position of parties ; feast of the Wartburg ; Sand; decrees of Carlsbad. 6. Greece's 
struggle for liberty; Ypsilanti aud the sacred band; Greece's struggle till the fall of Missolonghi; the Phil- 
hellenists; Navarino; Adrianople; conclusion; the new romantic literature. 

F. LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, Page 659. 

1. The July revolution of Paris and its consequences; the July revolution ; general consequences; the 
revolution in Belgium ; rise and fall of Poland ; liberal movements in Germany ; insurrections in Italy ; 
struggles between throne and constitution in Spain. 2. Overthrow of the throne of July, and the later rev- 
olutionary tempests, a. The years of political and social agitation ; France under Louis Phillippe; Italy; 
Germany; Switzerland, b. The Paris revolution of February and its consequences; the revolution of Feb- 
ruary and the French republic; the March days in Vienna and Berlin, and commotions in Germany ; pre- 
liminary parliament ; committee of fifty ; national assembly ; Italy's rise aud fall ; the ti ce of Malmo, and 
the Frankfurt September horrors; the Vienna October days; programme of'Gagern; dissolution of the Ber- 
lin National Assembly; Kremsier ; Hungary's rise and fall; the imperial constitution, t d deputation to 
the emperor; revolutionary movements in Saxony, Palatinate, aud Baden, and the rump parliament; 
Schleswig-Holstein; France; restoration of the empire. 



FIFTH BOOK. 

RECENT HISTORY. 

I. The Events of the Years 1850 — 1870, Page 683. 

1. The Western powers and Russia; the second empire; England; Russia and the Eastern question ; 
the events on the Danube and in the Baltic; the Crimean war; Sebastopol ; end of the war; Turkey and 
Greece; Russia under Alexander II.; parties in Poland ; uprisings in Poland. 2. Germany, Austria and 
Prussia; the German Confederation; Austria; Prussia; the new era ; Schleswig Holstein. 3. The found- 
ing of the Italian kingdom ; parties in Italy ; Magenta ; Solferino ; peace of Villafranca ; Garibaldi ; Gseta ; 
the kingdom of Italy. 4. The events of 1866; the war iu North Germany ; the war in Bohemia and on the 
Main; the treaty of Prague ; United Italy and the capital Rome; the North German Confederation ; the 
settlement in Austria. 5. The Spanish revolution of 1868; parties; expulsion of Queen Isabella ; Repub- 
licans and Monarchists. 



CONTENTS. 11 

II. The Franco-German War of 1870—1811, Page 725. 

Origin of the war ; Worth ; Metz ; Sedan ; Republican France ; the new German empire ; the bombard- 
ment of Paris ; the destruction of the army of the east ; the Commune ; the peace of FraDkfort. 

III. The Present Situation, Page 138. 

a. Literary and scientific culture, b. Inventions and social movements, c. Geographical discovery. 
d. Political affairs. 1. Germany. 2. Austria and Russia. 3. Holland ; Scandinavia. 4. France. 5. 
Switzerland and Italy. 6. Spain. 7. Russia and the Eastern question. 8. England. 

IV. Postscript, Page 111. 

1. Germany. 2. France. 3. Italy. 4. Spain; Portugal. 5. Austria-Hungary. 6. Russia. 7. Bel- 
gium; The Netherlands ; Switzerland. 8. Denmark; Sweden; Norway. 9. Greece; Turkey; Bulgary ; 
Roumania ; Servia. 10. England. 



SIXTH BOOK. 

AMERICA. 

A NORTH AMERICA. 

I. The European Settlement, Page 781. 

1. The Spanish settlement, a. Florida; Ponce de Leon; de Soto : The Huguenots ; Menendez; later 
history. b. Mexico and the Californians. 2. The French settlements and discoveries, a. Discovery of the 
St. Lawrence and settlement of Quebec and Acadia, b. Discovery of the Great Lakes and of the North 
West. c. Discovery of the Mississippi and settlement of Louisiana. 3. The Dutch settlements on the 
Hudson and the Delaware. 4. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware. 5. The English settlements on 
the Atlantic coast, a. The Southern Colonies; Virginia ; Maryland ; the Carolinas ; Georgia, b. The Pur- 
itan Colonies ; Plymouth Bay ; Massachusetts; New Haven ; Connecticut ; Rhode Island, e. Pennsylvania; 
Delaware, d. New York and New Jersey. 

II. The English Conquest op the Continent, Page 828. 

1. The expedition against the French in the Ohio Valley. 2. Against Ticonderoga. 3. To the St. 
Lawrence ; Montcalm and Wolfe. 

III. The American Revolution, Page 834. 

1. The struggle of the colonists for the rights of Englishmen (1766 — 1776). 2. The struggle for inde- 
pendence (1676— P783). 3. The struggle for a " More Perfect Union " (1783—1789). 

IV. The More Perfect Union, Page. 858. 

1. The administration of Washington and Adams (1789 — 1801). 2. The period of Democratic rule 
from Jefferson to P k (1801 — 1849). a. Territorial expansion and admission of new states, b. Foreign 
affairs; wars with England and Mexico; Indian wars; difficulties with England and France, c. Political 
development; the- constitution in operation; the changes in the states; the parties ; the tariff, bank and 
currency questions; d. The industrial development and the growth of cities. 3. The struggle to restrict 
negro slavery and the war to preserve the Union (1849 — 1869); the three compromises ; the Kansas Bill ; 
the election of Lincoln ; secession of Southern States; the struggle for the Potomac ; the struggle for the 
Ohio and Mississippi Valley ; the struggle for the Atlantic seaboard ; the surrender of Lee and Johnston ; 
assassination of Lincoln ; reconstruction. 4. Recent history ; National, State and Municipal (1869 — 18!.'4). 

V. Canada, Page 942. 

a. From the conquest to the Union of the two Canadas (1763 — 1841). 5. From the Union to the for- 
mation of the Dominion (1841—1867). c. The Dominion (1867—1894). 

B. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 

I. Mexico, Page 949. 

The struggle for independence; the war with the United States; revolutions; Maximilian ; recent his- 
tory. 

II. South America, Page 953. 
The struggle for independence; Napoleon's demand ; Ferdinand VII.; Bolivar; recent history ; Brazil. 

TABLE OF SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS, 961 

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, 915 

ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING IDEX, .... 1001 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

765 



Abdul Hamid 

Abraham Journeying iuto Canaan — Gustave 
Dore 

Aboukir, Naval Fight off — Fr. Weber 

Acre, Fall of — Gustave Dore 

Acre, Siege of St. John d' 

Acropolis at Athens 

Adams, John 

Adams, John Quincy 

Adams, Samuel 

Addison, Joseph 

Aeneas with Anchises, Flight of, Carrying the 
Lares from Troy 

Agrippa's, An Audience at — L. Alma Tadema 

Agrippina the Younger, Livia, Claudius, and 
Tiberius .... 

Alabama by the Kearsarge, Sinking of the 

Albert III 

Albigenses, Crusade against the — Albert Maig- 
nan ..... 

Albrecht Achilles Fighting the Swabians 

Alcibiades .... 

Alemanni Crossing the Rhine — A. De Neuville 

Alembert, d' . 

Alexander .... 

Alexander I. . 

Alexander II. . 

Alexander III. .... 

Alexander at the Temple of Jupiter Ammon 

Alexander Balas, Coin of 

Alexander before T T re — H. Vogel 

Alexander, Coin of 

Alexander Discovers the Dead Body of Darius 

Alexander on the Granicus, Victory of — Charles 
Le Brun ..... 

Alexander the Great .... 

Alfred the Great in his Study — A. De Neuville 

Algiers, Capture of — F. Lix 

Alhambra of Granada, The 

Amazon, Indian of the 

Amazons — F. Simm . . . Frontispiece. 

America ..... 785 

Assassination of Marshal d'Ancre — A. de Neu- 
ville ..... 

Andes, Birds' Eye View of the . 

Andre 1 , J. ..... 

Andros, Sir Edmund .... 

Antioch, Massacre at — Gustave DorS . 

Antioch, Tetradrachm of . 

Antiochus III. ..... 

Antiochus IV., Tetradrachm of 

Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium 
— H. Vogel ..... 

Antony, Marc ..... 

Antony, Marc, Delivers the Funeral Oration 
over the Dead Body of Caesar — H. E. V- 
Berlepsch . . - . . 

Apollo Belvidere .... 

Archimides, Death of — Nicola Barabino 

Areopagus ..... 



53 

588 
303 
589 
646 
859 
873 
856 
649 

148 
208 

220 
916 
350 

317 

349 
111 
247 
545 
140 
594 
694 
771 
134 
184 
135 
138 
137 

133 
131 

286 
660 
271 
955 



451 

954 
848 
820 
299 
142 
142 
144 

209 
206 



205 

105 

177 

96 



Argonauts, The — Bahl . 

Aristotle .... 

Aristotle and Alexander 

Arkright, Richard 

Armada, The English Fleet Following the In 

vincible .... 
Arms and Armor of the XV. to XVIII. Centu 

ries .... 

Arms and Armor, Ancient 
Arms and Armor of the Middle Age . 
Arms and Armor of the Nineteenth Century 
Arnold, Benedict 
Arthur, Chester A. 
Assyrian, (Headpiece) 
Assyrian Chariot of State 
Assyrian Clay Coffins 
Assyrian High Priest and King 
Assyrian Nobles and Courtiers . 
Assyrian Palace 
Assyrian Warriors and Archer . 
Athena Parthenos — Phidias 
Athenian Army in Sicily, Destruction of the — 

S. Vogel .... 
Athenian Youths Riding in Procession — Phidias 
Athens, Ancient 

Atlas, (Initial) .... 
Attila, the Hun 

Augustus .... 

Aurelius, Marcus 
Aurelius, Marcus, Liberates the Chief of the 

Marcomanni 
Austrians at Hohenfriedberg, Capture of the 

— B. Brendamour 
Aztec Priests Sacrificing a Victim 
Babylon, Capture of, by Cyrus 
Bacchanalian Festival . 
Bacchus .... 

Bacchus, The Temple of, at Athens — G, 

Behlender .... 
Bacon, Francis .... 
Baker, Sir Samuel 
Balaklava, Battlefield of 
Balboa Adds the Pacific Ocean to the Spanish 

Realm .... 

Ballista . . . . 

Baltimore, Lord 
Bancroft, George 

Bank of the United States at Philadelphia 
Barbarians, Inroad of . 
Barbarossa Asking Aid of Henry 
Barricades, Defence of the 
Bartholomew's Night, St. — A. de Neuville 
Bastile, Storming the — F. Lix . 
Bayard, The Chevalier 
Bayard, Thomas F. 
Bazaine, Marshal 
Becket, Murder of St. Thomas A. 
Beggars before the Council, The 
Belisarius from Rome, Sortie of — H. Vogel 
Benares, An Old Fakir of 



PAGE 
81 

272 
130 

784 

447 

465 

153 

283 

699 

847 

931 

29 

41 

39 

43 

42 

38 

37 

98 

115 

126 
108 
23 
254 
213 
230 

231 

' 527 

403 

71 

28 
81 

123 

463 
743 
692 

401 
204 
806 
897 
883 
251 
320 
674 
452 
561 
418 
929 
951 
361 
443 
263 
34 



(13) 



14 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Beresina, Crossing the . 

Berlin, Congress of, 1870 — Anton von Werner 

Berri, Duchess de 

Bishops in Pluviale and Casula 

Bismarck, Prince, (Headpiece) . 

Bismarck, Prince Otto von — Fr. Skarbina 

Black Prince, The 

Blaine, James G. 

Blueher, Gebhard Lebrecht von 

Bliicher's Cavalry before Paris — C. Delort 

Boabdil, Surrendering to Ferdinand . 

Bolivar, Simon .... 

Bolivar, Simon, (Headpiece) 

Bonaparte, Joseph 

Bonaparte on the Bridge at Arcole — Emit 

Bayard 
Bonhomme Richard Captures the Serapis, Cap 

tain Paul Jones on the 
Boniface, Saint, in Germany — Peter Janssen 
Bouvines, Battle of — Vierge 
Braddock, Death of General — P- Philippoteaux 
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva 

Brazil, Native of . . 

Bread Rioters in the Hall of the Convention, 

The— .F. Lix 
Broglie, Ducde . 
Bronze Age, Men during the 
Bronze Images of Bull Apis 
Browning, Robert 
Brown, John 

Bruuehild, Death of— T. Keller 
Brune, Maltreatment of the Body of Marshal — 

C. IMort .... 
Brutus Condemning his Sons to Death 
Brutus, Death of — H. Vogel 
Brutus, the Elder 
Bryant, William Cullen 
Buchanan, James 
Buckingham, Assassination of the Duke of- 

Emil Bayard . . 

Buddha ..... 
Bunker Hill, Battle of 
Burgoyne's army marching to Saratoga 
Burgundians . . ... 

Burke, Edmund 

Burr and Hamilton, Duel between 
Byron, Lord George Gordon 
Byzantine Deacon, Bishop, and Levite 
Byzantine Emperor and Page 
Byzantine Emperor and Princess 
Byzantine Warrior and Major Domus 
Byzantine Medal 

Cabot on the Shores of Labrador — E. Bayard 
Cabot, Sebastian 
Caesar Crossing the Rhine 
Caesar Crossing the Rubicon 
Caesar, Julius 

Caasar, Julius, (Equestrian) 
Calhoun, John C 
Caligula, Coin of 
Calvin, John 

Cambyses Kills the Sacred Bull — H. Vogel 
Cannae, Battle of 
Caunou of the 16th Century, 
Cannon, Old Swedish Leather 
Cannon, Swiss Mountain 
Capitol at Washington . 
Capitoline Wolf . 
Carlyle, Thomas 
Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia 
Carthage, The Taking of 



PAGE PAGE 

617 Carthaginian Fleet, Capture of the, by the 

768 Romans . . • • .180 

666 Casimir the Great Announcing the Statutes of 

424 Wislica . . . . .383 

683 Catacombs, Widows of the Martyrs in the . 245 

704 Catharine of Aragon Defending herself — L. J. 

362 Pott ...... 431 

930 Catherine II., of Russia . . . 550 

622 Calvary Soldier, (Initial) . . .659 

624 Cedars of Lebanon for the Temple, Hauling the 

371 — Guslave Dore . . . .63 

956 Chamber of Honors .... 441 

949 Champlain, Samuel . . . .791 

605 Charles I.— Van Dyck . . .480 

Charles I., Execution of— C. dlaillard . . 487 

'581 Charles I. in the Battle of Naseby — Emit Bayard 485 

Charles II. .... 491 

849 Charles V. . . - . .415 

276 Charles X. — Charles Duchesne . . .637 

352 Charles Martel, . . . . .270 

829 Charles Martel in the Battle of Potiers— Plud- 

35 demann ..... 270 
955 Chase, Salmon P. . . . .921 

Chateaubriand — E. Eonjat . . . 595 

579 Chaucer, Geoffrey . . . .463 

757 Childebert . . . . .274 

24 China, Great Wall of . . . .30 

44 Chinese Mandarin . . . .31 

653 Chinese Teacher, . . . .32 

906 Cicero ...... 198 

259 Cid Campeador, The, on his Horse, " Babieca " 271 

Cid, The, with Donna Ximena orders the 

636 Burning of a Cadi . . .273 

157 Cinq Mars and De Thou led to Execution — A. 

207 de Neuville ..... 495 

156 Circus Maximus, Chariot Race in the — V. Checa 233 

895 Circus Maximus, Rome — G. Behlender . 235 

906 Citizen and Peasants .... 348 

Citizens Guard, The, Viewing the Beheaded 

483 Bodies of Counts Egmond and Horn — Louis 

36 Gallart . . . . .444 
837 Clay, Henry . . . . .881 
845 Cleveland, Grover . . . .931 

378 Clotilda 274 

568 Clovis 274 

880 Clovis, Murder of the Merovings by — Vierge . 260 

652 Coin of 5th Century, Showing Head of Paul . 254 

246 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor . . . 650 

264 Colonna and Pope St. Boniface — A. de Neu- 

265 ville ...... 340 

262 Colosseum, Bull fight in the— A. Wagner . 232 

262 Columbus, Christopher . . . .398 

402 Columbus, Christopher, (Headpiece) . . 395 

403 Columbus, Christopher, (Initial) . ■ 395 
199 Columbus Died, House where . . . 400 
302 Columbus, Landing of . . . 399 
199 Columbus Quelling the Mutinj . . 397 
204 Commune, Members of the . . . 376 
885 Conde ...... 496 

220 Conradin at Naples, Execution of . . 329 

427 Constantine, Arch of . . .238 

72 Constantine in Battle — A. de Neuville . . 239 

174 Constantine, Medal of . . • .240 

423 Constantinople, Siege of 348 

436 Constantine the Great, Coin Struck by the Sons 

413 of 247 

871 Cooper, James Fenimore, . . • 895 

150 Copernicus ..... 460 

773 Cordav, Charlotte, Assassinates Marat — F. 

837 Lix . . . . . . 569 

187 Corinthian Capital . . . .125 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



15 



Coriolamis .... 

Cornelia and Gracchi — H. Vogel 

Cossacks Going into War — Edourd Detaille 

Costume of Citizens 

Costumes, Royal, 1625-1640 . 

Crecy, Battle of — A. de Neuville 

Cromwell, Oliver 

Crusade, Coin Issued during the 

Crusade, Knight, and Sqnirednring the First 

Crusade of Children — Gustave Dore 

Crusade, PreachiDg the First — A. de Neuville 

Crusaders Approaching Jerusalem 

Crusaders Entering Constantinople — Gustav 
Dore .... 

Crusaders Surprised by Turks — Gustave Dore 

Crystal Palace, The 

Cuneiform Inscription, 

Cyprus, Coin of ... 

Cyrusthe Great, 

Cyrus, Tomb of ... 

Daedalus, (Initial) 

Dandolo on the Way to the Holy Land 

Dante, ..... 

Doric Coin .... 

Darius II. ... 

Darius, Grave of, near Persepolis — Flandin 

Darwin, Charles 

Davis, Jefferson 

Decimating a Mutinous Regiment 

Declaration of Independence, Signatures to 
the .... 

Declaration of Independence, Signing the 

Declaration of Independence was Written 
House in which the 

Demosthenes, 

Deputy of the Council of Five Hundred and 
Members of the Directory in Gala Cos- 
tumes .... 

Derflinger, George 

Diana, (Artemis) 

Diaz, Porflrio .... 

Dickens, Charles 

Disraeli, Benjamin, Lord Beaconsfield 

Doric Capital .... 

Dorylaeuni, Battle of— Gustave Dore 

Douglas, Stephen A. . 

Drake, Sir Francis, in Central America 

Druid Priest Offering Human Sacrifice in the 
Sacred Grotto — A. de Neuville 

Dryden, John .... 

Duke, Page, and Nobleman, 

Diippel Redoubts, Storming the 

Dutch Man of War, Seventeenth Century 

Eagle, Imperial (Headpiece) 

Eastern Khan, An ... 

Eastern Shepherd (Initial) 

Eberhard II. . 

Edward, the Black Prince 

Egypt, Erection of Public Buildings in An 
cient .... 

Egyptian King and Courtier . 

Egyptian King in War Chariot, aud Warriors 

Egyptian Priest, and Man and Woman of Low 
Caste 

Egyptian Q.ieen and Ladies 

Egyptian War Chariot . 

Elba, The Return from— C. Delort 

Elephanta, Entrance to Caves of 

Eleusinian Feast 

Eliot, George 

Elizabeth 



PAGE 

159 
189 
769 
584 
472 
353 
484 
306 
300 
311 
295 
304 

309 

301 

686 

37 

268 

68 

70 

75 

307 

336 

102 

112 

136 

740 

907 

475 

842 
841 

842 
124 



580 
502 
78 
952 
654 
772 
125 
297 
924 
459 

201 

649 
341 
706 
490 
659 
74 
29 
343 
354 

55 
97 
49 

143 

49 

48 

627 

36 

76 

653 

434 



Proclaiming Liberty to 
Vogel 



PAGE 

Elizabeth Signing the Death Warrant — A. Liez 

enmayer ..... 457 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo . . . 894 

Endicott, John .... 815 

Englishman aud Fleming, 1640 . . 479 

Epamiuondas ..... 120 
Epaminondas Saving the Life of Pelopidas — 

H. Vogel . . . . .119 

Ephesus, Coin of .... 87 

Ephesus, The Temple of Diana at .87 

Era of Revolutions and Restorations, The . 541 
Ericsson, John .... 914 

Fabius, Quintus .... 172- 

Farragut, Admiral David G. . . . 908 

Farragut Enters Mobile Bay . . . 917 

Farragut's Fleet Passing Forts Jackson and 

St. Philip ... . 909 

Fete of Reason, The — 31. Miiller . . 574 

Fichte, J. G. . . . . . 540 

Filmore, Millard 
Flaminius, Titus Q 

the Greeks — H, 
Florence, Gem of 
Francis I. 

Francis Joseph I, . . 

Frankish King and Queen, 
Franklin, Benjamin 
Frederick III. ... 
Frederick Barbarossa, Death of, in the Caly 

cadmus — H. Vogel 
Frederick Charles of Prussia, Prince 
Frederick II.. in Palermo. Death of Emperor 

— A. Zick . 
Frederick II., Statue of 
Frederick William IV., in Berlin, Oct. 15 

1840 — Franz Eriiger 
Frederick William of Prussia, Crown Prince 
French at Cadiz, The — Paul Delaroche 
French Citizens 

French Empire, Dissolution of, (Initial) 
French Generals 
French Guard, Officer and Musketeer of 

the .... 

French Infantry in Battle 
French Knight and Squire 
French Lady and Gentleman . 
French Nobility in Court Costume 
French Revolution, The, (Headpiece) . 
French Revolution, The, (Initial) 
Fulton, Robert 
Galileo before the Tribunal 
Gambetta, Leon 
Garfield, James A. 

Garibaldi at Marsala, Landing of — G. Broling 
Garrison, William Lloyd 
Gauls in Rome, The 
General, Light Infantry Officer and Infantry 

man 
George IV. 

German Citizen's Dress 
German Drummer and Color Bearer 
German Duke and Ladies 
German Funeral Sacrifice — W. Lindensr.hmidt 
Germania Monument on the Niederwald 
German Knight, Family of 
German Knight, Superior of the Order of and 

Brother of the Sword 
German Landsknechts 
German Landsknechts 
German Landsknechts, Major and Lieutenant 

of 



181 
374 
416 

722 
284 
827 
751 

210 

705 

327 
325 

669 
716 
640 
560 
619 
592 

499 
508 
306 
356 
494 
555 
555 
888 
461 
730 
930 
710 
901 
163 

583 
641 
410 
425 
323 
217 
737 
338 

316 

420 
423 

422 



16 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



German Revolution, 1848 — Meeting of the 

Parliament . . . . 

Germans into Orleans, Entrance of the — L. 

Braun ..... 

German Standard Bearer and Roman General 
German Victory Feast after Battle — H. Vogel 
German Weiler or Home 
German Women Defending their Wagon Cas 

ties — A. de Neuville 
German Inhabitant of at the Beginning o 

Our Era .... 
Germany, Inhabitants of, during the 3rd and 

4th Centuries 
Gettysburg, Battle of . 
Gladiator, Dead, Hauled to the Spoliarium 

A. Wagner 
Gladitorial Combat — A. Wagner 
Gladiators .... 

Gladstone, William Ewart 
Godfrey Bouillon 
Goldsmith, Oliver 
Gordon, C. E. . 
Grant. Ulysses S. 

Great Elector at Fehrbellin, The . 

Great Elector, The 
Greek Altar, Relief from 
Greek Boat, Forty-Oared 
Greek Generals 
Greek Priestess and Ladies 
Greek Symposium, A . 
Greek Theatres, Tragic Figures of 
Greek Women, Types of 
Greek Writing, Early . 
Greeley, Horace 
Greene, Nathaniel 

Gregory VII., Hildebrand the Great 
Guerriere by the Constitution, Capture of the 
Guise, Murder of the Duke of — Vierge 
Guizot .... 
Gustavus Adolphus — A. Van DyeTc 
Gustavus Adolphus at Liitzen, Death of — A 

de Neuville . 
Gustavus Vasa . 
Hadrian 

Hadrian, Coins of 
Hadrian, Mausoleum of 
Hamilton, Alexander 
Hannibal 

Hannibal Crossing the Alps 
Hannibal, Stratagem of 
Harrison, Benjamin 
Harrison, William Henry 
Haruspex Officiating 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel 
Hayes, Rutherford B. . 
Headpiece (Ornamental) 
Hebrew Shekel . 
Helots 
Henry II. 
Henry IV., Entrance of, into Paris, March 22 

1594 — Frangois Gerard 
Henry VIII. 
Henry, Patrick 
Hercules, Tbe Farnese 
Heretics, Burning — A. de Neuville 
Heretics, Execution of, 16th Century — A. de 

Neuville 
Hermann 

Hermes of Praxiteles 
Herod, Mites of 
Herodotus — Visconli 



AGE PAEE 

Herodotus Reading his History — H. Leutemann 91 

675 Hieroglyphic Writing . . . .46 

Hindu Representation of the Universe . 35 

732 Hindus, Low Caste . . . .33 

236 History, Recent . . - 681 

215 Hofer, Andreas, on the Isel Hill — Franz De- 

218 fregger . . . . .611 

Homer ...... 86 

193 Horatii Going Forth to Battle, The . . 154 

Houston, Samuel ..... 865 

191 Hudson, Henry . . . . .795 

Hudson, Henry, in North River . . 796 

248 Hugo, Victor . . . . .656 

913 Humboldt, Alexander von . . . 739 
Huns at Aquileja .... 254 

186 Huns, The . . . . .250 

234 Hussar Cavalryman and Infantryman . 583 

193 Huss before the Council at Constance — C. F. 

776 von Lessing ..... 346 

302 Iconoclasts, The — A- de Neuville . . 445 

651 Image of Confucius . . . .32 

795 Inca Emperor, An .... 404 

914 Independence Hall . . . .839 

501 Indian, American, (Initial) . . . " 787 

502 Indian Attack . . . ■ . .803 

79 Indulgences, Traffic in — Hans Holbein . 406 
103 Initial T. . . . . .635 

102 Inquisition, The Holy . . . .369 

22 Ionic Capital . . . . .125 

117 Iphigenea Led to Diana's Altar as a Sacrifice 84 

120 Irving, Washington .... 894 

122 Isabella II. . . . . .724 

86 Isly, Battle of, 1844 . . . .542 

897 Issus, Battle of . . . . .132 

850 Italian Scholars and German Women . . 405 

298 Ivau in Kasan . . . . .386 

868 Ivan the Terrible, The Death of— Mdkowsley . 387 

446 Jackson, Andrew .... 875 

670 Jackson, Stonewall .... 911 

473 James I. . . . . .458 

James II. ..... 493 

475 Jamestown, Settlers at . . . . 800 

435 Jay, John . . . . .851 

226 Jefferson, Thomas . . . .861 

226 Jerusalem, Destruction of . . 223 

227 Jerusalem, Roman Soldiers Firing the Temple at 225 
857 Jerusalem, Seals of Kings of . . . 308 
171 Jerusalem, Seal Used by Women of . • 312 
173 Jewish High Priest and Levites . .' 56 
175 Jewish King and Warriors . . .58 
931 Jewish Shekel ..... 66 
876 Joan of Arc, Monument to, in Rouen . 359 
149 Joan of Arc Wounded at Orleans — A. de Neu- 

896 ville ...... 351 

927 John at Maupertais, Capture of King — A. de 

619 Neuville . . . . .355 

144 John of Brienne, Seal of 312 
93 Johnson, Andrew .... 925 

421 Johnson, Samuel .... 651 

John Swears Vengeance against the Barons — 

455 A. de Neuville— . . . .360 

428 Jonson, Ben . . . . .651 

835 Josephine— E. Eonjat . . . .582 

82 Juno, (Hera) — Ludovisi ■ • .78 

432 Jupiter . . . . .77 

Kant, J. ...... 540 

449 Karl the Bald, KiDg . . . .284 

214 Karl the Great— Albreeht Diirer . ■ 277 

80 Karl the Great, Coronation of— F. A. Kaulbach 281 

145 Karl the Great Crossing the Alps — Paul 

124 Delaroche . . . . .278 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



17 



PAGE 

Karl the Great, Manuscript and Signature of . 280 
Karnak, Ruins at .... 47 

Karnak, Temple of Chesnu at . . 43 

Katzbach, Battle of . . .621 

Keats, John . . . . .649 

Knight before a Castle, (Initial) . . 275 

Knight, Duke, and Knight Templar, . . 322 

Knight in Full Armor and Lady . . 344 

Knight in Full Armor and Lady . . 350 

Knight in Full Armor and Lady . . 372 

Knights Templar „ 312 

Kosciuszkb ..... 553 

Kossuth, Louis ..... 678 
Lafayette . . . . .846 

Lake Dwellers, The — John Oehrts . ■ 25 

Landau, Captureof Austrian Batteries at,- Vierge 500 
Laoeoon Groop . . . . .128 

Laodicea, Coin of ... 221 

Lares and Penates, Sacrificing to the — H. Vogel 79 
Last Call to Arms, The — Franz Defregger . 610 
Law Scroll, Ancient . . . .94 

Lee, Robert E. . - . . .910 

Leo XIII., Pope . . . .748 

Leon, Ponce de . . . . . 788 

Leopold I., of Belgium — Winne . . 662 

Leopold, Prince ..... 726 
Lepanto, The Battle of . . . .440 

Lesseps, Ferdinand de . . . . 695 

Lief Eric Discovers Vinland . . . 287 

Lincoln, Abraham .... 905 

Lissa, Austrian Man-of-War, Ferdinand Max, 

at the Battle of . . .719 

Lissa, Battle of . . . . .718 

Livingstone, David .... 742 
London, The Tower of . . . .366 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, . . 896 

Lorraine, Cardinal, Receiving the Head of Col- 

igny . . . . 453 

Louis II., at Mohacs, Finding the Body of . 382 
Louis XII. in Battle — A. de Neuville . . 373 

Louis XIV. at the Age ol 41 . . . 499 

Louis XVI. . . . . .557 

Louis XVI., Execution of — Vierge . . 567 

Louis XVIII — E. Bonjat . . . 626 

Louis XVIII., into Paris, Entry of . . 625 

Louis Philippe — Wintherthaler . . 661 

Louis Philippe, Fieschi's Attempt on the Life 

of— F. Lix . . . . . 667 

Louis, St., before Damietta — Gustave Dore . 313 
Louis, St., Death of — A. de Neuville . . 315 

Louis the Great in battle — A. de Neuville . 381 
Loyola, Ignatius ... . 439 

Lucullus, A Supper at . . . . 197 

Luther, Martin .... 407 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington . . . 653 

Maccabeus, Shekel of Simon . . . 144 

Macdonough on Lake Champlain . . 872 

Macedonian Coin . . . .127 

Macedonian Phalanx, The . . . 129 

Machiavelli . . . . .377 

MacMahon, Marshall .... 756 
Madison, James .... 867 

Magnesia, Battle of . . .182 

Malalcoff, Storming the— R. Knoetel . . 693 

Manfred, Death of ... . 328 

Manhattan, Dutch Traders at . . 797 

Man with the Iron Mask, The — Vierge . 391 

Marie Antoinette .... 558 

Marie Antoinette Led to Execution — De la Roche 572 
Marie Louise, ..... 614 
Marion, General Francis . . • 850 



Marquette and Joliet Discovering the Missis 

sippi .... 

Marshall, Chief Justice John 
Mais-la-Tour, Battle of — Emil Huenten 
Marston Moor, Battle of — Emil Bayard 
Mary Stuart .... 
Mary Stuart Informed of her Impending Exe 

cution — C. V- Piloty • . 
Mary Tudor .... 
Maximilian .... 

Mayflower, The 
Meade, General George (!. 
Mecca, The Kaaba and Mosque at 
Medean and Persian Nobles 
Medean Noble, 
Mediaeval Knight 
Mehemet Ali Pasha — Couder . 
Melanchthon, Philip — Albrecht Diirer 
Menephtah I., Pharaoh of the Exodus 
Metellus in Greece 
Metternich, (Headpiece) 
Metternich, Prince 
Michael Angelo Buonarotti . 
Middle Ages, The, (Headpiece) 
Migration of Nations, (Initial) 
Miltiades .... 

Milton Dictating "Paradise Lost" to his 

Daughters — 31. Munkacsy . 
Milton, John .... 
Miraheanin the Assembly — A. de Neuville 
Modern Age, The 

Mohammed .... 

Mohammed II. Crossing the Dardanelles — H. 

Vogel .... 

Mohammed, Signature of 
Moltke ..... 
Monitor and the Merrimac, The 
Monroe, James 

Montcalm .... 

Montesquieu .... 
Montgomery, Death of General — Benjamin 

West .... 

Moore, Thomas 
Moorish Kings 
More, Thomas, Taking Leave of his Daughter 

— A. Ziek .... 
Morse, Prof. Samuel F. B. 
Moscow, Burning of, Grand Army leaving 

Kremlin — C. Delort 
Mukhtar Pasha 
Murat at Eylau — C. Delort 
Murat, Marshal 

Mylse, Battle of ... 

Mythological Characters 
Napoleon I. — Chattillon 
Napoleon, Abdication of 
Napoleon after Waterloo, Flight of — A. C. Goto 
Napoleon Bonaparte, (Headpiece) 
Napoleon Bonaparte, (Initial) . 
Napoleon, Last Days of 
Napoleon III. . 
Napoleon III. in Battle of Solferino — E. dleis 

sonier . . . 

Naumachia, or Mock Sea Fight, A. — A. Wagner 
Nebuchadnezzar 
Nelson, Admiral Lord 
Nelson at Trafalgar 
Nero ..... 
New Hampshire, First Printing Press in 
Newton, Sir Isaac, 
Ney, Marshal 



793 
882 
728 
482 
450 

456 
433 
950 
810 
912 
267 
107 
138 
241 
647 
409 
54 
185 
635 
620 
376 
275 
243 
101 

489 
488 
559 
'393 
266 

391 

268 
714 
915 
874 
830 
545 

840 
652 
442 

430 

890 

618 
763 
603 
601 
169 
27 
596 
633 
631 
591 
591 
634 
684 

709 
234 
42 
600 
599 
221 
822 
462 
616 



18 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Nicholas I. 

Nicholas, Grand Duke 

Nicopolis, Battle of 

Nile, Battle of the 

Nobleman and Officer 

Noblemen, 1625-1640 

Noble Women and English Duchess 

Norman Ladies aud Nobleman 

Norman Ship 

Notre Dame, Paris, Cathedral of 

O'Counell, Daniel 

Oetavius, The Young 

Oglethorpe, James 

Olympian Games 

Olympian Victor, Priest and King 

Omar, theGreat, into Jerusalem, Entry of — O 

F. Beutscher . 
Ops . ... 

Palmerston, Lord 
Paraguay Indian 

Paris, Allied forces on the Road to 
Paris, February Revolution in, 1848 — B. Adam 

and J. Arnout 
Paris, The June Revolution in, 1848 
Pavia, The Battle of 
Peabody, George 

Peasants, The Revolt of the — L. Herterich 
Peel, Sir Robert 
Penn's Treaty with the Indians 
Penn, William . 
Pericles 
PeVier, Casimir 
Perry's Victory on Lake Erie 
Persepolis, The Ruins of 
Perseus, Coin of 
Persian Coin, Ancient . 
Persian Noble and Warriors 
Pestalozzi, J. H. 

Pharoah's Army, Drowning of — Gusiave Dore 
Pharsalia, Battle of 
Philip, Death of King 
Phoenician Coin, Early 
Phoenician Fleet — Paul PhWoppoteaux 
Phoenician Scene at Court — Paul PhWoppoteaux 
Pierce, Franklin 
Pilgrims at Plymouth, The 
Pilgrims Receiving Massasoit 
Pius VII— E. Eonjat 
Pius IX., Pope 



Plato, 

Pluto 

Plymouth Rock, 

Pocahontas Saving the Life of Captain Smith 

Poe, Edgar Allan 

Poland, Division of, (Headpiece) 

Polish Outbreak in 1861, The . 

Polk, James K. ... 

Pompadour, Marquis de 

Pompeii, Destruction of — H. Le Roux 

Pompey 

Pope, Alexander 

Popes in Ornate and House Costume, and 

Papal Guard 
Porus, Defeat of, by the Macedonians 
Praetorian Guards 

Prastorian Guards, Revolt of — H. Leutemann 
Prague, The Golden 
Prelates Pastime, A — Ferd. Kriller 
Printing Presses, Destruction of First 
Ptolemy I., Coin of 
Ptolemy II., Coin of . . 



PAGE 

648 Putnam, Israel 
766 Pydna, Battle of 
388 Pyramids at Gizeh 
586 Pyramids, Battle of the— J 1 . Lix 
498 Pyramids, Building of the — G. Richter 
478 Pythia on the Tripod, The 
364 Quadriga, Triumphal 
288 Quebec, First Settlement at 
285 Radetz, Radetzky de . 
597 Raleigh, Sir Walter 
645 Regulus Departs into Captivity 
206 Revolutionary Figure, (Initial) 
809 Rheims, Cathedral at . 

89 Rhodes, Coin of 

92 Rhodes, Didrachm of . 
Richard, Coeur de Lion 

269 Richard I., Coeur de Lion, Orders the Execu 
150 tion of 2000 Saracenic Hostages — A. de 

688 Neuville .... 

956 Richelieu, Cardinal — Ph. de Champagne 

623 Richelieu, Cardinal and Father Joseph — A. de 
Neuville 

672 Rizzio, Murder of David 

673 Robespierre 

417 Robespierre Wounded in the Hall of the As 
783 sembly— F. Lix 

411 Roland, Madame 

644 Roman Aqueduct 

825 Roman Baliista 

823 Roman Boarding Bridge 

110 Roman Catacombs 

755 Roman Centurion 

869 Roman Chair of State . 

73 Roman Chariot Race — A. Wagm 

183 Roman Daggers 

68 Roman Dancing Woman 

99 Roman Denarius 

540 Roman Denarius or " Penny " 

57 Roman Emperor und Courtiers 

203 Roman Forum . 

8*19 Roman Gladiator, (Initial) 

51 Roman Lady and Slave 

51 Roman Lictor, Emperor, and Noble 

50 Roman Maidens, Captive, Serving Barbarians 
904 — A. de Neuville 

813 Roman Pontiff and German Emperor 

812 Roman School, Old 

585 Roman Soldiers Attacking a City 

668 Roman Standard, Eagle on 

118 Roman Standards 

77 Roman Town, Storming and Sacking a 

811 Roman Triumph, A 

801 Roman Warriors 

895 Rome, The Colosseum at 

543 Rome, Plan of, (Time of Augustus) 

697 Romulus and Remus, (Headpiece) 

876 Romulus Augustulus and Odoacer — B. Morling 

556 Roncesvalles, Battle in the Valley of—H. Vogel 

228, 229 Rudolph of Hapsburg, Equestrian Statue of 

195 Ruskin, John 

649 Russia, On the Road to — E. 3Ieissonier 
Russia, The Return from 

408 Sabine Women, Rape of the 

139 Sadowa — W. von Camphausen . 

219 St- Augustine, Old Spanish Gate at 

237 St. John, Knight of 

342 St. John, Ladies of the Order of 

333 St. John's Hospital, Seal of the Knights of 

396 Saix, Death of Marshal de 

141 Saladin .... 

143 Salarais. Return of the Greeks from 



PAGE 

838 
183 

44 
587 

45 

88 
188 
832 
676 
799 
170 
543 
358 
268 

77 
308 



305 
476 

497 
454 
570 

577 
590 
211 
236 
168 
244 
192 
190 
232 
198 
188 
220 
210 
256 
155 
147 
186 
221 

256 
292 
214 
223 
194 
210 
255 
164 
238 
222 
212 
147 
257 
279 
337 
643 
613 
615 
152 
715 
790 
314 
316 
314 
593 
310 
3 06 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



iy 



Samnian Warrior 

Samson Slaying the Philistines — Oustave Dore 

Saracenic Arms 

Saracenic Emblem, {Headpiece) 

Saragossa, The Siege of — C. Delort 

Sardanapalus, Death of 

Sardis, Coin of . 

Saul, Death of — Oustave Dore . 

Savonarola 

Savonarola, Death of 

Scsevola Mucius, before Persenna — H. Vogel 

Schamyl 

Schill, Ferdinand von . 

Schurz, Carl 

Scipio, Cornelius 

Scott, General Winfield 

Scott, Sir Walter 

Sculpture — Architecture — Painting, (Head 

piece) .... 

Sedau, The Ride to the Death at the Battle of 

— E. Heunten 
Sedau, The Surrender of, 1871, 
Seminole War, Episode of the 
Sepoy Leaders in India, Execution of — D. 

Weishaupt . 
Sepulchre, Coin Showing the Holy 
Seven Days' War, An Incident in — W. Camp 

hausen .... 

Seward, William H. . 
Sbakspeare, William 
Shalmaneser, from Nineveh, Obelisk of 
Shekel, A Half 
Shelley, Percy Bysshe 
Sheridan, General Phil H. 
Sheridan's Eide from Winchester 
Sherman, General William T. 
Sherman, John 
Sidney, Sir Philip 
Sinope, Battle of 
Smith, Captain John 
Sobieski, John 
Socrates 

Socrates, Death of — David 
Soldiers, 1630 to 1650 . 
Solomon, King — Gustave Dore 
Solomon, Temple of 
Solomon I., the Splendid 
Solon and Lycurgus — (Headpiece) 
Solon Dictating his laws — H. Vogel 
Sophia, Santa . 
Soto, Burial of de 
Soto, Ferdinand de 
Soudanese War, The 
Spanish Galleas of the 16th Century 
Spartacus, Death of — H. Vogel 
Spenser, Edmund 
Stanislaus I., of Poland 
Stanley, Henry M. 
Stanton, Edwin M. 
Stephen, Baptism of St., by Pope Sylvester II 

— Benczur Gyula 
Stephens, Alexander H. 
Stephenson, George 
Stilicho Parleying with the Goths 
Stoic Philosopher 
Stone Age, Men during the 
Stone Age, The 
Stowe, Mrs. H. B. 
Stuyvesant, Peter 
Suleiman Pasha 
Sumner, Charles 



PAGE 

165 Swift, Jonathan 

59 Tallyraud— E. Ronjat . 

242 Tarsus, Coin of 

243 Taylor, Zachary 
607 Tea in Boston Harbor, Destruction of 

40 Temple, Rebuilding the — Gustave Dore 

101 Temple, Seal of the Order of the 

61 Tennyson, Alfred 

374 Teutoberger Forest, The Battle in the 

375 Thackeray, William Makepeace 
158 Themistocles 
696 Theodosius 
612 Thermopylae, Battle of 
926 Thiers, A. 

176 Thirty Years' War, Soldiers in the 

878 Thomas, General George H. 

650 Thor .... 

Thoieau, Henry David 

23 Tiberius, Emperor 

Tiglath-Pileser Storming a Town 

727 Tigranes, Coin of 

729 Tilden, Samuel J. 

877 Tilly Asks for the Surrender of Magdeburg 

Tilly, John von Tzerclas, Count von 

687 Titus, Head of .... 

302 Todleben, General von 

Trial by Water 

717 Trojan War, The Heroes of the 

902 Troops Demand to be Led to Rome — Vierge 

364 Tryphon, Coin of 

64 Tyler, John 

145 Tyre, Coin of . 
654 Tyre, Coin of . 

919 United States, Birds'-Eye View of the 

920 United States, Map Showing Acquisition of 
918 Territory . . . . 
928 Utica, Ancient 
463 Van Buren, Martin 
690 Vandals in Rome, The— H Vogel 
802 Venus of Milo . 
503 Vercingetorix Surrenders to Caesar 
114 Versailles, The Palace at 
116 Versailles, Women on the Road to — Vierge 
477 Vespasian, Coin of 

60 Vespasianus, Titus Flavius 
62 Vespucci, Amerigo 

390 Vestal Virgins, School of the — Hector Le Boux 

75 Victor Emmanuel — Metzmacher 

95 Victoria, Queen 

389 Vienna Congress, 1815, Members of the 

789 Vienna, The Congress of— H. Vogel . 

788 Virgil ..... 

774 Virginia, The Dead— H Vogel 

439 Voltaire .... 

196 Wallenstein .... 

463 Wallenstein, Death of— Charles Piloty 

554 Wampanoag Indian 

743 Washington Crossing the Delaware 

926 Washington, George 

Washington, George, (Headpiece) 

291 Washington on the Hudson 

922 Washington Preparing to Cross the Delaware 

711 Washington's Inauguration ^T^ 

252 Washington's Home at Mount Vernon 

146 Wasp Boarding the Frolic, The 
24 Wayne, General Anthony 
21 Webster, Daniel 

903 Weinsberg, Siege of 

798 Wellington 

767 Wellington, The Duke of 

903 Whitney, Eli, and the Cotton Industry 



PAGE 

651 
630 
131 

901 
838 

68 
314 
682 
216 
655 
103 
249 
104 
736 
467 
908 
218 
895 
219 

39 
197 
927 
469 
468 
224 
691 
438 

83 
419 
189 
901 

51 
134 
891 

863 
178 
876 
253 
126 
200 
736 
562 
224 
221 
400 
151 
712 
643 
628 
629 
212 
161 
544 
471 
474 
818 
843 
786 
787 
852 
844 
855 
853 
870 
846 
887 
319 
632 
606 
889 



20 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Whittier, John G. . . . 

William I., 

William, Emperor, before Paris — W. von Camp 

hausen .... 

William I., Emperor, Entering Berlin, 1871 

W. von Camphausen 
William I., Equestrian, (Initial) 
William I. Proclaimed Emperor at Versailles 

— Anton von Werner 
William II., Emperor 
William IV. . 
William IV., Murder of Children of— Otto Seitz 
William the Conqueror, Statue of, at Palais, 

France — A. de Neuville 



PAGE 
902 Winkleried, Heroic death of Arnold von. at 
703 the Battle of Sempach 

Winthrop, John 
733 Wolfe, Death of General 

Wolsey, Cardinal Thomas 
735 Wooden Horse, The— H. Motte 
683 Wrestlers, The— Florenz 

Xenophon, The Return of the Ten Thousand 
731 under — H. Vogel . 

750 Xerxes .... 

642 Zama, Battle of 
365 Ziska, John, in Battle . 

Zriny, from Szigeth, Sally of Count . 
290 Zwingli, Death of — Weekener . 



PAGE 

345 

816 

833 

429 

85 

90 

121 
103 

179 
347 
392 
414 



MAPS AND PLATES IN COLORS 



FLAGS OF THE NATIONS. 

MAP OF ANCIENT GREECE. 

MAP OF MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

MAP OF ITALY. 

MAP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

MAP OF EUROPE DURING THIRTY YEARS WAR. 

MAP OF EUROPE DURING REIGN OF NAPOLEON I. 



20 and 21 ^ 
75> 
127 

147 ^ 
210/ 
466 
591 i 








NICARAGUA 




ARGENTINE. W4 




BOLIVIA WAR 





S PRESIDENT S fLAG 






COSTA RICA 




URUGUAY 




U S REVENUE ft. 




ACHT ENSIGN l/> 5. i 






PARAGUAY 





ENEZUELA. WAR 




MOROCCO 




UNITED STATES FLiiC 




DOMINICAN. REPUBLIC 




HONDURAS 




^HAWAII. SANDWICH IS. 









FRENCH. COCHIN CHINA 





GERMANY. MERCHANT 





ITALY 

ROYAL STAN DARL 



PRUSSIA], txERCHa 



FLAGS OF 




GREAT BRITAIN 
ROYAL STANDARD 








RUSSIA 
IMPERIAL STANDARD 



PORTUGUESE. MER. 



PORTUGAL 



DENMARK 



DANISH, MERCHANT 





BRITISH, UNION JACK 








BELGIUM 






jjisomtrsMl 



SPANISH. MERCHANT 





MONTENEGRO 




TURKEY. WAR 




ROUMANIA 





TUNIS, WAR 




■TRANSVAAL 




TRIPOLI, MERCHANT 




FLAGS 

OF THE 

COMMERCIAL QOOS 



CODE AND 
ANSWERING 
PENDANT 



CHINA, IMPERIAL 




EGYPT. WAR 



'• ' i'k 



A-i. 



CHINA. MERCHANT ' 




KINGDOM OF SI AM 




AUSTRO-HUNGARY 

IMPERIAL 




ORANGE. FREE STATE 






PERSIA. MERCHANT 



THE NATIONS 




GREEK PK1ESTESS AND LADIES. (pp. 22.) 




SCULPTURE — ARCHITECTURE — PAINTING. 



1. — Primeval Man. 



INTRODUCTION. 
§1. 



FTER God had in the beginning created heaven and 
earth, (so runs the book of Genesis) had adorned the 
heavens with sun, moon, and stars, clothed the earth 
with vegetation and filled it with living creatures, he 
created man in his own image and appointed him, by 
endowing him with intelligence and speech, to be 
the Lord of the whole earth. 

Pure and strong in body and in soul, continues 
Holy writ, the first pair came from the creator's hand: 
and they lived in Paradise, their original home, a life 
of innocent happiness, until tempted by the serpent, 
they tasted of the forbidden tree of knowledge, and 
for their disobedience of the divine command lost 
their unconscious purity and their state of blessed- 
ness. 

Adam and Eve with all their posterity were 
henceforth doomed to live a life of toil and hardship, " to eat their bread in the sweat 
of their face." The vehement impulses of a wild and untamed nature plunged the 
young races deeper and deeper into sin and error, until at last, a great flood (the 
deluge) swept the human family from the earth, sparing none but Noah and his 
family, who saved themselves and many animals besides, in an ark. 

Noah's posterity, biblical tradition informs us further, increased so rapidly that 
the later races, derived from his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japhet were compelled 
to seek for homes in the neighboring lands. There they began to build the tower 
of Babel, the top of which was to reach the sky and be for them an everlasting sign. 

This presumptuous enterprise God brought to nothing by confounding their 
speech and thus separating them from each other. They migrated to the four quar- 
ters of the earth, peopled the three continents, Asia, Africa, and Europe, grouping 

(23) 




24 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



themselves, according to their different languages, into tribes and nations. To this 

geographical distribution of the human family may be ascribed the corporeal differences 

that appeared in the course of time. Especially noticeable are differences in the color 

of the skin and the form of the head : hence 

the division into three great trunk races, the 

white (Caucasian), the yellow (Mongolian)? 

the black (Ethiopian), and two branch races, 

the dark brown (Malay), and the copper-colored 

(American). The latter, however, may be 

regarded as sub-divisions of one and the same 

race, seeing that the Unity of humanity (as a 

distinct species) is maintained by science also. _^ 




MEN DURING THE STONE AGE. 



2. — Primeval Modes op Life. 

§ 2, As the habitations of men differed, so too 

their modes of life and their occupations. The 

inhabitants of steppes and deserts, where fertile 

spots for pasture were to be found only here 

and there, devoted themselves to pastoral life 

and moved as Nomads with their tents and 

herds from place to place, changing their abode 

with the seasons. These Nomads were the first 

to tame and to train animals, to discover the value of their wool and hides as clothing, 

and of their milk and flesh as food. They employed them too in various forms of 

labor. 

The inhabitants of the plains learned the 
arts of agriculture and of peace. But the rough 
and hardy mountaineer gave himself up to hunt- 
ing, or urged by violent and powerful impulses, 
found delight in strife and war. 

The former united to his tilling of the soil 
the life of the herdsman and in the course of time 
distinguished the private acre from the tribal land 
and secured to each one his property, his field, his 
hut and his herd by laws and legal rights. Hence 
the pursuit of agriculture has been designated as 
the great gateway to society. The settlers along 
the sea-shore and the river- banks discovered soon 
the advantages of their situation. They carried on 
navigation and commerce, acquired property and 
riches, and built for themselves beautiful dwelling 
houses and cities. Meanwhile the inhabitants of 
the more inhospitable coasts eked out by fishing 

a joyless existence. Commerce, and the intercourse of races, resulting from it, 

was a powerful stimulus to the progress of mankind. The inhabitants of fruitful 

plains and richly watered valleys carried on an inland trade ; the inhabitants of the 




MEN DURING THE BRONZE AGE. 



26 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

sea-coast a trade by ships. To the former belonged the caravan trade of Asia and 
Africa. , 

In the beginning this commerce was all barter (ware for ware) ; but man soon 
began to prize especially the noble metals, to mint them into coins and to use them as 
a more convenient medium of exchange. 

The inhabitants of cities invented, industries of many sorts, and cultivated 
arts and sciences thus enriching and beautifying their lives and perfecting the 
human mind. 

3. — Political Organization — The Caste System. 

§ 3. In the course of time, peoples divided into civilized and uncivilized according as 
disposition and intercourse favored the development of intellectual power or natural 
obtuseness, and isolation from their fellow men hindered mental progress. The unciv- 
ilized peoples are either wild hordes, under the control of one chief who possesess abso- 
lute power of life and death, or wandering Nomadic races under the guidance of a 
chieftain, who as father of the family, exercises the rights of a prince, judge and high 
priest. Neither these Nomadic tribes with their patriarchal institutions, nor the wild 
races that wander in Africa's unknown sand-deserts, in Asia's mountains and steppes 
and in the primeval forests of America have a place in history. This is concerned 
only with civilized races, who have united together to found an organized common- 
wealth and who by morality, by law, and by mutual concessions have reached a peace- 
ful communal life and intercourse. 

A state organization may be a monarchy, or a republic. Monarchy is where one 
ruler stands at the head of the government. This single ruler is called, according to 
the extent of his territory, emperor or king, duke or prince. And his authority passes 
as a rule according to the law of primogeniture to his nearest heir. 

A republic or free state is one where the authority resides in an elected magistracy 
consisting of several members. When these magistrates are chosen from a circle lim- 
ited by birth or wealth, the republic is aristocratic. But when the people, as a whole, 
make the laws and choose the responsible leaders of the government it is democratic 
— In many states of antiquity the freedom of the individual was limited by the insti- 
tution of caste. By this is meant a strict separation of men according to birth, posi- 
tion, and occupation which passes down from father to son and which permits no 
admixture, and no passage from the one class into the other. The two first castes 
embraced the priests who alone possessed the knowledge of religious doctrines and 
usages, of civil laws and customs, and the warriors whose duty was to bear arms and 
to protect the land. These two divisions shared with the king the right to rule and 
enjoyed many privileges. The peasants, merchants and artisans formed the third 
caste and this branched out again into numerous sub-divisions. These caste regula- 
tions were often the consequence of violent conquests; hence in most of the caste 
states there existed a despised class doomed to the meanest occupations, leading a 
wretched life, and treated by the ruling classes with the utmost contempt. 

India has maintained her system of caste most rigidly and for the longest time, 
but Egypt also had caste like separations based upon condition and occupation. 

4. — Religious Life. 

§ 4. The manner of life and the political society of antiquity were not more manifold 



INTRODUCTION. 



27 



than the religions and the forms of worship. The idea of a personal God, creator, 
and sustainer of the universe was reached in antiquity only by one small people, the 
Israelites, who worshiped no other God than the God of their race, Jehovah, i. e. The 
Eternal One. All other peoples worshiped many gods, adoring either the sun and the 
celestial bodies or worshiping as divine beings the forces and the elements at work 
in nature. All polytheistic religions, however much they differ, are included under 
the term heathenism. The Supreme Being was not thought of as spirit, and wor- 
shiped in spirit and in truth, but conceived of by the ancients either in human shape, 
or as particular divinities in which were manifested his different powers and attributes. 

-> " — s\jy , 

si 

1 r&- i ~~^^~-S~*X^\ " 




Pan. 



VCLCAN. 



Neptune. 
Ceres 



Jdpitek. 
Molvs. 

MYTHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 



Serapis. 
Osiris and Isis. 



Thanatos. 
Bachhus 



The particular divinities they represented sometimes by gods made of metal, of stone, 
of wood, of clay. To these were erected temples and altars ; to these were offered 
sacrifices partly to appease their wrath, partly to obtain their favor, partly to thank 
them for their beneficent providence. The sacrifices were of many kinds, according 
to the culture of the people. The Greeks who conceived of their Gods as a nobler 
kind of human beings instituted for them cheerful festivals. At these they consumed, 
in friendly society, the offered fruits and the sacrificed animals from the small gift of 
the firstling of the flock, to the great sacrifice of a hundred oxen called the Hecatomb. 



28 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



The barbarous or semi-barbarous peoples stained their altars with human sacrifices 
hoping to move the heavenly powers by the greatest and most valuable of gifts, to induce 
them to be gracious to beseeching mortals or to be reconciled if they were angry. 
The Phoenician and Syrian tribes laid the dearest that they possessed, even their own 
children as expiatory offerings in the arms of a red-hot idol called " Moloch " — To be 
sure the idol was intended to be the visible sign of an invisible thought or invisible 
power, but among the people it lost its higher meaning and they gave their adoration 
to the lifeless image. Only priests and sages knew this deeper sense, but they did not 
share it with the people. On the contrary, they veiled it in mysteries and cherished it 
as the private property of their order. For this purpose they invented many legends, 
stories, and fables of the gods whom they served, clothed them in poetic forms and 
thereby founded mythology or the doctrine of the gods. In this the deeds and fates 
of different divinities and their relations to mankind are represented, not in clear 
intelligible speech but veiled in enigmatical suggestions, allegorical narratives, and 
pictorial utterance. A people possessed of creative imagination and inclined to the. 
divine developed naturally a rich mythology. In these sacred myths is reflected the 
inner life of the youthful races. They have become therefore a copious source of art 
and poetry. And although these legends of the gods made the people to abound in 
superstition, yet their solemn worship with its mj^sterious ceremonies and its symbol- 
ism in the consecrated spaces of the temple, held the people in awe and in holy dread 
of the gods. To make their faith yet firmer, the greater temples and more sacred 
places were provided with an oracle which kept alive the feeling of the nearness of the 
gods, and a belief in their interference in the affairs of men. To these the people 
came in critical moments to obtain knowledge of the future and helpful advice, 
which was imparted to them in obscure and ambiguous utterance. Thus the human 
mind, in its search for divine truth, was continually led astray and held in bond- 
age now by blinding ceremonials, now by the worship of a lifeless law ; thus the 
Visible and the Sensual absorbed without satisfying, the yearning of the human heart 
for the supernatural powers. 




/ 



bacchanalian festival. From an Attic Sarcophagus. 




A. EASTERN RACES. 

1. ORIENTAL LIFE. 

SIA called from its situation the Orient (Land of 
the Rising Sun) is the cradle of the human family. 
The garden of Eden is to be sought among the 
blooming landscapes that extend along the sheltered 
slopes of the Himalaya Mountains, " those mighty 
snow palaces," the pinnacles of which are hidden in 
the clouds. 

In the East arose first those great States and 
cities from which other lands have taken a part of 
their civil institutions, of their religious systems and 
of their culture. In the East, where the camel lives, 
" the Ship of the Desert," originated that colossal in- 
land commerce, the caravan trade, which has exer- 
cised so marked an influence upon the course of 
human progress. The difficulties and dangers of long journeys through regions but 
little known, and much frequented by robber tribes, compelled the oriental merchants 
to organize themselves into armed bodies and to escort their heavily laden camels and 
beasts of burden from place to place. These caravans gave occasion for the building 
of markets and cities, of ware-houses and inns ; they brought the dwellers in distant 
parts into communication with each other, so that with the products of the soil, the 
culture, the religious usages and the political institutions of different countries were 
also exchanged. 

In the East originated likewise all the forms of religion ; the belief in one God 
developed among the Jews, renewed and purified in Christianity and finally so potent 
in Mohammedanism, and also the heathen religions in all their manifold variety, with 
their powerful priesthoods, their sacrificial service and their ceremonial life. For the 
relation of man to the heavenly powers has been for the Oriental a subject of eager 
and profound study, and has led him to results beyond which no other nation has 
ever gone. 

(29) 




80 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



In the East, however, political life was less manifold than religious, revealing far 
less variety of constitutions and of governmental forms. 

The Nomads had chieftains who exercised a patriarchal authority ; the Caste- 
States gave extraordinary privileges and powers to the priest and warrior classes. 
Both combined to create despotism, the absolute sovereignty of the prince, which 
endowed the ruler with the patriarchal power of the Nomad chief and the religious 
sanctity of the Caste-kings. Thus the royal authority in the east reached gradually 
such a height, that the king was worshiped as a god. To the despot his subjects ap- 
peared as slaves, without personal rights or property. The king disposed as he pleased 
of the goods and lives of his subjects. He gave and took, at his own will, and could 
be approached only upon bended knees. Like the immortal gods he lived in luxury 
and pleasure, surrounded by servants who performed his commands and satisfied his 
desires. All the wealth and splendor of the earth was lavished upon him. These 
forms of government, in which laws and human rights do not exist are without vitality 
and enduring elements of progress ; hence all the eastern states became the prey of 
foreign conquerors, their early culture being thereby lost or arrested. 

The nature of the Oriental is inclined rather to contemplative quiet and to enjoy- 




GREAT WALL OF CHINA. 



ment than to activity. Consequently the eastern peoples never attained to freedom 
or to self-government ; on the contrary, they submitted passively to native tyrants 
or sighed under the yoke of foreign conquerors. By means of their intellectual 



EASTERN RACES. 



31 



powers they reached quickly a certain degree of culture and politico-military civiliza- 
tion, only to abandon themselves quickly to idle enjoyment, until they sank gradually 
into sloth and weakness. This weakness was furthered by the oriental custom of 
polygamy which undermined the family, the source of all domestic morality, strength 
and virtue. 

The art of the Orient is wonderful in the colossal dimensions of the buildings and 
the irresistible patience and perseverance displayed in their completion ; but these 
lack the harmony and symmetry and beautiful utility to be found in the works of a 
free people. The creations of their art and their industry show a skilled handicraft, 
attained and maintained by the compulsion of caste and guild, rather than creative 
genius and spontaneous activity. Servitude hung like a leaden weight upon every 
form of oriental life. 
2. The Chinese. 

§ 6. The Chinese have no part in the life of history, yet they meet us at its 
threshold. The development of the human race has followed the daily course of the 
Sun. In all probability therefore the peoples of the extreme East were the first to 
emerge from the condition of semi-barbarous tribes. 

The great empire of China, " The celestial middle Kingdom," has been inhabited 
for thousands of years by a race of Mongolian origin, which possesses unchanged the 
culture and the institutions of hoary antiquity. In China everything is regulated by 
ancient laws and forms ; there freedom is unknown. This lack of a progressive devel- 
opment is due partly to the persistent character of the people which clings to the ac- 
customed and the inherited; partly to the isolation of the kingdom from other nations, 
because of mountains, seas, and the great Chinese wall, nearly 1500 miles in length ; 
partly to the exclusion of foreigners from the realm and partly to its political institu- 
tions. 

For the Emperor, " The Son of the 
Sky," the sacred Lord, the divinely re- 
vered sovereign, is possessed of unlim- 
ited authority, so that he and his man- 
darins, a numerous body of privileged 
scholars and officials, hold the enslaved, 
despised, and oppressed people firmly to 
the ancient customs and prevent all in- 
novation. The Chinese thus deprived 
of the experiences of foreign nations 
have fallen behind them in general cul- 
ture, although they were acquainted 
ages ago with the compass, gun powder, 
the art of printing, and although they 
have displayed at all times a wonderful 
industry and laboriousness. Even their 
industrial art cannot compare with that 
of the western nations in spite of their 
early invention of writing-materials, their early manufacture of porcelain, their skill 
in weaving silks, and in the carving of wood and ivory. Agriculture, which stands 




CHINESE MANDARIN. 



32 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




CHINESE TEACHER. 



under the immediate protection of the Emperor (who tills and ploughs himself a par- 
ticular piece of land) is the oldest and most honored occupation ; it constitutes the 
organizing and ennobling element in the life of the Chinese State and people. Next 
to the corn and rice-fields, tea and silk-culture are the 
pride of the land and the source of great wealth. Silk 
culture is under the immediate care of the empress. 
Chinese education aims not at the development of in 
tellectual powers but at the learning of what the fore- 
fathers knew and practised, and of what serves to pro- 
duce civic virtue, obedience to the laws, reverence for 
magistrates and parents. 

The education, government and habits of the Chi- 
nese render them cowardly and inactive and rob them 
of all sense of honor and of strength. Yet they have 
the utmost conceit of their superiority, regarding all flPHI 
other nations with arrogant contempt. Their written 
language, consisting not of letters but of symbols or 
pictures is so difficult and clumsy that many years are 
required to learn to read it merely. As lawgiver and 
founder of their religion, of their civil and social in- 
stitutions the Chinese revere an ancient sage 
Confucius, (Kong-fu-tse) who collected the 
early teachings, laws, histories and traditions of 
Confucius the people, arranged them into 
boo jr. c. a system and thus gave to an- 
cient custom fixedness and strength. 
3. The Hindus. 

§ 7. Southwards from the snow covered 
heights of the Himalayas stretches a fruitful, 
favored land with a temperate climate ; a land 
rich in precious products of every kind, and 
traversed by the Indus, the Ganges and other 
mighty rivers. Here the Indians or the Hindus 
have dwelt from immemorial time, and their 
ancient greatness is attested by many buildings 
yet extant, ruins of cities and of temples, by 
wonderful monuments in Scripture and in 
stone, and by countless historical reminiscences. 
The Hindus were descendants of the Ar- 
yans, who migrated from the highlands of 
Thibet and subdued the less powerful aborig- 
ines of the southern country. As long as they 
dwelt in the land of the five rivers, close to 
the holy river Sarasvati, the Aryans, divided into many branches, led a pastoral life 
under the guidance of their chiefs and kings, worshiping the powers of nature with 
songs and sacrifices. But as they wandered eastwards toward the Ganges and the 




IMAGE OF CONFUCIUS. 






EASTERN RACES. 



33 



Tamouna, they exchanged their primitive customs for the institutions of caste, to 
which they gave the severest form. The first and most honored caste was the Brah- 
mans ; these were priests richly endowed with goods, honors and privileges. They 
were counted holy and inviolable ; could be punished in body for no crime ; were 
free from taxation, constituted the royal council and held most of the offices. Next 
to the Brahmans stood the warriors (Kschatrija) who for pay and certain advantages 
assumed the protection and defence of the land. The peaceful character of the people 
and the isolation of this land made enemies uncommon and wars unfrequent. Conse- 
quently the warrior class degenerated and the priests acquired easily the first rank. 
The kings, however, belonged to the warrior caste. Tillers of the soil, merchants and 
artisans constituted the third caste ; these despised Vaisja were heavily oppressed by 
taxes and forced levies 
and so plundered by of- 
ficials that in spite of 
the great fertility of the 
soil they lived in pov- 
erty and wretchedness. 
The slave class, Sudra, 
were excluded from all 
honors and rights, and 
could not even have a 
share in the religion and 
the sacred books of the 
Aryan Hindus, which 
latter called themselves 
the twice-born. The 
most despised class in 
India was the Pariah 
class, or Tschandala, 
from whom it is said our Gipsies are descended. These are the dark-skinned posterity 
of the savage aborigines, who are looked upon by the other Hindus as the offscouring 
of humanity, and treated by them with profound contempt. They may not dwell in 
cities, towns, or villages, or even in their vicinity ; whatever they touch, becomes un- 
clean, and whoever sees one of them, is defiled by the sight. Mixing of caste by mar- 
riage is strictly forbidden ; any one guilty thereof is cast out as unclean and abandoned 
to contumely. This rigid division into castes, which was upheld by the Brahmans 
as a divine arrangement of society, hindered all further progress and arrested the early 
culture of the race. 
§8. Religion, Literature, Art. 

The Hindus believed in a divine first being, from whom the visible and invisible 
world have proceeded, and to which they will, after long periods of time, return. The 
centre of their religion was the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and of regener- 
ation. According to this doctrine the human soul has been chained to an earthly body 
as a penalty ; the goal of human effort must be reunion with the divine soul of the 
universe. Life on earth is a term of punishment and probation, to be shortened only 
by holy conduct, by prayer and sacrifice, by penances and purifications. If man 




LOW CASTE HINDUS. 



3-1 



THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 



neglects these holy duties and, fulling away from God, sinks deeper into evil, his soul 
enters after death into the body of a baser creature, to begin anew its weary pilgrim- 
age. But the soul of the sage, the hero, 
the penitent ascends through the shining 
stars toward the eternal spirit whence it 
came and into which it will be finally ab- 
sorbed. Man, say the Brahmans, reaches 
the end of his creation by unbroken con- 
templation of the divine and separation 
from the earthly. Hence they exalted con- 
templation and reflection above an active 
life, withdrew themselves from the lower 
classes, read and pondered the holy scrip- 
tures of the Veda, inflicted upon them- 
selves penances and tortures, gave alms, 
^ performed ablutions, did every sort of 
• ceremonial dutj', that thej* might get 
> nearer to the deity. 

The Brahman may not kill an animal 
< or injure one, or eat of its flesh, unless it 
be a sacrifice ; for the soul of a man ruay 
dwell in the body of a beast. In the old- 
est times, when the Hindus still lived in 
the land of the five rivers, they worshiped 
i the powers that prevailed in nature, Indra 
•the lord of the sky who governs sunshine 
and rain with the clouds and the winds, 
> Varuna the God of the air and many other 
deities. Alongside these natural deities 
they worshiped quite early a mysterious 
divine force, called Brahma, which had 
power over these nature-gods. After the 
Hindus gave themselves up to the con- 
templative life of the Ganges Valley, this 
idea of Brahma took the first place in the 
Hindu religion, as the soul of the world, 
the fountain of all being, Indra and other nature-gods dropping to the rank of world 
guardians merely. 

About the middle of the sixth century before Christ the doctrine of Prince 
Buddha "The Awakened" spread through the land. Buddha preached the equality of 
all human beings, eternal rest in death without a second birth, and love and mercy 
toward all men as the chief virtue. 

Numberless cloisters were built in many places above the relics of the great 
teacher to which flocked disciples eager to escape the world. To the weary and beavy 
laden ne had promised a release from the suffering of this present time through the 
practice of virtue and fraternal love, and the redemption of their souls in "Nirvana," 




AN OLD FAKIR OF BENARES. 



EASTERN RACES. 



35 



and they heard it gladly. The Hindus possessed creative imagination and great 
mental powers. This is displayed especially in their literature. Many of their 
writings are thousands of years 
old; all of them are in the sacred 
Sanscrit language and irrepar- 
ably connected with religion 
and the doctrine of the Gods. 
The four books of Veda are the 
source of the religion of the 
Brahmans, and are held in the 
highest reverence. They con- 
tain partly hymns and prayers, 
partly rules for sacrifice, partlj r 
doctrines and precepts ; they 
are studied and explained by 
the Brahmans. Next to the 
Vedas stands " The Laws of 
Manu" a collection of very 
ancient maxims, traditions, and 
binding customs. Besides these the Hindus possess a multitude of poetic writings, 
distinguished for their imagery, their deep feeling and religious awe. Many of these 
works were brought to Europe by the English conquerors of India and then translated 




HINDU REPRESENTATION OF THE UNIVERSE. 




BRAHMA, VISHNU AND SIVA. 



by scholars into European tongues. The most famous are two great epic poems, 
the oldest portions of which belong probably to the tenth century before Christ. One 
of these is the Mahabharata, in which the conflicts of two races of heroes, Kuru and 
Pandu are celebrated, and Mama j ana which sings of the triumphal march of the divine 



86 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



hero Rama to South India and Ceylon. A third production is Sakontala, a charming 
drama of a later period. Indian art is also inseparably connected with the Hindu relig- 
ion. Particularly remarkable are 
the rock-hewn temples and grottos, 
the most famous of which are at 
Ellora in the middle of India, at 
Salsette, and the Island Elephanta 
near the citj r of Bombay. Here are 
grottos, temples, dwellings, passages 
and galleries with statues and in- 
scriptions, hewn for miles out of and 
through the rocks. 

Thousands of hands must have 
worked patiently and persistently 
for ages to complete this wealth of 
artistic and difficult achievement. 

These products of art together 

with the products of her looms, and 

her pearls, diamonds, ivory, spices, 

made India even in ancient times 

the goal and centre of the caravan 

buddha. trade and sea traffic ; they . made 

India also the desire of the conqueror. To the latter she fell an easy prey, because of 

the divisions of caste, the poverty of her political development, and the lack of energy 

and of independence among her people. 





ENTRANCE TO CAVES OF ELEPHANTA. 



EASTERN RACES. 



4. — Babylonians and Assyrians. 

§ 9. In the fruitful regions watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, and in the 
grassy terraces of Mesopotamia (Mid-river-land), there dwelt in ancient times races of 
unknown origin, which are now designated by the name Sumerianor Accadian. They 
were .the fathers of astronomy, and the inventors of cuneiform writing. These 

ia>l~ a^uaf-i-ii A*- illicit 



V— ^ftzT -tj£xp (TsJt^-^JT-E*^ 



CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTION. 

aborigines were subjugated by the Chaldseans, a primitive people, that pushed forward 
from the eastern highland of Elam into the lower valley of the Euphrates, adopted the 
culture of the Sumerians, and dwelt for centuries in the land, which was consequently 
called Ohaldsea. During the dynasty of the Cassi, Babylon, the ancient temple-city 
was made the capital of the kingdom. Of Nimrod, who is mentioned in the Bible as 
" a mighty hunter before the Lord," and designated as the founder and ruler of 
Babylon, there is no mention in the inscrip- 
tions. But the name of Sargon I., is sur- 
rounded with legendary splendor. He is cele- 
brated as the conqueror who pressed forward 
to the east and to the west, and as the ruler 
who made his Semitic warriors acquainted with 
the culture of the Sumerians. Among the 
small Semitic kingdoms that existed near 
Babylon, between the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, Assyria, which lay toward the north, 
acquired, gradually, a decided superiority. It 
was in all probability, a colony of old Babylo- 
nia, to judge from the likeness of the two peo- 
ples, in their writing and in their religion. 
The reputed founder, Assur, is a mythical being 
suggested by the name of the land. The] 
Assyrians became the dominant people soon 
after they made the favorably situated city of 
Nineveh the capital of their kingdom. The 
names Ninus and Semiramis, so prominent in oriental legends, are only allegorical, 
mythological abstractions. Semiramis, who carried on the government after the murder 
of her husband, Ninus, is pictured in the mythical tradition as a heroic woman of great 
beauty and luxurious habits ; who marched victoriously as far as India, who adorned 
Babylon with gardens, and her kingdom with splendid highways, bridges, canals and 
public buildings. Her name became so celebrated in the East that all great 




ASSYRIAN WARRIORS AND ARCHER. 



38 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




>Kji 



(Beconstruction.) 

creations of the human hand, all the wonder- 
ful works of human boldness and human 
strength, were ascribed to her. - But her 
successors were incapable and weak. Ac- 
cordingly, the old Assyrian kingdom fell 
into decay, until in the ninth century, 
after great internal struggles, the throne of 
'▼^"^"\s Nineveh came into the possession of a new 

royal line. War-like" kings now turned their arms to the South and to the West, 
subjugated Babylonia, and conquered the Syrian land to the Mediterranean Sea. At 
the same time, they adorned the walls of their palaces with the pictures and descrip- 
tions of their deeds, the deciphering of which, by the scholars of our time, has brought 
new light into Assyrian history. All Western Asia, from Iran and Armenia to Syria 
and Palestine, bowed beneath their scepter. Tiglath Pileser II (mentioned in the 
Tigiatn piieset- rr., Book of Kings as Phul) compelled the princes of Damascus, of 
b. c. ?*5-i!ii. Hamath and of Samaria, to pay him tribute. Still more powerful was 
saimanussar it., the skillful general Sargon II, who succeeded to the throne after the 
b. c. res-las. short reign of Salmanassar IV. He conquered Samaria and carried 
sai-aon n., the Israelites into captivity ; he besieged the commercial city of Tyre, 
«. c. »22-305. overcame the Philistines of Gaza and Ashdod, and threatened Lower 
Egypt. The Medes and the rebellious Babylonians trembled at his sharp-edged sword. 
When Sargon Avas murdered, his son, Sennacherib, ascended the throne. He, though as 
energetic and as warlike as his father, failed of success ; his campaign against Judah 



EASTERN RACES. 



39 







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• :- _j,J - 'SfSi:ih- ■ 


^--tkJMSs 


<C- l' -:■ .: T'Srfi? iC*,l! f 



tiglath-pileser storming a town. (From Palace at Nineveh.) 

Sennacherib, and Egypt was unfortunate, and only with difficulty did he suppress 
ios-est. the uprisings in Babylonia and Media. But the buildings with which 
he adorned Nineveh made him very famous. Unhappy in his government, he was also 
unfortunate in death. " As he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch, his god," says 
the Book of Kings, " Adrammelech and Sharezer, his sons, smote him with the sword." 
(II Kings, xix : 37.~) His son, Assurhadon, revenged his death, and compelled the 

Asmiriiaiion, unnatural children to fly from the land : he then continued the con- 

b. c. e8i-6e8. quests in Western Asia ; over- 
came the Egyptian king Tarako, and pro- 
claimed himself king of Egypt and Ethiopia. 
Assyrian Satraps, or tributary kings, governed 
the Nile country and founded the dominion 
of the so-called Dodekarchy. Assurhadon 's 

jtssnrbanipai, son, Assurbanipal, was a most 

jb. c. ees-62s. powerful ruler; he subdued the 
rebellious Egyptians and marched to Thebes ; 
he defeated the unfaithful Babylonians in a 
fearful battle, and hurled the rebels into a consuming fire. In a nine years' war 




ASSYRIAN CLAY COFFINS. 










{pp. 40.i 



DEATH OF SARDANAPALUS. 



EASTERN RACES. 



41 



he subjugated the strong mountain tribes of Susanna, burnt down their cities, and 
carried off their treasures and the idols. But the hatred of the conquered peoples 
against this iron tyranny led to a war of desperation, and twenty years after the 
death of Assurbanipal, the Assyrian Empire perished. Of the catastrophe we 
have no certain information. The Greek writers say that Cyaxares, king of the 
Medes, and Nabopolassar, king of the Chaldasas, formed an alliance and marched at the 
head of the great multitude of outraged people against the Assyrians. Assurhadon II 
Asmirhadon ii., (erroneously called Sardanapalus) was king when this flood broke 
(sardanapatHs) over the throne. Nineveh, the capital, was beseiged, but defended by 
b. c. oas-eos. Sardanapalus with great courage — in spite of his sensuality and his 
love of luxury. The 
enemy were repeatedly 
driven back, but their 
way was opened by an 
inundation that car- 
ried away part of the 
city wall. The king, 
despairing of his safety, 
commanded the castle 
to be set on fire, and 
he was consumed along 
with his wives and 
his treasures. Nineveh 
was then razed to the 
ground, and the Assy- 
rian kingdom divided 
among the victors. 
" Nineveh is fallen," 
cried the Prophets of 
Israel exultingly, 
"ashes on the threshold, 
her cedar walls torn 
away, now is she be- 
come a desert, a place 
for the wild beasts. He 

that passes by maketh a mock of the great city ! " The ruins of splendid buildings 
and the works of art, with carved figures and inscriptions, which have been brought 
to light by recent excavations, bear witness of the former splendor and beauty of the 
ancient city ; of the power and the oriental despotism of her ruler ; of the culture and 
artistic sense of her inhabitants. 

"Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a 
shadowing shroud, and of a high stature ; and his top was among the thick boughs. 
The waters made him great, the deep set him up on high with her rivers running round 
about his plants, and sent out her little rivers into all the trees of the field. Not any 
tree in the garden of God was like unto him in his beauty." (Ezekiel, xxxi. 3, 4, 8.) 
§ 10. The Chaldseans or Babylonians were now predominant, especially under 




ASSYRIAN CHARIOT OF STATE. 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 

(From Black Baby- 
lonian Cameo in 
Berlin Mus.) 



xehiieiiarinezzai; the warlike and mighty Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered the island 
«. c. G04-S61. city of Tyre, compelled Phoenicia and Sj r ria to pay tribute, and subju- 
gated the kingdom of Judah. He adorned Babylon with castles, gates, temples, parks, 
and other works of art. A high and broad wall surrounded the whole city, the length 
of which is said to have been more than fifty miles. The two royal palaces on the 
banks of the Euphrates : the high, square tower of Baal the sun-god, which was richly 
adorned with statues and ornaments of gold, and was used by 
those that watched the stars ; the terraced park abounding in 
trees, called by the people the hanging gardens of Semiramis, 
were astonishing creations. These hanging gardens were the 
present of Nebuchadnezzar to his wife. She had been brought 
up in the wooded mountain land of Medea, and he desired to give 
her pleasure, by placing near his new palace a picture of her forest 
home. In their building, the Babylonians used burnt tile. Their 
bridges, canals, dikes, dams, " those countless waterbrooks of 
Babylon " were erected, in order to carry the waters of the 
Euphrates to the parched ground. The worship of the sun 
and of the stars led the Babylonian priests to astronomical observations : they reck- 
oned the course of the sun and divided the year; they determined the paths of the 
planets, and dedicated to them the seven days of the week ; but as they blended 
astrology with their astronomy they went astray, and wandered around the world in 
later centuries as Magi and soothsayers, as interpreters of dreams and wizards. The 
Chalcheans were also the first to use weights and measures, and among them originated 

geometry and medicine. The fertility of the 
soil and their active commerce made them 
rich, and as a consequence fond of splen- 
dor and of luxury. Hence they were 
renowned for their fine weaving and their 
costly carpets, as well as for their immorality, 
luxury and dissipation. They anointed their 
bodies with costly ointments, wore white 
mantles and long hair, and were singularly 
unchaste in their religious service. Three 
great mountains of ruins, which start up 
out of the surrounding desert, a disordered 
pile of massive stones, broken urns and 
pottery of every sort, mutilated statues and 
inscriptions, mark the site where the world 
famous Babylon, " The pride of the Chal- 
daeans," used to stand. The once glorious 
garden has become a desert, where the step 
The soil once tilled so carefully, the fertility 
of which excited the wonder of the ancient world, is now a barren plain. The canals 
are dried up, the dams broken down, the works of irrigation gone to ruin. And the 
hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar, where Alexander the Great sought to allay the 
glow of fever, and of the sun, is now a heap of ruins, called by the inhabitants Elkafr, 
which means Castle-hill. 




ASSYRIAN NOBLES AND COURTIERS. 



of the wanderer starts the wild beast. 



EASTERN RACES. 



43 



A gift of the Nile," seeing that the 




ASSYRIAN HIGH PRIEST AND KING. 



5. The Egyptians. 

§ 11. The Greeks did right to call Egypt 

regular annual inundation, which is caused bj r 

the periodical rain-fall on the equatorial high. 

lands, gave to the land an exceeding fertility. 

For the spring flood was guided and regulated by 

a great variety of works of irrigation, such as 

canals, dams, and cisterns. From the earliest 

period the Egyptian valley was divided into 

Upper and Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt was the 

South-land, where, the colossal and note-worthy 

ruins of Thebes still excite the admiration of 

travelers. This extensive world of statues and 

columns, the ruins of which are scattered along 

both shores of the river, the colossal sphinxes 

(lions with human heads), the wonderful grottoes 

hewn into the rocky wall, the royal sepulchers, 

the subterranean death-chambers, and the gigan- 
tic Memnon column, which is said to have given 

forth melodious tones at the rising of the sun, are 

speaking witnesses of the ancient glory of the 

city of the Pharaohs. 

Further down the stream lay the ancient city of Memphis, equally noteworthy for 

its monuments. To these belong the ruins of the labyrinth, a, royal palace, consisting 

of many chambers, courts 
ft vestibules and corridors, 
all connected with each 
other. Here too are the 
pyramids, erected upon a 
lonely, rocky plateau, on 
the edge of the desert. 
These are, even now, re- 
garded as the miracles of 
a daring and powerful 
architecture. As soon as 
a new king ascended the 
throne, he began the build- 
ing of a sepulchre, in which 
his body was to lie ; forti- 
fied it by blocks of stone 
and strong walls, and en- 
larged it in the course of 
years, by surrounding 

structures to an artificial mountain. The longer his government lasted, the greater 

became the pyramid of the king of Memphis. Below Memphis where the North 

land or Lower Egypt begins, the Nile is divided into two main streams and several 




temple of chesnu at karnak. {Built by Barneses II.) 



44 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



branches, and expands the valley to a great plain, where fruitful fields alternate 'with 
grassy meadows, and where forests of palm trees adorn the shores. Still further 
down it breaks through swamp and marsh into the sea. This is the Delta, the 




PYRAMIDS AT G1ZEH. 



fertility of which made Egypt the granary of the ancient world. Here were situated 

Heliopolis, the city of the sun, and the noteworthy places Sais, Naukratis, and 

Busiris. 

§ 12. Egypt possessed, in the remotest times, innumerable cities and villages, and 

a high culture. Sciences, arts, and industries were cultivated to such an extent, that 

the land of the Nile has been always 
looked upon as the mysterious cradle of 
all human progress. Yet the character of 
the people, and the influence of an all- 
powerful, royal and priestly domination 
hindered free development, and prevented 
advancement. Everything was devoted 
to the service of a gloomy religion and a 
powerful hierarch} r , which held the people 
in subjection, fear, and superstition. The 
belief that after death, the soul found 
eternal peace only when the body was 
preserved, led to the embalming of the 
dead, and to the preservation of mummies 
in corridors, and death chambers. The 




BRONZE IMAGES OF BULL APIS. 




building of the pyramids. (G. Richter.) 



(pp. 45.) 



46 



THE ANCIENT AVORLD. 



priests, as judges of the dead, assumed the power of devoting the corpses of the 
wicked to destruction ; and of compelling the doomed soul to wander through the 
bodies of countless animals. Thus they acquired great authority. 

The religion of the Egyptians was principally the worship of the sun, and origin- 
ated in the character of the country. This found allegorical expression in the sacred 
marriage of the sun-god 
Osiris, with Isis the god- 
dess of the Nile. But the 
other gods of the Egyp- 
tians were also deities of 
light and of the sun ; 
among these were Ra or 
Phra (whence many derive 
the word Pharaoh), and 
also the Theban Amnion 
and the creative natural 
power Ptah. But since 
the Egyptians worshiped, 
not only these deities, but 
also the animals consecrat- 
ed to them, their religion 
degenerated gradually into 
a symbolism connected 
with a horrible worship of 
dumb brutes. 

Not only the bull Apis, 
who, as symbol of the sun, 
was regarded as especially 
sacred, but cows, cats, ser- 
pents, dogs, and crocodiles, 
received divine honors. 
This led naturally to a 
degenerate art. The stat- 
ues of the gods, hewn out 
of hard stone, with their 
rigid attitudes, and pas- 
sive solemnity, carry for 
the most part the heads of 
animals. Colossal as was 
the Egyptian architecture, 




HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 



( Tinted letters in red in the original.) 



skillful as the Egyptians were in sculpture and in the various industrial arts, they 
have, nevertheless, contributed little of importance and of permanence to the sciences 
and to literature. And even this was concealed from the people in their hieroglyphic 
script. There were three kinds of hieroglyphics, which' are to be found, partly in the 
papyrus rolls, partly on the obelisks. These latter were four cornered columns, hewn 
out of a single block of granite, covered with inscriptions, and placed at the porches 
of their temples. 



EASTERN RACES. 



47 



Egypt was early an object of ad- 
miration and of curiosity to the Greeks, 
and is still the wonder of mankind. 
Eleven obelisks and countless Egyptian 
monuments, hewn from the hardest 
stone, are now preserved in Rome ; and 
the museums and cabinets of Europe 
contain a great multitude of mummies, 
antique vessels, ornaments, and papyrus 
rolls. The perseverance and the skill 
of the Egyptians excite our astonish- 
ment, and yet we notice everywhere 
the lack of free development, and crea- 
tive activity, and of personal freedom. 
The curse of* royal and priestly despot- 
ism blighted every form of Egyptian 
life ; superstitious and religious gloom 
darkened their existence. The monu- 
ments reveal to us a life without $ 
courage, in which the enjoyments of t 
the hour alternate with ever-present ,, 
thoughts of death.* h h 

§ 13. At the entrance to the r 
Delta, where the stream is divided into > 
several branches, stood the ancient • 
state, the capital of which was the citj^ 
jienes, about of Memphis. Its sup- 

b. c. aooo. posed founder was 
cheops, about Menes. Cheops and 

b. c. 25oo. Mceris are the most 

Mmrts, about famous names in the 

b. c. saoo. succeeding list of kings. 
The first was builder of the great pyra- 
mid, 450 feet high, upon which 100,000 
men are said to have labored forty 
years. The second was famed for the 
great lake that bears his name, and 
winch was doubtless used to regulate the 
overflow of the Nile. Shortly after the 
death of Mceris (so the Egyptians say), 
wandering tribes from Syria and from 
North Arabia invaded the country, sub- 
Mout dued the kingdom, and 

b.c. moo. governed with cruel violence, the tributary race 




* Tlie name Pliaraoli is derived from Pei'aa " great house ' 
Sublime Porte. 



This tyranny of the 

that is, palace, a designation that reminds ns of the 



48 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Hyksos or shepherds, lasted for five centuries, until finally the kings of Upper- 
is. c. xsso. Egypt (Thebes) accomplished the deliverance of the land. The 
hundred-gated Thebes now became the residence of the Pharaohs, among whom 
Rameses the Great, whom the Greeks called Sesostris, was the most famous. He 
sesostt-is, compelled Ethiopia to paj r tribute, and pushed, with his victorious 
130G-J32S. armies and chariots, into Syria, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. He 
adorned the kingdom witli royal palaces and temples, the grandeur and splendor of 
which may yet be seen in the broken columns, and in the colossal fragments of statues 
and sculptured walls. Eameses-Sesostris became, in subsequent years, a half mythical 
name, about which clustered the mighty deeds of father and son for a whole century. 

But the power of 
Thebes vanished also. 
The kings of Ethiopia 
trampled Upper Egypt 
with their iron feet; and 
the rulers of Assyria 
lorded it in Lower 
Egypt, collecting from 
their governors and sub- 
ject-kings, an oppressive 
tribute. Not until after 
the time of Assurbani- 
pal did this period of 
Assyrian tyranny, 
called "the domination 
of the twelve," come to 
an end. Psammetichus 
of Sais, with the help of 
Ionian and Karian mer- 
cenaries, acquired, in the 
seventh century, pos- 
session of Upper Egypt. 
To secure his throne 
more firmly, he made 
Egyptian war chariot. an alliance with the 

Greeks, and colonized Egypt with Hellenic mercenaries. This 
b. c. fito-eie. innovation embittered the people, and 200,000 of the priest and 
warrior caste emigrated to Nubia, and founded there the priestly state, Meroe. 
This was an imitation of the kingdom of the Pharaohs in Thebes, as is shown 
by the monuments that still strew its former site, upon the Upper Nile, and lie 
scattered over desert plains, which are here and there broken by groups of 
palm trees. Necho and Amasis are noteworthy successors of Psammetichus. 
jfecuo, The former was the founder of the Egyptian sea-power and 

b. c. Gie-eoo. navigation. The canal begun by Rameses, from the Nile to the 
Red Sea, was continued by him, and the southcoast of Africa was explored by 
Phoenician sailors, under his command. The latter favored Hellenic culture and 




Psam m etich its. 



EASTERN RACES. 



49 




Amasis, furthered the emigration of Greek merchants, who brought into Lower 
v. c. sii-siie. Egypt riches and luxury, so that Sais could rival with its works of art 
and monuments, both Thebes and Mem- 
phis. But the days of its glory were 
numbered. Amasis was hardly laid to 
rest in the temple court at Sais, when 
the Persian king, Cambyses, invaded 
Egypt with his army. In the bloody bat- 
tle of Pelusium (Suez), Psammetichus 
lost his kingdom to the Persians, who now 
ruled over it for two centuries. The 
Egyptian people, however, would not mix 
with their conquerors ; they preserved 
their customs, institutions, and religious 
usages, and also their hatred for every- 



thing foreign. 



6. Phcenicians. 

§ 14. On the narrow strip of coast, 
between the Mediterranean Sea and the 
Cedars of Lebanon, dwelt the sea-faring 
and trading race of Phcenicians. Of their 
numerous cities, Sidon and Tyre were the Egyptian king in war chariot, and warriors. 

most important. They were too active and energetic to endure either the system of 
caste or of depotism, like other oriental races. On the contrary, each city, with its 

adjacent territory, formed an independent com- 
munity, at the head of which stood an hered- 
itary king, whose power was greatly limited 
by aristocratic families, and by priests. These 
independent communities formed a union, of 
which at first Sidon, the market place of the 
nation, and afterward Tyre was the head. 
Opposite the coast city of Tyre lay a rocky 
island with its fortified harbor, its great ware- 
houses, and its ancient temple of the guardian 
deity, Melkart. Industry and inventiveness 
characterized the Phcenicians. They manufac- 
tured glass, discovered dye stuffs, and invented 
letters. They were distinguished for their 
metal work, their weaving, and their architec- 
ture. Sidonian garments, Tyrian purple. 
Phoenician glassware, vessels of ivory and gold, 
were sought for in all the cities of antiquity. 
The favorable situation of the country led them 
to the sea; the cedars of Lebanon furnished them wood for shipbuilding. The 
Phoenicians, with their handsome ships, visited the coast-lands and the islands of the 
4 




EGYPTIAN QUEEN AND LADIES. 



50 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Mediterranean Sea, not onty to carry their own products, but to obtain the products 
of the distant East, spices, incense, oil, wine, corn, and slaves. The}' established 
manufactories and dye-houses, opened up mines, ventured out into the unknown 

seas of the North, pur- 
chased tin at the British 
islands, and amber from 
the inhabitants of the 
Baltic ; and entered up- 
on daring voyages to 
South Arabia, East 
Africa, and India. Be- 
yond doubt, the Phoeni- 
cian sailors were in the 
service of the Egyptian 
king Necho, in a three 
years' voyage from the 
Red Sea around the 
African coast; and ven- 
tured farther than any 
other people of antiqui- 
ty. The Phoenicians 
united the Orient with 
the Occident; they 
founded colonies at 
Crete and Cyprus ; they 
built factories on the 
island of Sicily ; they 
made the splendid har- 
bor of Malta a station 
for their western route, 
and built on the oppo- 
site coast, upon a pro- 
montory which they 
converted into an island, 
by means of a canal, the 
commercial city of 
Utica. This city of 
North Africa, a country 
rich in olives, date-trees, 
and grape vines, was 
built to resemble the 
mother city Tyre. For 
the Tyrians delighted in island-colonies containing a castle and a sanctuary, which 
offered a secure haven for their ships, and a safe landing place for their goods, and 
united the neighboring coast into a twin cit} r . In like manner they founded the city 
of Gades (Cadiz), at the pillars of Hercules, uniting it also with the coast. This city 




Phoenician scene at court. (Paul Phillippoteaux.) 



EASTERN RACES. 



51 



with the sanctuary of the Tyrian god Melkart (Hercules), was the support and the 
emporium of the Spanish trade, where the ships of Tarshish, mentioned by the 
prophet Jonah, landed, in order to convey the treasures of the land, so rich in metals, 
to their Eastern home. But the most famous colony of 
the Tyrians was the new city of Carthage, on the coast of 
North Africa, which soon eclipsed the mother country by 
its commercial greatness, its wealth, and its marine 
power. A woman of royal race, Elissa or Dido, is said 
b. c. sso. to have founded Carthage, with a num- 
ber of noble emigrants from Tyre. The story of the ox-hide used at the founding of 
the city, marks the character of the Phoenicians, whose cunning and astuteness were 
renowned in all antiquity. 





EARLY PHOENICIAN COIN. 




Phoenician fleet. {Paul Phillippoteaux.) 

Their religion was of less consequence to the Phoenicians, than to other oriental 
races. The worship of Moloch required cruel human sacrifices, and that of Baal and 
Astarte obscene usages and festivals. 

§ 15. The warlike races of Western Asia sharply tested 
the bravery and the patriotism of the Phoenicians. When the 
Assyrian Sargon subdued and made them tributary, the richer 
citizens of Tyre removed to the neighboring rocky island, where, 
hitherto, only their sanctuaries and their warehouses were to be found, and defended 
Island Tyre for five years with triumphant success. And the Tyrian navy soon ruled 




COIN OF TYRE. 



52 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

b. c. 500. the sea a second time. Even the Babylonian Nebuchadnezzar, who con- 
quered the Phoenician mainland, and deported the inhabitants of old Tyre, like the 
Jews, to the interior of his kingdom, was unable to shatter the courage of the island city. 
Defended by its position, by its enormous walls and breakwaters, it defied all attacks. 
But these repeated blows wore away the energy of the Tyrians, for when the Persians 

b. c. 5-to. afterward subdued the lands of Asia Minor, even Tyre lost her freedom 
and her independence. Phoenicia became a Persian province ; the colonial cities in 
the West fell away, and joined of choice, or by compulsion, the city of Carthage. 
The Greeks acquired the trade in the iEgean Sea, and the Phoenician colonies in 
Crete, Rhodos, Thasos, and other islands, with their rich ore banks. The oppression 
of the Persians, in the middle of the fourth century, provoked a revolt, of which Sidon 
was the leader. It miscarried ; Sidon fell into the hands of the Persian king, and 
when he ordered the oldest citizens to be executed, the inhabitants set fire to their 
city, and were burned to death with their treasures. Tyre lasted a while longer. But 

b. c. 332. when the Macedonian Alexander overthrew the Persian empire, and 
Tyre ventured to oppose the conqueror, the city was conquered, after a seven months* 
siege, and cruelly punished. It never recovered from the blow ; its commerce and its 
marine power withdrew to Alexandria. 
7. The People Israel. 

§ 16. While the whole world was worshiping the invisible god-head, in the forces 
and phenomena of nature, and of the sky ; a people of shepherds, sprung from a 
Semitic family in Mesopotamia, came to believe in a personal God, who, as creator 

AJn-ahmm. and ruler of the universe, stands above the changing life of nature. 

jb. c. 2000. Abraham the Hebrew, one of the patriarchs of this Nomad race, with 

his herds, his men servants and his maid servants, and his nephew Lot, abandoned his 

native pastures and settled in the land of Canaan, where they continued their pastoral 

life ; and where the3 r were called by the original inhabitants Hebrews, that is " the 

Isaac. strangers from beyond." Isaac, whom Sarah bore to Abraham in his 

old age, continued the family ; while Ishmael, his son by his servant Hagar, went into 

the desert, and according to the sacred tradition of the Semites, became the progenitor 

of the Arabs. Isaac married Rebecca, who bore him two sons, Esau and Jacob. The 

jracob. mother's cunning made the younger son, Jacob, the chief of the tribe, but 

could not save him from a long period of trial, before he came to his inheritance. 

Joseph. Jacob had twelve sons, but as his love preferred Joseph, the child of 

b. e. isoo. his beloved Rachel, the others, filled with envy, determined to rid 
themselves of their brother, and sold him to Ishmaelite traders, who carried him into 
Egypt. In Egypt Joseph resisted temptation, and was rewarded for his virtue, with 
fortune and wisdom. His skill in the interpretation of dreams, obtained for him the 
favor of the Egyptian king, and he came to great dignity and honor. He saved the 
land from famine, and made all the fields the property of Pharaoh, so that the people 
rented their farms, and cultivated them for a rental of one-fifth the produce. Joseph 
thus acquired such authority, that it was permitted him to bring his father and his 
brothers to Egypt, where the rich pasture land of Goshen, in lower Egypt, was given 
them for a dwelling place. Here, in the neighborhood of Heliopolis, the^y pastured 
their herds for centuries. Joseph became the darling figure of oriental poetry and 
tradition. The Hebrews were called Israelites, from Jacob's surname Israel. 



54 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



§ 17. The Israelites at first were happy in the rich pastures of Goshen. But 
when Joseph died, and new kings governed, who knew nothing of his services, the 
Egyptians were driven, by their hatred for strangers, and their contempt of shepherds, 
to great severity and cruelty against the descendants of Abraham. They oppressed 
them by heavy tasks, and, when they increased rapidly in spite of this oppression, the 
Egyptians grew afraid, and Pharaoh commanded his officers to drown the new-born 
male children of the Hebrews in the Nile. Moses would have met this fate, if the 
Moses, king's daughter had not happened to be walking along the shore when 

b. c. isoo. he was exposed, and had not pitied and saved the child. He was taken 
to the Egyptian court, where he was carefully educated and instructed in all the 
wisdom of the Egyptians. His murder of an Egyptian, whom he saw abusing an 
Israelite, compelled him, in his fortieth year, to flee into the Arabian desert. Here the 
great thought came to him, to be- 



come the savior of his people from 
Egyptian bondage. Pharaoh refused, 
at first, to let the people go, but the 
ten plagues, by which the land was 
visited, created such terror, that he 
finally consented to the departure 
asked for by Moses and his brother 
Aaron. In memory of their depar- 
ture, and of the death of the first 
born of Egypt at the hands of the 
Lord, the Jews established the feast 
of the Passover, i. e. Jehovah's passing 
by the doors of the Hebrews. At 
this feast they sacrificed the paschal 
lamb, their loins 'girded for the jour- 
ney, and the staff in hand. The at- 
tempt to compel the return of the 
Israelites, at their crossing of the 
Red Sea, resulted in the destruction 
of their pursuers. The waves 
covered Pharaoh's army, with his 

horses and his chariots; and Miriam, Moses' sister, and the women of the company, 
sang a song to Jehovah, with timbrel and dance, because the mighty hand of the 
Lord had destroyed their enemy, and hurled Pharaoh's wagon and army to the 
bottom of the sea. "Thou didst blow with thy breath and the sea covered them ; 
they sank like lead in the mighty waters." 

§ 18. Nevertheless the people hungered for the flesh pots of Egypt, and for forty 
years Moses led them in the wilderness, in order to strengthen their bodies, and to re- 
store to them morality, and a sense of freedom; and until a new generation should 
grow up, possessing the courage and the force to conquer the land, where their fathers 
had dwelled. During this time, Moses established the religion and the common-wealth 
of Israel at Mt. Sinai, by the Ten Commandments and other laws. These command- 
ments were written upon tables of stone, and preserved in the ark of the covenant, 




MENEPHTAH I. 



PHARAOH OF THE EXODUS. 



l[Jf||,;|[W h ir! l 't'"' l|i ^f^ n ! , T l 




ill" I Ml 1 ii ' ' ' ' 

'- ' i^l'.^IHlJiU'.iiuuuLii.iu 1 ,!!,,..!.!,, iim :i „i. '.n|ii|Ulml''i i4|||l|i||i|||n,im|^r ; ,i1b J i ; .liJ 



56 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




JEWISH HIGH PRIEST AND LEVITES. 



which stood in the innermost sacred precincts of the tabernacle, the moving temple 

which the Israelites carried with them through the wilderness. To explain these laws, 

and to conduct the sacrificial service, a priest-hood was ordained ; Aaron was made 

high priest, and the sacred office was reserved to his posterity. The Levites supported 

the sons of Aaron as sacrificial priests, teachers, 

doctors of the law, and physicians. According 

to the priestly tradition, which ascribed the 

system to Moses, Jehovah was himself Lord 4 

and King. The chiefs and elders of the tribesij 

carried on, in His name, the administration of| 

law and of justice, while the high priests and^ 

the Levites directed in all matters of religion. 

Sacrifices and festivals (feast of the Passover, 

feast of Tabernacles) formed the happy bond 

between Jehovah and his chosen people. Every 

seventh year was a Sabbath year, and the land 

remained unfilled. What grew of its own, 

accord, was given to the poor. Ever}- fiftieth' 

year was a jubilee year, when all alienated 

property was returned to its original possessor," 

in order that the inequality of riches might not 

be too great. The pastoral life was, at the 

instance of Moses, exchanged for agriculture, 

which became the principal occupation of his people. 

§ 19. The great Jaw-giver was not permitted to lead the Israelites into the 
promised land. From the summit of Mt. Nebo, he overlooked the beautiful plains of 
the Jordan, and then departed from the land of the living. " His eye was not dim, nor 

Joshua, his natural strength abated." Before his death he appointed Joshua, 
b. c. i4:So. the son of Nun, to be his successor; and exhorted the assembled people 
to hold fast to Jehovah, and to destroy utterly the Canaanites. But the people had 
hardly conquered the Aniorites, and other tribes, before they grew w r eary of battle, 
and demanded the distribution of the conquered land. This took j>lace, as Moses had 
ordered, by lot. And in such fashion that Ephraim and Manasseh received equal shares ; 
while the posterity of Levi received no land whatever, but certain cities, a tenth part 
of the produce of the soil, and a share in the sacred offerings. The tribes of Reuben 
and Gad, with one half of Manasseh, chose the pasture land east of the Jordan, and 
continued the life of herdsmen. The others settled on the west of the stream, and 
gave themselves to the culture of grapes, figs and olives, and to the beginnings of city 
life. 

§ 20. But powerful tribes, like the Ammonites and Philistines, forced upon the 
Israelites bloody and destructive wars. In their brutality and cruelty they forgot the 
living God, who had led them out of bondage, and fell away into idolatry, until mis- 
fortune and defeat brought them to reflection. Heroic men arose, who slew the 
enemy in battle, and restored the faith and the customs of their fathers. These were 
me .ftiiinr*. the Judges. The most famous among them were Gideon, Jephtha, 
jb. c. 1300-1100. Samson, the strong, and the heroine Deborah. Gideon's victory over 



58 



THE AXCIENT WORLD. 



the Midianites and Amalekites ; the sacrifice of Jephtha's daughter ; Samson's wild 
feats, and tragic death in the land of the Philistines, were told to each other by the 
tillers of the soil, as they sat under the shadow of the palm tree, and by the 
shepherds encamped beneath the stars. Deborah's triumphal song celebrated, in 
tones of jubilee, the destruction of Sisera, the Canaanite chieftain, by the hands of the 
woman Jael. Nevertheless the Philistines conquered the ark of the covenant, the news 
of which brought sudden death to the high priest Eli. They over-ran all the country, 
as far as the Jordan, and greatly oppressed the people. Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, 
now appeared ; led the people to battle, and strove successfully against the enemy. 

Samuel. At the same time Samuel, a pious and patriotic priest, renewed the old 
b. c. 1100. covenant between the Israelitish people and their God, and restored 
the Mosaic laws to their former influence. He established schools of the prophets, in 
which young men were taught the national laws and traditions, were instructed in 
eloquence and poetry, in music and in song. 
These schools of Samuel produced the inspired 
preachers, who, in the Bible, are spoken of as 
prophets. The champions of freedom, religion, 
and virtue, they had the greatest influence 
upon the development and perfection of the 
religious ideas of the people, and especially . 
their conceptions of God. 

§ 21. Samuel's sons did not walk in the 
way of their father, but denied the people 
justice. The Israelites now demanded a king, 
who should lead them to battle and to victory. 
Samuel sought in vain to dissuade them, pictur- 
ing the sorrows and oppression of kingly rule 
in the darkest colors. They persisted, and 
compelled him to anoint their chosen leader 
saui, Saul, a man of great stature, 

b. c. ioso. skilled in war, and victorious in 
battle. He broke the yoke of the Philistines 
in the West, and the Ammonites in the East, and gathered great spoil. 

But he put his trust in his army, and obeyed not the commands of Jehovah, as 
spoken by the mouth of his prophet; he was therefore rejected, and the shepherd boy 
David, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed by Samuel. David was re- 
nowned among the king's captains for his bravery, and for his devotion to the priest- 
hood, as well as for his skill upon the harp. Saul was now troubled " by an evil spirit 
from .the Lord; " envy, a premonition of his destiny, and a suspicion of his ambitious 
plans, united to drive the king to a hatred of David, to whom his own son Jonathan 
was entirely devoted. David, however, escaped the snares of the king, and when Saul 
flung himself in despair upon his own sword, after losing the battle at Gilboa, David 
was gradually recognized by all the tribes as king. Although he composed the beauti- 
ful psalm on the fallen heroes "who were swifter than eagles, and stronger than 
lions " he nevertheless destroyed root and branch of the whole family of Saul. 

§ 22. David's reign is the brilliant spot of Jewish history. By successful wars 




JEWISH KING AND WARRIORS. 




SAMSON SLAYING THE PHILISTINES. (Gastave DorL) 



(pp. 59.) 



60 



THE ANCIENT WOULD. 



Bnvia, he extended the kingdom to the South, and to the East ; he made the 

b. c. io3o. Syrian city Damascus, " the eye of the Orient," his foot-stool, and 
broke forever the power of the Philistines. He conquered Jerusalem, with its strong 
tower Zion, from the Jebusites, chose it for his residence, brought thither the ark of 
the covenant, and thus made it the centre of Jewish worship. David was also a 
great poet, as is seen in his wonderful Psalms ; and in spite of his many sins, in spite 




KING SOLOMON. 



( Gustave Bore.) 



of his crime against Uriah, 'whom he robbed at once of wife and of life, he remained 
" the man after Jehovah's heart " ; since he made good his transgressions by great virtues 
and services, by repentance and contrition. The end of his reign was marked by the 
rebellion of his favorite son Absalom, who was led astray by evil council. Trusting 
to the favor of the people, which his father had lost by his cruelty, the popular son 




death of saul. (Gudave Dore.) 



(pp. 61.) 



62 



THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 




(Ideal Reconstruction.) 

sought to obtain by force the royal crown. 
David abandoned the capital, and fled across 
Jordan, followed by the curses of his enemies ; 
but success soon came back to the cunning 
king. Absalom was slain in his flight. 

Solomon the Wise completed the work 
Solomon. of his father. David was 
About b. c. 1000. great in war, but his son was 
glorious in the arts of peace: he adorned 
Jerusalem with splendid buildings, and erect- 
ed the famous temple upon Mt. Moriah, 
which excited universal admiration for its 
wealth of gold and ornament of every kind. 
But Solomon departed, in man} r ways, from 
the laws of Moses. He took part in the 
great commercial undertakings of the Phoenicians, and piled tip great treasures, 
which increased his love of luxury and sensuality. He procured for himself 
foreign wives, to whom he permitted idolatry in which he himself took part. His 
admirable wisdom, his skill in answering difficult questions and solving riddles, 
although still admired in the legends of the East, did not protect him, while living, 
from great folly. His extravagance caused the taxes to be so oppressive, that a re- 
bellion took place during his life time. This was put down, and the leader, Jeroboam, 
Jeroboam. compelled to fly. But when Solomon's son, Rehoboam, threatened 
xeiioboam. to reject the demands of the people, ten tribes fell away from 




HAULING THE CEDARS OF LEBANON FOE THE TEMPLE. (GllStdVe Bore.) {pp. 63.) 



64 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



him, and chose Jeroboam to be their king. Only Judali and Benjamin remained 
faithful to the house of David. 

§ 23. This gave rise to two unequal kingdoms ; the kingdom of Israel, composed 
of ten tribes, with the two capitals Shechem and Samaria; and the kingdom of Judah, 
composed of two tribes, with its capital Jerusalem. As the latter city contained the 
ark of the covenant, and was therefore looked upon by the Levites, and many pious 
Israelites, as the true capital, Jeroboam erected in the South and the North of his 
kingdom, idolatrous pictures, and commanded the people to sacrifice, as in the ancient 




OBELISK OF SHALMANESER, FROM NINEVEH. (British Museum.) 

times, upon the mountain tops, — a sin of which all his successors were guilty. One of 
Aiiab, nboHt the mightiest of them was Ahab, whose wife Jezebel, of Tyre, intro- 
b. c. ooo. duced the blasphemous service of Baal, and raged cruelly against all 
who would not bow before him. She hunted for the life of the prophet Elias, and 
compelled him to take refuge in the wilderness, and at Mt. Carmel. Through her 
daughter Athaliah, who was married to the king of Judah, the foreign religion was 
brought into this kingdom also, and protected by the court. As a consequence, there 
was strife and civil war between the two kingdoms, whereby both were weakened, and 
driven to form alliances with foreign nations. They drove out the Prophets, who 



EASTERN RACES. 65 

boldly prophesied the destruction of the commonwealth, if the worship of Jehovah 
was driven out by the worship of idols. But persecution only increased their courage 
and power. In the deserts and in the wilderness, amid privations and chastisements, 
their faith grew stronger, and their inner vision became more clear. When Ahab re- 
jrehu. about ceived his death wound, in fight against the king of Damascus, Jehu, 

b. c. sgo. his captain, with the help of the prophet Elisha, and of the servants 
jotm, about of Jehovah, ascended the throne of Samaria. Athaliah was miir- 

b, c. s5o. dered : Joaz became king of Judah, and restored the worship of Je- 
hovah. But these religious quarrels weakened the people. The prophets Joel, Hosea, 
jreioboam, about and Amos proclaimed their woes in the days of Jeroboam II, when the 

b. c. soo. kingdom of the ten tribes was enjoying its last prosperous days; and 
the prophet Isaiah was creating, by his patriotic activity, a great religious and national 
revival, at the very time that foreign armies were threatening Jerusalem, and the land 
of Judah. 

§ 24. The Assyrians, under Tiglath-Pileser and Shalmaneser IV., invaded the 
kingdom of Israel ; and when the king concluded an alliance with Egypt, in order to 
escape the payment of tribute, the Assyrian king, Sargon II, invaded the country 
again with his veteran army, conquered Samaria, and carried the king, with the greater 

b. c. ?io. part of his people, into Assyrian bondage. They received new dwell- 
ing places along the rivers of Armenia, and in the cities of the Medes, while foreign 
people from the Euphrates migrated to the green hills of Samaria. From their inter- 
marriage with the few remaining Israelites came the Samaritans. Judah existed 130 
years longer. It became tributary to the Assyrians, after the fall of Israel; but when 
these went to war with the Egyptians, the king of Judah took part with the latter, and 
refused to pay tribute. The Assyrian king, Sennacherib, marched against, and besieged 

nesehiah, Jerusalem. But the pious king Hezekiah, the friend of Isaiah, occupied 

jb. c. vss-eoo. the throne. A sudden plague so decimated the Assyrian army, that 

the king did not venture to meet the approaching Egyptians, but abandoned Jerusalem 

jjraiiosse/i, and returned to Nineveh. Isaiah's prophecy was fulfilled. Neverthe- 

b. c. Gas-Bio. less, King Manasseh fell into idolatry, and persecuted bitterly the 

servants of Jehovah. " The sword devoured the prophets, like a raging lion;" The 

josian, servants of Jehovah, led by the prophet Jeremiah, used, therefore, the 

b. c. 63S-GOS. reign of the pious young king Josiah, to re-establish the Mosaic law, 

and the theocratic state. They discovered and introduced the second law, Deuter- 

onony, or the fifth book of the Pentateuch. But the struggle against Nineveh brought 

sore distress to Palestine. Josiah received his death wound in the battle of Megiddo, 

fought against the Egyptian king Necho, who wished to conquer Canaan. And then 

came Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, the conqueror of the Egyptians. He entered 

jb. c. 597. Jerusalem, robbed the temple, led the king and the chief inhabitants 
into captivity, and sorely oppressed those that remained. This induced the last king 
Zedekiah, who trusted in Egyptian support, to attempt once more the fortune of arms, 
but without success. Nebuchadnezzar burnt temple and city, slaughtered the citizens, 

b. c. sss. and led away the blinded king, with the greatest part of the people, 

into the Babylonian captivity. Jeremiah had sought in vain to prevent this reliance 

of the king upon Egypt, " the rotten reed," and had urged the people to bear the yoke 

of the Chaldeans, that Jehovah had laid upon them, for their chastisement. He now be- 

5 




66 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

took himself to Egypt, where he bemoaned the fall, and the destruction of his country. 
The Jews, in Babylon, returned to the God of their fathers, and found favor in his 
b. c. 538. presence. For when Babylon was conquered by the Persians, some of 
them were permitted, by Cyrus, to return to their homes. These came back under the 
lead of Zerubbabel, and began to rebuild the temple. The Samaritans, whom they care- 
fully avoided, sought to prevent their undertaking, and procured an edict against 
jb. c. sis. further building. And this was not resumed until the days of Darius. 

When Artaxerxes ruled over Persia, another 
company led by Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to 
b. c. 4Si. the old home, rebuilt the city, and 
restored the Mosaic laws. Misfortune had taught 
them that their only salvation was in the faith of 

/m- ~^ m *FTT' , their fathers, hence they avoided most carefully, 
Jewish shekel. (Time of Ezra.) ' J ,._.,, , 

from this time forward, the worship 01 idols, and 

all contact with the idolatrous heathen ; but their new " city of God " was a city 

of priests, in which a slavish service of the law took the place of the religious 

enthusiasm of former times. 

b, Hebrew Literature. 

§ 2±. The literature of the Jews, like their history and their institutions of state, 
relates to the worship of Jehovah. This literature is divided into the historic, poetic, 
and prophetic writings. The historic books contain the history of the founding of the 
theocratic kingdom, and the origin of the law. These books are strictly national, and 
constitute a religious epic. The poetical writings are partly lyric, like the Psalms, to 
which David gave a distinctive character, although comparatively few of the existing 
collection were written by him ; and partly didactic, like the book of Job, or the book 
of Proverbs. The Psalms mirror the religious thought of the Jewish people, yet not 
with the same energy as the warning, rebuke and prophecies of the inspired prophets. 
Salvation is to be found in obedience to the divine command. Ruin comes to the dis- 
obedient. In their tribulations, the avenging hand of God is manifest, and the only 
means to avert his wrath is sincere repentance. But this repentance is not sacrifice, 
or prayer, or fasting, but an upright walk, and a pure life. The stream of their 
thoughts was, to the prophets, the mind of Jehovah, "the burden of the Lord," laid 
upon them. They warned, they threatened, they commanded, they foretold in his 
name, and by his spirit. The most important of the prophets lived in the time of the 
Assyrian wars; among these, Isaiah is the mightiest. The sciences, and the plastic 
arts, had small place among the Jews ; their nature was unartistic, and their severe 
monotheism hindered the development of sculpture and of painting. 

8. Medes and Persians. 

§ 25. Media and Persia are two lands in which rough mountain regions, full of 
picturesque beauty, alternate with fertile pastures and rich arable prairies. They 
were formerly inhabited by races, who derive their origin from the primitive Zends, 
who dwelt still further to the East. The founder of their religion was an ancient 
sage Zoroaster, who deposited the revelation given him in the sacred book Zenda- 
vesta. He taught that the Supreme Being was a dual being, a god of light, Ormuzd, 




rebuilding the temple. (Gustave DorS.) 



(pp. 67.) 



68 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




ANCIENT PERSIAN COIN. 



and a spirit of darkness, Ahriman. Both have hosts of similar spirits under their 
control, who carry on perpetual war with each other, striving for dominion over man 

and the world. The god of light will finally conquer, 
evil will disappear, and the human race will enter into 
, blessedness. The Magi, a powerful body of priests, sym- 
bolized this doctrine in a solemn worship. The god of light 
was symbolized, and worshiped in the sun and in fire. The 
spirit of darkness was kept aloof by sacrifices and prayers, 
by absolutions and purifications, by resisting and destroying 
evil in the outer world, and in the human breast. 
§ 26. For a long time the Medes endured the dominion of foreign races, but 
they finally took courage and struggled heroically for freedom. Warlike kings soon 
succeeded in destroying this newly acquired freedom of the people, and established 
over them an unlimited rule. At the same time the'se kings subjugated the neigh- 
boring races, among them the kindred people of Persia, who for centuries had pas- 
tured their herds, hunted and fought, in the beautiful Farsistan, the land of horses. 
But this dominion was of short duration. Astyages, the last of the Median kings 
(Herodotus tells us), had a vision, which the soothsayers interpreted to mean that the 
.istuaoes ahout son of his daughter would rule over Media and Asia Minor. When 
b. c. 375. his daughter, who was married to a prince of the subject Persians, 
Cave birth to her son Cyrus, Astyages gave him to his courtier Harpagus, with the 

t jg=g ; commmand to put him to death, in order 
that the Persians might not acquire power 
over the Medes. Harpagus entrusted the 
murder to a shepherd, who ; instead of killing 
the child, brought him up as his own son. 
But the boy made known his royal nature 
even in his play, which caused him to be 
brought to the king, and to be recognized. 
Astyages, set at rest in his mind by the 
soothsayers, caused Cyrus to be educated 
according to his rank, and when he grew up, 
sent him to Persia to his parents. Here the 
thought seized him of delivering the brave 
but subject race from Median bondage, and 
of setting forth with the Persians to victory 
and conquest. His powerful mind, and his 
commanding nature, excited the wonder of 
the Persians, and they followed him eagerly; 
he attacked the Medes, and Harpagus com- 
mander of the royal army, because he 
had been shamefully treated by the king, deserted with his troops to Cyrus. 
cytus, Astyages, betrayed and conquered, abandoned the throne to his for- 

jb. c. ass-ass. tunate grandson, who became the founder of a universal kingdom, that 
embraced all the civilized countries of Asia. 

§ 27. About the same time Lydia, the capital of which was Sardis, was governed 




CYRUS THE GREAT. 




CBCESXJS ON THE FUNERAL PYRE. (H. Vogel.) 



(pp. 69.) 



70 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



by king Croesus, whose name has become proverbial, because of his exceeding riches. 
cyrus ami He was the friend and ally of Astyages, and was therefore attacked by 

criesus. Cyrus. Deceived by an ambiguous oracle, Croesus crossed the river 
Halys to attack the Persians, but suffered defeat and retreated in haste to his capital. 
b. c. r,4t>. Cyrus pursued him, conquered Sardis, and commanded that the 
captive King should be given to the flames. Croesus was already tied to the stake (so 
the story goes), when the recollection of the Athenian sage Solon saved him from de- 
struction. This great statesman had visited Sardis, and been welcomed by the king. 
Croesus led him proudly through his treasure vaults, and showed him all his riches ; 
and then asked him whom he counted the happiest of mortals. But Solon, instead of 
naming Croesus, named the Athenian Pallas, for he had sufficient property, handsome 
and well-behaved sons and grandsons, and had fallen in victorious battle against the 
enemies of his country, and had been buried by the Athenians, at the spot where he 
fell. When Croesus pressed him further, he named two lads, Cleobis and Biton, sons 
of a priestess in Argos. For he said, when the mother of these lads needed to go to 
the temple to a sacrifice, and the oxen were not at hand, the lads had yoked themselves 
to the wagon, and pulled it to the temple. The mother thereupon beseeching the gods 
to give her boys the best of all rewards, they fell asleep in the temple and never woke 
again. When Croesus expressed his displeasure that Solon did not count him as 
fortunate as a common citizen, the latter replied, '"'call no man fortunate till he dies ! ' 
These words came back to Croesus, first when his favorite son Attys was brought 
home dead from the hunting field, and now a second time, in his distress, and he cried 
" Oh, Solon, Solon ! " His outcry excited the curiosity of the Persian king, who asked 
for an explanation, and struck by the truth of Solon's words, he set Croesus at liberty, 
and held him afterward in high honor, consulting him in all his undertakings. 

§ 28. Cyrus conquered next, 
the Babylonian kingdom. The 
Babylonians were holding a great 
feast, and exulting in their invinci- 
bility, when the Persians cut through 
the channel of the Euphrates (the 
water of which they had diverted 
from its course), entered the city, 
slew the king Nabonetos (Belshaz- 
zar), in his palace, and conquered 

b. c. 538. the country. This 
brought Syria, Palestine and Phoeni- 
cia under the dominion of the Per- 
sians, and the captured Jews re- 
ceived from Koresh (Cyrus) " the 
anointed of Jehovah " permission to return home. " How art thou fallen from heaven, 
O Lucifer, son of the morning ! " cried at that time the voice of the prophet, exulting in 
the destruction of Babylon; "How art thou cut down to the ground, which didst 
weaken the nations ! " 

Shortly after this, Cyrus undertook a campaign against the Massagetae, a Nomad 
tribe near the Caspian Sea. By a stratagem he captured a great part of the hostile 




TOMB OF CYRUS. 




&1 

&; 



p 



15 

o 

a 
<! 
M 

o 

w 

s 

EH 



72 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



army, together with its leader, a son of the Queen Tomyris. The captured chief was 
so mortified that, even though Cyrus set him free, he put himself to death. The 
queen, his mother, gathered all her people about her, and thirsting for revenge, 
b. c. saa. attacked the Persians at the river Yaxartes. Tomyris was victorious. 
She destroyed Cyrus and nearly all his army. The head of the mighty Persian King 
was hewn from his shoulders, and plunged in a vessel filled with blood, the angry 
queen exclaiming, " Now take thy fill of blood, thou who in thy life time couldst 
never get enough ! " 




CAMBYSES KILLS THE SACRED BULL. {H. Vogel.) 

§ 29. Cambyses, the warlike and powerful son of Cyrus, extended the kingdom 
cambuses, by the conquest of Egypt. The unfortunate king Psammetichus was 
b. c. 52o-52s. taken prisoner, and compelled to behold his people outraged, and his 
children put to shame. Cambyses, embittered because the king of Egypt had once 
given him, not his own daughter, but the daughter of his predecessor for a wife, com- 
pelled the Princess and the noble virgins of Egypt to put on the garments of slaves, 



EASTERN RACES. 



73 



and to draw water. The Crown Prince and 2,000 3-oung Egyptians were put to death. 
All present except Psammetichus, at the sight of such misery, broke forth in lamenta- 
tion. But when one of his former companions passed by, and begged the warrior for 
an alms, Psammetichus, the wretched king, lifted up his voice and wept aloud. And 
when Cambyses asked him the reason, he answered : " The misery of my family is too 
great for tears, but this of my friend makes me weep." Psammetichus died a violent 
death. The Egyptian temples and the statues of their gods were desecrated, the 
sacred animals slaughtered, the treasures stolen, the people oppressed and scorned. 
But now the Persians suffered an evil fate. Two armies sent by Cambyses to conquer 
Ammonium, were lost in the deserts of Libya. This state had its chief center in the 
sanctuary and oracle of the ram-horned Zeus-Ammon, in the oasis Siwah; and, like the 
old priest-state Meroe, which was situated in Nubia, in the midst of a savage Negro 




THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS. 



population, was a colony of Thebes, the city of the Pharaohs. It was an enchanting 
island, in the midst of an endless desert, a green fruitful place, full of palm trees, 
about the clear-flowing fountain of the sun. Cambyses died, after a reign of seven 
years, from a wound inflicted upon himself, with his own sword. The Egyptians as- 
cribed his sudden death to the vengeance of the gods, for the desecration of their 
temples and their sanctuaries, especially for the slaughter of the sacred bull Apis, and 
for the ill-treatment of their priests. 

§ 30. Meanwhile a rebellion had broken out in Susa, as a result of 'which one 
of the Magi, a pretended brother of the king, Cambyses, took possession of the throne. 
This false Sinerdis was detected, after a few months, and put to death by seven noble 
Persians. Darius, who belonged to the royal race of Achfemenides, was called to the 
kingdom. The seven princes agreed (so the legend runs), that they would ride 
toward the rising run, and he should be king whose horse was first to neigh. Darius, 



74 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Darius Hystaspes, son of Hystaspes, when he thus curiously obtained the throne, com- 
jb. c. S21-48S. bined with an honorable descent, great sagacity, the firmness of a states- 
man, and the serious courage of a warrior. He was also a pious adherent of Zoroas- 
ter's religion ; yet not an intolerant fanatic like Cambj'ses. The inscriptions on the 
rocky wall of Bagistan record how Darius fought long and earnestly against re- 
bellious tribes, before he came into sure possession of his dominion, and before he 
could say " twenty provinces pay me tribute, and perform by day and by night whatever 
I command ! " He governed his kingdom by satraps, regulated the payment of taxes, 
and carried on great wars, though he was not always victorious. For he waged war 
upon the Nomads of the Steppes, lying between the lower Danube and the Dnieper ; 
people who called themselves Scolots, but were known to the Greeks as Scythians. 
As he approached, they withdrew, with their herds and their tents, and abandoned 
their barren fields to the enemy. The Persians soon came to the brink of destruction, 
for want of food, and, pursued by the Scythians, were compelled to make a difficult, 
and almost destructive, retreat across the Danube. 

§ 31. The simple manners and the war-like virtues of the Persians soon degen- 
erated. The splendid court, where crowds of courtiers and priestly counselors, of 
servants and satellites, consumed the marrow of the land, destroyed the well-being of 
the provinces. The royal table was provided with the most delicious meats and drinks, 
brought from the most distant regions ; a throng of intriguing women, who often re- 
ceived the revenues of whole cities and districts for their adornment, increased the 
extravagance and the luxury of the court. This was held in the winter time at the 
warmer Babylon, in spring at Susa, and in summer at the cool Ecbatana, a city shaded 
with trees and abundant in fountains. Numerous parks and orchards served for the 
pleasure of the Persian king, at these changing residences. The Satraps of the prov- 
inces imitated the luxury and the extravagance of the royal court, to the destruction 
of their lands, which were protected by no laws, and no established rights, against 
their caprice and despotism. Moreover this vast Persian kingdom was only a cluster 
of hetereogeneous elements, made up of people with all manner of customs and insti- 
tutions, and without inward unity or force of cohesive attraction. Even in the army 
the different tribes preserved their national costumes, weapons and modes of war. 
Science and literature were unknown to the Persians, but in architecture and sculp- 
ture they were not behind the other peoples of the Orient, as is shown by the colossal 
ruins of Persepolis, with their columns, their marble stairways and walls adorned with 
statues. 




AN EASTERN KHAN. 




flMMMlMMI^MMIMMMM 



B. THE GREEK WORLD. 

1 GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 32. 



THE GREEK MAINLAND. 



REECE forms the southern part of a 
large peninsula, which is in the north 

■ broad and coherent, in the south nar- 
row, irregular and broken by frequent 
bays and inlets. Many mountain 
ranges intersect it so that it consists 
of a multitude of small secluded and 
separate regions, especially favorable to 
the development of independent com- 
munities. Greece is divided into North 
Greece, Middle Greece, and the Pelopon- 
nesus. 



1. North Greece consists of the 
rugged mountain regions, Epirus and 
Thessaly. These are separated from 
each other from north to south by the 
wild, serrated, snow-clad, rocky range of the Pindus. Thessaly is a land of rich and 
fertile plains lying between the spurs of the Pindus, especially adapted to the breed- 
ing of horses. The vale of Tempe close to the many-peaked Olympus, the mountain 
of the Gods, was renowned in antiquity for its natural beauty. Larissa on the 
Peneus, Pharsalia with its battlefield were noteworthy cities. The GZta is the 
southern mountain chain ; between its base and the sea runs a narrow gorge, which 
is the only natural entrance from Thessaly to Middle Greece. This is the famous 
Thermopylae, the warm gateway, so called from the hot sulphur springs that gush from 
the mountain sides. 

2. Middle Greece or Hellas intersected by the arms of the Oeta consisted 
of eight small independent states. 

(75) 




MZ^&- 



76 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Attica, a hilly region rich in olives, figs, and honey with its capital, Athens 
(founded by Theseus who united several independent towns into a single community). 
Piraeus was the Athenian harbor, Eleusis the place of the mysteries and the worship 




ELEUSINIAN FEAST. (H. Vogel.) 

of Ceres, and Marathon its world famous battlefield. Opposite Athens lie the Islands 
-ZEgina and Salamis ; the former renowned for its early culture and its commerce, the 
latter for the sea-fight in the Persian war. Boeotia, with the famous Helicon, the home 
of the muses, situated in a region rich in springs and picturesque beauty, is a fertile 
country famous for its seven-gated city Thebes, for its heroic Platsea and for the 
famous battlefields Leuctra and Cbreronea. Phocis, with the famed Parnassus, a steep 
craggy mountain with majestic natural surroundings. At the foot of the mountain 
lay the holy city Delphi. This was supposed to be the centre (or the navel) of the 
world; here was the oracle of Apollo and here were numerous splendid buildings, and 
other works of art. The alternation of rocks, forests, grottos, brooks, of the barren 
mountain with the fruitful plains, made a powerful impression and filled the beholder 
with a feeling of religious awe. Doris and Locris have no historical value ; JEtolia 
and Acamania also had little relation to Greek life. 

3. Peloponnesus (now Morea) is united to Hellas by a small and craggy isth- 
mus. This peninsula, bounded by the sea on four sides, is all mountain land. Rugged 
Arcadia, with charming valleys, and fertile pastures was the home of a sturdy race of 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



77 



ill 






» 




PLUTO. 



herdsmen. Mantinea, Tegea and Megalopolis, planned by Epaminondas, were its 
principal cities. Aohaia lay to the north of it on the Corinthian Gulf ; its twelve cities 
united in the third century, B. C, to form the famous Achaian League. To this be- 
longed also Sicyon and the rich and beautiful Corinth. Argolis was in the east, a 

rocky land with a coast abounding in bays. Argos, its 
capital, is famous as the home of Agamemnon ; M}'cense 
and Tirynth for the ruins of the Cyclopean walls of the 
'' Lion Gate." Laconia or Lacedcemon lay south of Ar- 
golis; a rugged country with the Taygetus mountains 
and only a few fertile stretches of land in the valley of 
the Eurotas ; not far away was the world-famous Sparta, 
a union of separate districts or enclosures which at one 
time numbered 60,000 inhabitants. Messene, the land of 
olive-trees, extended from Lacedsemon to the sea. Its 
ancient rocky capital Ithome, served in after years as the 
fortress of the new metropolis Messene, built at the sug- 
gestion of Epaminondas. Pylos was a Messenian city by 
the sea. Mia lay to the north ; a fertile country with the 
plains and covered grove of Olympia, so renowned for the 
Olympic games and for its glorious temples and works of art. Because of these games 
Elis stood under the sheltering peace of the gods and in centuries experienced no war. 

b. The Greek Islands. 

§ 33. Westward and eastward of Greece lie 
a multitude of large and little islands, which are 
very important in Greek history. 

They were almost 
iall distinguished for 

itheir products, wine, 

oil, and the fruits of 

the south ; they car- 
dldrachm op Rhodes. : v i ei \ 011 a large trade 

and early attained high culture. The most im- 
portant are : in the west, Corcyra (now Corfu) 
famous once for its wealth and progress and its j 
Corinthian colony, and stony Ithaca, the home of I 
Odysseus. In the southern Mediterranean, the 
great island Crete renowned for its laws, its cul- 
ture and its pirates. A hundred cities, says Ho- 
mer, are probably in Crete. In Cyprus and Cy- 
thera the Phoenicians erected factories and work- 
shops for dyed fabrics and castings, and worshiped 
their goddess, whom the Greeks called Aphrodite, 
and the Romans Venus, with obscene rites. They settled Rhodes also, an island rich 
in ores; their settlements the Greeks acquired, and here at the entrance of the harbor 
was erected the colossal bronze statue of the God of the Sun. The Archipelago of 





JUPITER. 



78 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




the JEge&n sea abounded in islands large and small. JEubcea (Negroponte) on which 
were the cities Eretria and Chalcis, was opposite the east coast of Hellas. Further east 

are Lemnos, Thasos, Imbros and Samothrace, ancient and 
famous seats of religious mysteries. Near the east coast 
of Peloponnesus are the Cyclades or circle islands. Delos 
the sacred birth place of Apollo and Artemis (Diana) 
was the centre of these. Paros, was renowned for it? 
marble, Naxos, for its wine. Off the coast of Asia Minor 
are, Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Coos, important for their wealth, 
their commerce, their culture as well as their size and fer- 
tility ; and Patmos, noteworthy for its traditional con- 
nection with the Evangelist John. 

2. Greek Religious Life. 

§ 34. Polytheism was nowhere so cheerful as among 
the Greeks, whose legends of the gods (mj'ths, whence 
mythology) were in later times adopted by the Romans 
and blended with the Old-Italian religious system. The 
Greeks pictured the beginning of the universe as a crude 
and formless mass. Chaos, out of which emerged the 
wide breasted Earth, the nether world (Tartarus), Night, 



juno (hera). {Ludovisi.) 

which gave birth to the Light, and 
the creative Eros ; these were all 
self-subsistent deities. The Earth 
gave birth to the Sky and the Sea, 
and then produced a progeny of su- 
perhuman size and power, the Ti- 
tans, who governed all things until a 
more intellectual race under the rule 
of Zeus (Jupiter) the God of the Sky 
conquered the heaven, assailing Ti- 
tans and Giants and burying them in 
the abysses of the earth. Having 
tamed the savage forces of nature and 
the violence of the elements, Zeus es- 
tablished his throne upon Olympus, 
while Pluto (called also Hades) ruled 
the gloomy realms of Tartarus, and 
Poseidon, (Neptune) with his trident 
governed the stormy Sea. With 
them were worshiped Hera (or Juno) 
the queen of heaven, the Virgin Pal- 
las Athene (Minerva) who with helm 




DIANA ARTEMIS. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



79 



and shield appears the protectress of all intellectual pursuits and useful inventions, 
the glorious Apollo, God of Light, who as leader of the nine muses watches over 




SACRIFICING TO THE LARES AND PENATES. (27. Vogel.) 



the fine arts, Artemis his sister (Diana) goddess of the moon and the chase, Aphrodite 
(Venus) the charming goddess of love, with her youthful son Eros (Amor, Cupid) 
and her companions, the 
three graces. Forest and 
mountains, fields and 
meadows, streams and 
lakes were alive with 
countless divine beings 
. (Nymphs, Nereids, Tri- 
tons, the Hours, the god- 
desses of the seasons, 
and the Sirens with their 
bewitching songs.) 
These were corporeal 
forms of the mighty ac- 
tivities of nature and often 




RELIEF FROM GREEK ALTAR. 



interfered in human destiny. A race of heroes derived 



80 



THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 




from Zeus was the connecting link between Gods and men; in like manner the gap 
between man and the other animals was filled up with Satyrs, Centaurs, Fauns, which 
possessed the attributes of man and beast commingled. From his birth-hour every 

human being was believed to 
be accompanied by his guar- 
dian and guiding genius 
(Daemon) who influenced his 
desires and his actions, with- 
out however destroying the 
freedom of his will. The 
hearthstone was the seat of 
Hestia (Vesta) and of the 
house and family gods (Lares, 
Penates); these warded off 
evil from the household, while 
every important event was 
under the watch-care of a par- 
ticular divinity. Christians 
I teach that the earthy life is 

• a time of trial and transition 
1 to a nobler existence, but 
H the Greeks rejoiced in the 

• pleasures of this earth and 
shuddered to think of the 
shadowy existence of the 
nether world. Like phan- 
toms, souls descended into 
Hades, "mere clouds and 
glimmerings of life.'' Yet 

they believed in future rewards and penalties and in eternal life. The departed were 
conducted by Hermes (Mercury) to the judges of the nether world, and as these de- 
creed were they appointed to the abode of the righteous (Elysium, the blessed islands) 
or to the gloom\ T region of damnation (Tartarus, Orcus). To the souls or shadows 
(Manes) of the dead, the surviving relatives and friends brought many sacrifices to 
offer at their graves. 

Dionysius (Bacchus) was a very ancient deity of profound, mystic significance 
His worship originated in Bceotia, but his rites spread through Lower Italy, the islands 
of the ,/Egean Sea and Asia. He signifies the force of nature which ripens the vine and 
gives the intoxicating power to the grape. He is generally considered as the God of_ 
Winter, or the representation of the abundance of Nature given in wine. The worship 
of Dionysius gave rise to many wild and noisy festivals (Bacchanalia). In Delphi 
the rites were celebrated in winter ; in them the women assembled as Bacchse and 
rioted around Parnassus. The customary processions and mummeries of the Feast of 
Vintage were the origin of the dramatic plays, tragedies and comedies. 

This world of Gods, so rich in beauty and in freedom is represented in the finest 
productions of Greek art and poetry. 



\ 



--, 




HERMES OF PRAXITELES. 



THE GREEK WORLD 
I. GREECE BEFORE THE PERSIAN WARS. 

1. THE TIME OF THE TROJAN WAR. 



HE Pelasgi are said to be the 
oldest inhabitants of Greece. 
They were an agricultural 
peaceable people with a re- 
ligion based upon the worship 
of nature, in which the earth- 
mother Demeter (Ceres), the 
God of Vegetation and of wine, Dionysos (Bacchus) 
and the oracle-giving nature-God Zeus were 
worshiped splendidly in the forest sanctuary at 

Dodona in Epirus. This 



81 





religion of nature- 



-as 



BACCHUS. 



well as the ruins of an- 
cient buildings, cities, 
treasure-houses, royal 
castles, (particularly the 
indestructible cyclopean 
walls in the Peloponne- 
sus consisting of poly- 
gonal stone masses piled 
up and held together 
without cement) indi- 
cate that the Pelasgi 
^resembled the Orientals 
in their culture and 
religious institutions, 
and that there used to 
be in very early times intercourse between Greece 
and Asia and Egypt. This view is confirmed by 
the legends of oriental colonists who in hoary 
antiquity came to Greece and scattered the seeds 
of culture. For example the Egyptian Cecrops 
in Attica (Athens) the Phoenician Cadmus in 
Boeotia (Thebes) the Phrygian Pelops in the 
Peninsula that bears his name, (Pelop's island) 
Peloponnesus. 

§ 36. The Pelasgi were forced out or sub- 
jugated by the courageous Hellenes who gradually 
conquered all Greece. These were of the same 
family with the Pelasgi and consisted of three 
branches : The Dorians (in Peloponnesus), the 




82 



THE ANCIENT AVORLD. 



Ionians (in Attica ana the islands) and the JEolians (in Bceotia and elsewhere). 
They distinguished themselves early by their deeds of war, their building of cities, 
and planting of colonies. The poetic legends of the Twelve Labors of Hercules 
(Herakles), of the voyage of the first Athenian hero Theseus, to Crete the mistress of 
the sea, where, with the help of the princess Ariadne, he found his way to the man- 
devouring Minotaur and delivered Athens from her shameful tribute, and of the 
daring voyage of the Argonauts, are echoes of the earliest achievements of Hellenic 
history. The voyage of the Argonauts, was undertaken by the Thessalian Jason, 

along with the most famous heroes of his 
time, Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux 
of Lacedsernon, and Orpheus, the Thracian 
singer. These started on the ship Argo for 
the unknown land of the sun (in later times 
said to be Colchis on the Black Sea) in order 
to fetch the golden fleece, which long years 
before had been hung up there by the 
Thessalian prince Phrixus, and which was 
guarded by a sleepless dragon. Phrixus and 
his sister Helle had a wicked stepmother, 
who sought the life of both children. Sud- 
denly appeared to them, their deceased 
mother, the cloud-goddess Nephele, who gave 
them the wonderful ram, to carry them across 
the sea. Helle fell off at the Hellespont and 
drowned. But Phrixus reached the main- 
land, sacrificed the ram and spent his life in 
the land of the Sun. This precious fleece 
was now to be carried to Thessaly. After a 
toilsome voyage Jason with his comrades 
reached the golden Colchis and with the 
help of the sorceress Medea, the princess of 
the land, accomplished his undertaking and 
returned with his booty. But on their re- 
turn voyage through the ocean and the mys- 
terious river Eridanus the Argonauts had 
wonderful adventures and hair-breadth 
escapes. This narrative indicates early com- 
mercial relations of the ^Eolian race with 
the distant coast of Asia. The further the Greek sailors voyaged, the richer became 
the legend, the farther east receded the goal of the Argonaut crew. Another legend 
" the War of the Seven against Thebes " contains quite probably also a basis of his- 
toric happenings. 

§ 37. The most important event of the Greek heroic epoch is the celebrated Trojan 

n. c. im4-ii»8. War. In Ilium or Troy, on the northwest coast of Asia Minor, King 

Priam ruled over a rich and cultured people. His youngest son Paris carried off the 

beautiful Helen, wife of the Lacedamonian king Menelaus, who had received him hospita- 







THE FARNESE HERCULES. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



33 



< 



a 
o 






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1-5 

o 

H 

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a 

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bly in his palace rich in silver and in gold. The injured husband gathered the Grecian 
princes for a war of revenge, which was conducted by his brother Agamemnon of 
Mycenae, with the help of the most renowned heroes of Greece. Achilles and his friend 
Patroclus from Thessaly ; the cunning Odysseus (Ulysses) from the island Ithaca ; 
Diomedes from Argos ; the aged Nestor from Pylos ; Ajax and others are named in 
the legend as the chief participants in the war and the bravest chieftains of the 

Greeks. Aulis, where Aga- 
memnon sacrificed his daugh- 
ter Iphigenia to Artemis 
(Diana), was the starting 
point of the great fleet that 
sailed away to the coast of 
Asia. But the Trojans proved 
to be such brave antagonists, 
especially Hector, the son of 
Priam, and the Trojan prince 
.ZEneas, that only after ten 
years of fighting, in which 
the gods themselves took 
part, could the city be taken 
and destro3 r ed ; and then 
only through the cunning 
trick of Odysseus (a wooden 
horse filled with armed men). 
Priam and most of the Tro- 
jans lost their lives in the 
defence or in the destruction 
of the city ; the few survivors 
were carried into slavery. 
But the victors also suffered 
many misfortunes. Achilles, 
Patroclus and others found 
in Ilium an early grave. 
Agamemnon after a weari- 
some voyage home was mur- 
dered at the instigation of his 
faithless wife Clytemnestra, 
and Odysseus wandered, 
driven by storms, for ten 
3'ears, along inhospitable 
shores, around islands and on 
the sea, before he was permitted to see his faithful wife Penelope, and his son Tele- 
machus, and to clear his house of the insolent wooers who sought the hand of his wife 
and meanwhile consumed his property. 

§ 38. Homer. The Trojan War is of more importance to poetry and art than 
to history, since the combats of the heroes, and their adventures and wanderings on 







84 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



their return home, formed two legendary cycles, from which the materials of heroic or 
epic poetry have usually been selected. 

The first and greatest poet to combine these old myths into an immortal work, 

Home,-, about was Honiei', according to tradition, a blind singer, whose life is so ob- 

b. v. ».»«. scured that, even in antiquity, seven cities strove for the honor of 

his birth-place. The two great poems ascribed to him, are the Iliad, in which the 

" Wrath of Achilles " or the battles before Troy, during fifty-one or fifty-three days 




IPHIGENIA LED TO DIANA'S ALTAR AS A SACRIFICE. 

of the last year of the war, are portrayed ; and the Odyssej', in which are related the 
fates and adventures of Odysseus, and his companions, in the western sea and about 
Sicily. And even a burlesque epic, in which the battles of mice and frogs were rep- 
resented in the same fashion, as the battles of the Achaians and the Trojans, was fre- 
quently ascribed, in ancient times, to the Ionic bard, although written four centuries 
later. In Homer's time, writing was unknown in Greece. These poems, therefore, 
were handed down by itinerant singers (Rhapsotlists) who learned fragments of them 
by heart, and recited them to a listening throng. And even later, after these frag- 



86 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




homer. (Sans Souci, Potsdam.) 



ments had been collected and written down, the young men of Greece committed 
them to memory as an inspiration to patriotism, to religious sentiment and knowledge, 
and to a love of beauty. Wandering poets called Homerides recited parts of these 
poems at the great festivals of the Greeks, introducing them with invocations to their 

gods, with lyric song, accompanied by music (Homeric 
nesio<i, about Hymns_). Hesiod was the head of an 
b. c. sso. ^olian school of poets who flourished in 
Boeotia. He composed an epic poem upon the creation 
of the world, and the origin and fate of the Greek gods; 
and a didactic poem, " Works and Days," a golden treas- 
ury for the sensible citizen, full of maxims for the farm 
and for navigation, for home and civil life. The verse 
used by Homer was the hexameter, which continued to 
be the verse for epic poetry. 

§ 39. Soon after the Trojan War, great changes and 
revolutions took place in Greece. Some of the Hellenic 
tribes pushed the earlier inhabitants from their settle- 
ments. These threw themselves upon the others, until 
at last, the weaker tribe that escaped slavery determined 
to emigrate, and to found plantations on the opposite 
b. c. 1104. coast. The most successful of these emi- 
'grations was that of the Dorians into the Peloponnesus, 
under the leadership of the descendants of Hercules. This changed entirely the 
character of the Peloponnesus, as the control of the peninsula passed away 
from the iEolian and Aehaian population into the hands of the rude Dorians. 
Only the northern district, Achaia, and the middle mountain region, Arcadia, 

&%h KeeN ajb bkc\kc yccoaomcon e 1 c Y NM>I 

THCIN A^YT(JDMe , T'\ ,r rOYTrOCXpe'+M^YTON 
MTOTHCKOTTHCTOVX-OAAWOrO MOPKXI 
TCDN KXC \ KG 03 NTU3N MeTTCYTOY^ ICTTH N 
KOlA.A^A^HNCXVH"rOYT"OI-|NTOTTeAIOKJ 

C^^HM61HNerK6NV]>TOYCKXIOINONH N 

Ae i epe yctto y ©Y TO y y*4" ic t°Y uxte \koth 

CeNTONABpAh KMeiTTeN* eYAOPHMeNOC 

EARLY GREEK WRITING. 

retained their old inhabitants. The Dorians gradually conquered Argolis, La- 
conica, Messene, Sicyon, Corinth, and Megara. They even invaded Attica, ana 
threatened Athens ; but were compelled to retreat, by the bravery and sacrificial 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



87 



cotrus, death of the Athenian king, Codrus. An oracle had declared that 
b. c. ions. victory would fall to the side whose king was slain. The Dorians for- 
bade their warriors to attack Codrus. But the Athenian king, who had also heard 
the oracle, exchanged his royal garment for a shepherd's dress, and glided unrecog- 
nized into the enemy's camp, where he immediately provoked a conflict, and found 
the death that he sought. The Dorians, despairing of victory, at once abandoned 
Athens, and satisfied themselves with Megara. The Athenians 
declared that no one was worthy to wear the crown, after such a 
kingly hero, and accordingly abolished the royal dignity. The 
former inhabitants of the Peloponnesus had various fortunes. The 
bravest and strongest of them founded the Ionic colonies on the 
west coast of Asia Minor, and on the islands Chios, Lesbos and 
Samos. These were soon s.o renowned for the fertility of their 
soil, for their commerce, their industry, and their skill in naviga- 
tion ; for their prosperity and their culture, that they even eclipsed the mother 
country. Others remained at home and submitted voluntarily to the Dorians, 
paying them tribute and excluded from every share in the government of the state, 
although they were permitted to retain their personal freedom and their property. 
And a third class were compelled to submit by force of arms, and reduced to serfdom 
and slavery. The former were called, in Laconica, Period (countrymen, or Laeede- 




COIN OF EPHESUS. 




the temple of diana at ephesl's. {Restored.) 

monians), to distinguish them from the Spartans. The latter were called Helots. In 
the other states, in Argos, Corinth and Sicyon, the noble families of the Achaians 
were admitted to equal political rights with the Dorians. 

S 40. Colonies. The Ionian colonies formed, after a time, a confederacy of twelve 
cities ; of which the most important were Miletus, Ephesus, with the famous temple 
of Artemis (Diana), Phocfea, Colophon, and the iEolian Smyrna. They had repre- 
sentative councils, and festival assemblies, at the temple of Poseidon, on the promon- 



88 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



tory of Mycale. The twelve ^Eolian cities, north of Ionia, and the six Dorian cities 
to the south, together with the island Rhodes, had similar religious communities, and 
annual meetings, but each city was an independent community, with its own laws and 
magistracy. 

Halicarnassus, the birth-place of the historian Herodotus, was the most important 
city planted by the Dorians. In the course of time, the colonies and the mother 
country sent emigrants to the shores of the Hellespont, and of Propontis (Sea of 
Marmora), and of the Euxiue (the Black Sea). The most important of these were 
Cyzicus, Byzantium (Constantinople), at the golden horn, Sinope, and Cerasus the 
land of cherries. There were flourishing colonies, also, on the coast of Thrace and 
Macedonia, Amphipolis, Olynthia, Abdera. And the number of Greek settlements in 
Lower Italy was so great that the inhabitants spoke Greek, and the whole country was 




THE PYTHIA ON THE TUlluD. 



called Magna Grsecia. Among these the most famous were the Spartan trading city 
Tarentum, the strong Crotona, and the ancient Cumae, the mother city of Naples. 
The charming island of Sicily belonged, for the most part, to the Greeks, who founded 
there, many rich- cities, of which the greatest, most powerful, and most cultivated, was 
the commercial city of Syracuse, a Corinthian settlement. Opposite Rhegium, the 
city of Messina was founded, at the foot of Mt. .(Etna. The Ionian cities of Catena, 
Gela, and Agrigentum, were also Greek. Cyrene rivaled Carthage on the North coast 
of Africa, and Massilia, in South Gaul, was a nursery of culture, and a model of civil 
order, for the rough tribes of the vicinity. All these cities carried on a great com- 
merce, from the products of their land, and the fabrics of their art. The surrounding 
country was beautifully eulfcivated, and adorned for miles with villas and with parks. 
They exercised beneficial influence upon the conduct and culture of the natives, but 



THE GREEK ^ r ORLD. 



89 



gradually degenerated, because their great wealth and culture developed luxury, 
sensuality and sloth. The colonies maintained friendly relations with the mother 
state, by which they were planted, but were free and independent : they retained the 
manners, ordinances and religious usages of their forefathers, and reverenced them 
witli filial piety. 

2 The Time of the Law-Giveks and Sages. 

a. Hellenic Life. 

% 41. Greece never formed a single state, but was divided into a multitude of 
independent communities. From time to time the mightiest of these obtained the over- 




OLYMPIAN GAMES. 



lordship (Hegemony). For instance Sparta, Athens, Thebes. But language, man- 
ners, and religious institutions united all the Greek tribes into one people. They 
called themselves Hellenes, and all other races Barbarians. They were a talented 
people, capable of great development, remarkable for their beauty of face and of form, 
and they reached a height of culture to which no other people has yet attained. Their 
love of freedom, and their manly energy, led them to found many independent com- 
munities, to which they were attached with devoted patriotism, and which they de- 
fended with their heart's blood, until party spirit strangled their nobler feelings and 
their love of unity. Activity and industry developed a universal prosperity ; and a 
beautiful country, under a cneerful sky, with a healthy, happy climate, filled them 



90 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



with the love of life, and an indestructible vivacity. They needed little, and their 
fertile soil, and favorably situated land, gave it to them without great effort; they had 
few cares and sorrows, and every free man had leisure enough for intellectual enjoy- 
ments, for poetry, art, and science. The ordina^ employments, required by the neces- 
sities of life, were avoided by the Greeks, as fit only for slaves and strangers. Their 
notions of rights were exceedingly strict ; according to these, only the citizen of the 
state could share in the protection of the laws, and exile was regarded by them as a 
punishment equal to death. Yet their religious maxims awakened and nourished in 
them the feelings of fraternity and humanity. The sacred bond of hospitality united 
cities, families, and individuals. Pious awe protected the suppliant, when he was 
oppressed by a fatal consciousness of guilt. The herald was looked upon as holy and 
inviolate, even in the midst of battle. In Athens there was an altar in the market 
place, sacred to Sympatlvy ; and she had a home also in the hearts of the people. 

§ 42. Certain institutions connected with religion were common to all, or to 

several Greek tribes. The 
most important of these was 
the Amphictyonic council, 
or temple-union ; a court of 
arbitration composed of dele- 
gates from twelve Greek 
states, whose duty it was to 
protect the national sanctu- 
ary in Delphi, and to prevent 
the wars between the differ- 
ent states from becoming too 
cruel and destructive. It 
was a union of cities and of 
states, upon a religious foun- 
dation, the like of which 
existed also in other parts of 
the Greek world. Next came 
the Delphic oracle, with its 
rich temple. This was a 
community of priests, which 
restrained violence, by the 
power of humanity, and brought all the activities of public life under the influence of 
religion and morality. In every important undertaking, especially at the planting of 
new colonies, the Delphic Apollo was consulted. The ambassadors first sacrificed at 
the navel stone, after which the laurel-crowned priestess Pythia ascended the golden 
tripod, placed above the abyss in the dark chamber of the temple. The vapor that 
ascended soon wrought her into ecstacy, during which she uttered words that were 
written down and handed to the ambassadors, for their interpretation. These oracles 
were obscure, and frequently ambiguous and enigmatical. The temple at Delphi 
possessed great estates; numerous tenants payed tribute to the priests, who were also 
enriched b\ r sacrificial offerings, and votive gifts. The third bond that held together 
the Greek states and tribes were the games, musical and athletic contests, that took 




>t.Tl^SSt\wVi. 



THE WRESTLERS. (FlorenZ.) 




herodotus keading his HISTORY. (H. Leutemann.) (pp. 91.) 



92 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



place periodically at famous sanctuaries, in connection with sacrificial service. The 
Pythian games were dedicated to Apollo, and took place at Delphi : the Isthmian 
games to Poseidon, in the. pine forests of the Isthmus : the Nemean were dedicated to 
Zeus, and took place at Nemea near the Peloponnesian city Cleonae. But the 
Olympian games were the most famous of all. These took place every four years, in 
the plains of Olympia in Elis, and during their continuance, in the sacred months of 
the Summer time, there reigned " the peace of the gods." They consisted especially 
in running, wrestling, fighting, throwing the diskos or spear, and in chariot racing. 
The olive branch which was given to the victor, was not only an honor for the recip- 
ient, but for his family and his native city. The works of artists, poets, and authors 
were first published at these national festivals. It is related that Herodotus, the father 
of history, read parts of his work at a great sacrificial celebration, and inspired the 
greatest of all historians, Thucydides, to a glorious emulation. 

The temple of Olympian Zeus, and the 
colossal statue of the king of the gods, both 
works of the Athenian artist Phidias, belong 
to the most wonderful achievements of 
Greek art. Zeus is represented in a sitting 
posture, and the statue was beautiful with 
gold and ivory. A victory in an Olympic 
game was the greatest distinction in all 
Greece. The returning victor was brought 
home in a festal procession, and conducted 
to the temple of the protecting deity amid 
the songs of victory, which were composed 
by the best known poets, like Simonides 
and Pindar. And in the temple the happy 
event was celebrated with a thank offering, 
and a jo}-ful banquet. The Greek calendar 
was reckoned by Olympiads, and thus we 
discover that 776 B. C, marks the beginnings 
of the Olympic festivals and games. 

OLYMPIAN VICTOR, PRIEST AND KING. •> l S 

b. Lycurgus, Law-Giver of the Spartans (about B. C. 884). 

§ 43. The manners of the Dorians gradually degenerated in their new home. An 
unwarlike spirit threatened to prevail, and the hatred between victors and vanquished 
troubled their peace, and brought confusion into their state. This induced a patriotic 
s.c.sse. Spartan of royal blood, Lycurgus, to restore and reestablish the old 
Doric maxims, and thereby to pacify his own people, and at the same time to make 
them superior to the other states. He made a journey therefore to the island 
Crete, distinguished for its good laws. For the Doric inhabitants of the island had 
preserved, their original customs and institutions. After making himself acquainted 
with the state of things among the Cretans, he returned to Sparta and established the 
remarkable constitution and manner of life which in the course of time assumed the 
following form. 




THE GREEK WORLD. 



93 



a. The Constitution of the State. 

All authority was in the hands of the Dorians, who devoted themselves exclusively 
to the use of arms, to war and to governing the state. 

In the popular assemblies they chose the council of the ancients (Gerousia), who 
were charged with the executive and the judicial authority, and also the five Ephors, 
who at first watched over the order of the city, but subsequently had the supervision 
of public life, and the conduct of officers, and acquired such power that they even 
called the kings to account. The Council of Ancients consisted of twenty-eight cit- 
izens, who must be at least sixty years old. This was presided over by two Spartan 
kings, who belonged to the family of, the Heraclidte and received their dignity by 
inheritance. They possessed less power than honor at home, but in war were always 
leaders, and unlimited in their authority. This dual monarchy suggests the inference 
that the old Achaian inhabitants united with the newly arrived Dorians in a common 
government. The whole constitution was 
based upon an equality of property. All 
the land of Laconica was divided, so that 
the nine thousand Spartan familes received 
nine thousand indivisible estates or farms, 
which passed always to the oldest son. 
The thirty thousand families of Periceci 
were provided likewise with estates of smaller 
extent. The Helots, however, had no land- 
ed property. They must till the land of the 
Dorians as serfs, and deliver to their mas- 
ters a fixed portion of the crop in grain, 
wine, oil and the like. Savage and defiant 
as they were, the Helots bore the yoke of 
slavery with great repugnance, and were 
always ready to rebel against their lords. 
Hence it was permitted to the Spartan 
youth, in order that they might acquire 
cunning and skill, and contribute to the 
safety of the land, to murder any Helots 
suspected of rebellious purposes, thus pre 
venting their increasing number from becoming dangerous. In threatening times 
the Helots were impressed into military service and, if they distinguished themselves, 
rewarded with a limited right of citizenship. 

b. Manner of Life. 

In order that the Dorians might preserve the rights that they acquired at birth, 
the state took charge of the physical and intellectual education of the young. Weak 
or crippled children were exposed, immediately after birth, in a ravine of the Taygetus 
(which means probably that they were abandoned to the Periceci). The healthy chil- 
dren were taken from home, when they reached their sixth year, to be educated by the 
state. The body was trained to great endurance, and the mind to a belief in Spartan 
law and Spartan greatness. The laws and moral maxims of the state were learned 




HELOTS. 



94 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



by heart, and gymnastic exercises were constantly enforced. The Spartan was no less 
famous for his cunning and astuteness than for the pithy brevity of his speech, which 
was distinguished by the word "Laconic." Bat his feelings and imagination were not 
excited. Science and eloquence were neither treasured or encouraged ; but the seri- 
ous Doric poetry, united with the dance, and with music, served to awaken and to 
keep alive the love of country and the love of war. Even Doric art, especially 
architecture, was distinguished for its energy and majestic simplicity, rather than for 

the beauty and the grace that marked the 
Ionic buildings. The men were divided, 
according to their age, into table companies 
(Syssitia) ; as a rule fifteen united volun- 
tarily at a single table. Their meals were 
extremely simple, and each of the company 
contributed to the expense ; but the royal 
table was supported by the state. The so- 
called black blood soup, and a beaker of wine, 
made up the dinner ; for dessert they had 
cheese, figs, and olives. The king sat at the 
head of the table and received a double por- 
tion, so that he might entertain a guest. 
Luxury of every sort was avoided Their 
houses were rude and without comfort, and 
only the ax and the saw were used in their 
construction. Money coined of precious 
metal was excluded from the state, so that 
no one should have the means wherewith to 
purchase unnecessary pleasures ; rough iron 
coins served in daily life as a medium of 
exchange. And in order that no Spartan 
should accustom himself to foreign delights, 
they were forbidden to travel, and foreigners 
were not permitted to stay any length of 
time in Sparta. Hunting and the exercise 
of arms were the chief employments of the 
adult Spartan. The cultivation of the .soil 
was given over to the Helots ; trade and 
industry to the Periceci. The entire life of 
the Spartan was directed to war. In the 
city, he lived as in camp, and the time of 
war was for him a time of festival and joy. Clad in their purple mantles, the long- 
haired Spartans marched to the field, to the sound of the flute, and adorned them- 
selves before the battle as though going to a festival. The strength of their army 
was in their heavy-armed infantry (Hoplites), which consisted of many subdivisions ; 
and could execute, without confusion, many movements and manouvers. The mem- 
bers of the same table stood beside each other in battle, united in death as in life. 
The Spartan ranks never yielded or wavered ; the Spartan conquered or he fell 




ANCIENT LAW SCROLL. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



95 



with his face to the foe. Strict obedience, and the subordination of the younger to 
the elder, was the soul of the military education and institutions of Sparta. Indeed 
the city itself was a temple of honor for old age. 

§ 44. These laws, termed " rhetria " by their author, were confirmed by the Delphic 
oracle. Thereupon, Lycurgus made the Spartans swear that they would alter nothing 
in them, until he returned from the journey that he was about to make. He then 
traveled to Crete and never returned. The consequences of his laws appeared imme- 
diately. The disciplined Spartans overcame, not only their neighbors the Messenians, 
with whom they had two long wars, but they acquired, in a short time, the overlord- 
mrst xessenian ship of the whole Peloponnesus. They forced the Messenians to pay 
war, jb. c. tribute, after they had reduced their strong castle Ithome, and after 
730-no. the Messenian hero Aristodemus had, in his despair, stabbed himself 




SOLON DICTATING HIS LAWS. (H. Vogel.) 

at the grave of the daughter, whom he had sacrificed in vain to the gods. But the 
secona Messenian severity and the scorn of the Spartans soon provoked the Messenians 
way, b. c. to a second war. Aristomenes their leader by his bravery and his 
6?o-63o. cunning was at first successful, and the Spartans sued for peace. But 
the Dorian poet, Tyrtaeus, whom they brought from Athens, freed them from their 
despondency ; with his war songs he kindled afresh their national pride, their sense of 
honor and their manhood, and with his ordinances he renewed their discipline and their 
reverence for the old Doric maxims and authority. The Spartans renewed the fight, 
overcame their enemy, taking Aristomenes prisoner. A part of the Messenians emi- 



96 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



grated to the island of Sicily, the others were reduced to slavery. Sparta now pos- 
sessed control of the peninsula, and only once was their overlordship threatened. 
King Phido, of Argos, of the eighth, or possibly of the seventh century before Christ, 
united the northeast states of the Peloponnesus and the island iEgina, and arrayed 
them as a rival against the city on the Eurotas river. 

e. Solon the Lawgiver of the Athenians. (600 B. (7.) 

§ -±5. After the glorious death of Codrus, the royal dignity was abolished and an 

archon appointed, who performed the royal functions during his life-time, but without 

the royal title and rank. He was chosen by the chiefs of the noble families (Eupatridaj), 

b. c. toes. who constituted his council of state. At first onty members of the 

family of Codrus were eligible to this office, but gradually Athens became an aristo- 

b. c. 75-t. cratic community, in which the office of archon was opened to all of 

the noble families, the term of service being fixed at ten y^ears. And finally nine arch- 

b. c. ess. ons were chosen annually, in order that as many as possible might share 

in the honor. These archons presided over the government of the city, the religious 

affairs, the army and navy, 
the making of laws, and the 
administration of justice. 
The nobility having acquired 
all the power of the state, 
excluded the common citizens 
(Demos), from all participa- 
tion in executive or judicial 
functions ; and, as the laws 
were unwritten, there was no 
lack of caprice, partiality, 
and injustice. This induced 
the citizens in their assembly 
to demand a written code of 
laws : the nobility refused 
for a long time to accede to the desires of the people, but when finally compelled to 
abandon their opposition, they entrusted one of their number, the severe Draco, with 
Draco, About the composition of the laws; and he made them so severe that they 
b. c. eae. were said to be written in blood. Every offence was punished with 
death ; extenuating circumstances were not considered ; fear and terror seemed to him 
the only r means of improvement and of obedience. But the discontented people were 
not to be brought again into bondage. Bitter struggles ensued ; and party feeling 
became so strong that the state was brought to the verge of destruction. At this 
soion. jb. c. sa ■*. juncture Solon, one of the seven wise men, who was greatly revered as 
a poet and the friend of the people, became the savior of his country. He divided the 
Attic people, according to the income of their land, into four classes, and framed a 
new republican constitution, according to which the assembly of the people possessed 
the supreme authority, the power to pass laws, to choose magistrates and judges, and 
to name the council of four hundred. But that the nobility might not forfeit their 
power entirely, certain privileges were accorded to them and to land-owners of the 




AREOPAGUS. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



97 



first class. They alone could be elected archons, and these archons, if they performed 
the duties of their office satisfactorily, constituted the court of Areopagus, which Solon 
made the guardian of the laws, of the constitution, and of the public morals. This 
council, which held its session on Mars Hill, consisted of the most important citizens: 
it supervised the education of the young and the conduct of the inhabitants, to the 
end that morality and discipline might be preserved, and luxury, ostentation, and sen- 
suality be kept away. Along with this new constitution, Solon established the so-called 
relief law (Seisachthia). This remitted to the poorer citizens a part of their debts, 
abolished personal bondage in payment of debt, and relieved the smaller farms from 
their mortgages. Solon, like the Spartan Lycurgus, made his fellow-citizens swear to 
alter nothing in his laws until he returned from his journey : but he fixed the period 
of his journejr at ten years. He then set out for Egypt and Asia, but returned again 
to his native city, and, in his old age, he still 
sought by earnest poems to keep the people in -^ 

the way of virtue, of justice, and of freedom. 

d. The Tyrants. 

§ 46. In the beginning, all the Greek 
states were ruled by kings, who possessed a 
patriarchal authority as high priests, judges, 
and generals. But gradually the noble and 
rich families, who were at first only members 
of the king's council, acquired the upper hand, 
and used some favorable opportunity to get rid 
of the kings, and to found an aristocratic repub- 
lic, in which they themselves conducted the 
government. This soon became, for the people 
(Demos), very oppressive. But as the nobility 
alone bore arms, and were practiced in war, it 
was difficult to deprive them of their power. 
This happened only when some ambitions 
noble separated himself from his companions, 
and became a leader of the people. Neverthe- 
less, democracy did not immediately supplant aristocracy, but the popular leaders 
(demagogues) obtained, in most states, sole personal authority. They were termed 
tyrants, by which we are to understand, not arbitrary princes, but the sole rulers, 
of a community, in distinction from the asymetes, wlib were sometimes clothed with 
extraordinary authority in critical situations, by the joint act of the council and of the 
people. Several of these tyrants possessed great gifts as statesmen, and conducted 
splendid administrations. To satisfy the people, to whom they were indebted for their 
elevation, they erected magnificent buildings and encouraged navigation, commerce, 
and colonization. Their wealth enabled them to surround themselves with artists and 
poets, and to give the people great religious festivals. Their splendid courts con- 
tributed to the welfare of the cities. But the dominion of the tyrants did not last. 
The noble families sought in every way to overthrow them, and were supported by 
the Spartans, who every where promoted aristocratic institutions. Moreover, the sons 




EGYPTIAN KING AND COURTIER. 



93 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



of the tyrants often forgot their indebtedness to the people, and by their cruelty and 
despotism, precipitated their own downfall. 

§ 47. The most famous tyrants were Periander of Corinth, Polycrates of Samos, 

jpewmirfer, and Pisistratus of Athens. The two first are known to us in poetic 

b. c. coo. legend. Periander, a sagacious prince, who elevated his native city to 

the first rank in commerce, and encouraged art and poesy, had for his friend the bard 

and musician, Arion of Lesbos, who lived a long time 
at Corinth, and celebrated the sacrificial festivals of 
the isthmus, in his enthusiatic choral songs. Arion 
journej'ed through Italy and Sicily, giving displays cf 
his art, and acquiring great wealth, and then set out for 
Corinth. The sailors, eager for his wealth, determined 
to cast him into the sea. Arion offered them all his 
treasures as the price of his life, but they, afraid of 
Periander's wrath, determined to stand to their pur- 
pose. Seeing that every chance of safety had vanished, 
Arion began to sing and to play, and then sprang, in 
his singer's robe, into the waves. But the melodies 
which he sang had so charmed the dolphins, that one 
of them carried the singer on his back to the shore. 
Arion hastened to Periander, who arrested the guilty 
polycrates, sailors, and punished them with exile. 
B.c.sao. The ring of Polycrates is a legend no 
less famous. The rich and mighty ruler of Samos, 
who with his soldiers and sailors, oppressed the noble 
races of the beautiful island, and who united oriental 
splendor with Hellenic art at his brilliant court, suc- 
ceeded in everything that he undertook. His friend, 
King Amasis of Egypt, was anxious lest he bring down 
upon him the envy of the gods, and wrote to him to 
sacrifice the dearest that he had, in order to reconcile 
the heavenly powers. Thereupon Polycrates cast a 
precious and finely wrought ring, that he held most 
dear, into the sea. The Gods, however, scorned his 
sacrifice, for in a few daj r s a fisherman brought a great 
fish that he had captured as a present to the ruler, and 
when the fish was opened they found the ring in its 
entrails. When Amasis heard this he feared that 
athenia parthenos. ( Copy of Polycrates would come to ill fortune, and refused fur- 
Phidias 1 Minerva.) ther relations with him, that he might not be com- 

pelled to bemoan his friend when inevitable fate destroyed him. And so it happened. 
For Polycrates was enticed by the Persian satrap to Magnesia, in Asia Minor, and 
there nailed to the cross. 

But the tyrant most renowned was Pisistratus, who was able, even in the life time 

pisistratus. of Solon, to make himself sole ruler of the city. He wounded himself, 

b. c. soo. and then pretended that assassins sought his life, and asked the people 




THE GREEK WORLD. 



99 



for a body guard of fifty men, and for the possession of the castle. And although his 
enemies succeeded in driving him twice from the city, he came back each time. The 
first time by an agreement with Megacles, who pretended that the goddess Pallas 
Athene brought him back to the city. The second time by a victorious battle in the 
open field. He revenged himself upon his enemies by exiling many of them, and by 

b. c. say. oppressive taxation. And at his death left the dominion to his son 
Hippias and Hipparchus. Pisistratus, and Hippias also at first, governed with great 
renown. Agriculture, industrial art, and commerce greatly prospered. The poems of 
Homer, which had hitherto existed only in the memories of the rhapsodists, were now 
committed to writing. Artists of all kinds found generous patrons. The city was 
adorned with temples and public buildings, and the poet Anacreon lived at the court 
of Hippias. But when Hipparchus, a sensual and dissolute man, was murdered at the 
Pan-Atheneaic festival by two Athenians, Harmoclius and Aristogiton, in revenge for 
an insult, Hippias gave free course to his vio- 
lent nature. His cruelty and severity alienated 
the people from him, and gave to the Alcmseo- 
nidee an opportunity to return from their exile, 
and, with the help of the Spartans, to expel 
the tyrant. When his children had fallen into 

B.c.sto. the hands of his enemies, Hip- 
pias capitulated, surrendered the castle and fled 
to Asia Minor, to seek from the Persians the 
means of restoration. Soon after his departure, 
a democratic republic was established in Athens 
by the Alcmteonid, Cleisthenes. Hitherto the 
four hundred members of the council had been 
chosen from the four ancient family districts, 
and the preference had been given to the landed 
nobility. These districts were now abolished, 
and thus the old family connections were 
destroyed. In their place Cleisthenes intro- 
duced ten new districts, each composed of ten 
small wards. This was a geographical and political arrangement, which led to the 
equality of all the citizens, to new names and to new protecting deities. The 
larger districts were called Phyles. The council of five hundred was chosen 
annually by them, — fifty members from every district, without regard to rank or 
property. An executive committee, composed of fifty members of the council 
called Prytanes, conducted the government for thirty-six days, residing, during this 
time, in the town hall (or Prytaneum), and supported at the public expense. They 
presided also at the assemblies of the people. From each of the ten districts, six 
thousand citizens were chosen b} r lot to serve as judges (Heliasts). The archonship 
and the Areopagus continued to exist, but only as officers of honor, without important 
functions. 




PERSIAN NOBLE AND WARRIORS. 



The Seven Wise Men. 

§ 48. Periander of Corinth, Solon of Athens, Thales of Miletus, the creator of 



100 



THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 



Greek philosophy, were the most famous of the seven Greek sages. Their principles 
have been handed down to us in short proverbs like '-Do everything with reflection" 
(Periander), " Moderation in all things," (Solon), " Know thyself," ^Chilo of Sparta). 
P!/Hm fl «i««, One of the most important men of this time was Pythagoras of Samos, 
b. c. sso-500, the founder of the Pythagorean society, which had many adherents, 
and was highly esteemed in Crotona and other cities of Lower Italy. The members 
of this community led a temperate and morally-strict life, lived together in unity and 
devotedly revered their famous master. They were expert in mathematics and in 
music, and P\-thagoras himself, was the inventor of the Pythagorean proposition con- 
cerning the square on the hypothenuse of the right triangle. 

e. Lyric Poetry. 

§ 49. The courts of the Tyrants led a merry life. Poets and bards were alwaj-s 
welcomed. As the epic poem was too serious, an easier, and a gayer sort of poetry 
came into vogue, called lyrical, because sung to the accompaniment of the lyre. Wine 
and love were the themes of these lyrics, and the}' were intended to drive away sorrow 
and care. Anacreon, of Teos in Ionia, who lived at several courts, and died at Athens 
Anacreon, in his eightieth year, was the most famous singer of such songs which, 
jb. c. 5S9-47S. after him, are called Anacreontic. But other famous poets found, in 
the brevity of life and the transitory nature of all earthly things, an occasion for sorrow 
and melancholy; and these produced the elegy in which the hexameter and the pen- 
tameter verse were united to form a distich. Simonides of Keos was the most famous 
shnoniiies, of the Elegiac poets. The lyric poems, in which the poet took a higher 
flight, and celebrated some sublime object in solemn strains, were called 
Odes. Sappho of Lesbos, famous for her love and her self-destruction, 
and the Theban Pindar, carried the ode to perfection. In later times, 
every short poem was counted lyrical even though it could not be sung 
to music. Satires especially became quite popular; the inventor of 
these was Archilochus of Paros, who converted lyrical poetry into a 
about b. c. too. sharp weapon against personal enemies. Fables were invented by 
jesop. auout .^Esop, a Phrygian slave, whose life is veiled in such obscurity, that 
jb. c. 5oo. the stor}' of iEsop is itself a fable. The Gnomic poetry, or the poetical 
Theootiis, proverb, comes from Theognis of Megara, the fiery hater of the Demo- 
b.c. 370-400. crats, bv whom he was driven from his home. 



B. C. 556-J6S. 

Stij>joho. about 

B. C. 300. 

Binu'ar, 

B. C. 518-441. 

A.rehilocliU8. 



II. THE GLORIOUS DAYS OF GREECE. 

1. THE PERSIAN "WARS. 

HE Greek colonies, on the coast of Asia Minor, had been con-' 
quered by Cyrus. Accustomed to a life of freedom they bore the 
Persian j-oke, but could not shake it off, because the noble Greeks 
who were appointed princes of the different cities, and therefore 
attached to the court of Susa knew how to maintain their people 
in obedience. One of the mightiest among them was Histiaeus, 
Prince of Miletus. He had been with Cyrus in his campaign against the Scythians, 




THE GREEK WORLD. 



101 




MILTIADES. 



and had been commanded to guard, with his Greeks, the bridge across the Danube. 
But when the news arrived of the misfortunes of the Persians, he was advised by Mil- 
tiades of Athens, who, as possessor of great estates on the Thracian peninsula, paid 
heavy tribute to the Persians, to destroy the bridge, and to abandon the king and all 
his army to destruction. Thus the Greeks might regain their freedom. But Histia^us 
would not carry out the project. Yet his fidelity was mistrusted, and he was ordered 
to Susa by Darius, ostensibly to receive the reward of his great services, but really to 
be watched bj- the suspicious king. This situation of mingled favor and restraint be- 
came unendurable to the Greek soldier. He longed to return 
to his native country, and, when he was not permitted to leave 
Susa, he secretly induced his relative Aristogoras of Miletus, 
to provoke an uprising of the discontented Greeks, so that 
he might find opportunity to return. The plan succeeded. 
Miletus and the other Greek colonies were soon in arms. 
Sparta, and other states of the mother country were appealed 
to for help, but only Athens responded. Darius wished to 
restore the exiled Hippias, then residing in Asia Minor, and 
hence the action of the Athenians. The little city Eretria 
also sent a small number of ships. The rebellion succeeded 
finely at first ; the Greeks conquered and burned Sardis, the 
capital of Asia Minor, and the rebellion spread through all 
Ionia. But the Persian Governor defeated the land army at 

Ephesus ; the Greeks quarreled with each other, and the superior numbers of the 
-b. c. 4S7. enemy gave them the victory, in a sea fight at Lade, and led to 
jb. c. -tos. the capture and destruction of Miletus. The Milesians were either 
put to death or led into slavery. Aristagoras fled to the Thracians, by whom he was 
killed ; Histiaeus, who, upon being sent to Ionia, had joined the rebels, was taken 
prisoner and crucified. Ionia came again under Persian rule, and Darius swore to 
take bloody revenge upon the Athenians and the Eretrians, because they had sup- 
ported the rebellion. 

§ 51. Maidonius, the son-in-law of Darius, 
proceeded with a navy and an army along the 
b. c. 4,93. Thracian coast, while Persian 
heralds demanded, of all the Greek states, 
water and earth, as tokens of submission. But 
his ships were driven, by a storm, against the 
promontory of Athos, and the Thracians de- 
feated a part of his army so that he was com- 
pelled to return to Asia without accomplishing his mission. iEgina, and most 
of the islands, gave the heralds water and earth ; but when they demanded them 
of Sparta and Athens, they were put to death, contrary to all tradition and inter- 
national usage. Enraged at this insult, Darius despatched a second fleet under 
Datis, an older general, and the young Artaphernes. This fleet sailed through 
the Archipelago, subdued the Cyclades, and then attacked the city of Eretria. The 
citizens resisted bravely, but were betrayed to the enemy, who razed the city to the 
ground and carried off the inhabitants to Asia. The Persians then marched through 




COIN OF SARDIS. 



102 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



the island burning and destroying all before them, and, guided by Hippias to the coast 
of Attica, encamped in the plains of Marathon. The Athenians sent to the Spartans 
beseeching help. But an old religious law forbade the Spartans to depart for war be- 
fore the full moon. So the Athenians, without waiting for them, marched valiantly 
against the enemy. The most noted of their ten generals was Miltiades, who had 
served formerly in the Persian army, and was thoroughly acquainted with their mode 
of warfare. Ten thousand Athenians, and 1000 Platseans, who had joined the former 

of their own accord, attacked the tenfold stronger 
army of the Persians. Miltiades had chosen for 
the conflict a place unfavorable for the Persian 
horsemen, and, in the battle of Marathon, he com- 
sept. 12. pletely routed the Persian army. 
b. c. 49o. The camp, with all its provisions, 
fell into the hands of the victors ; the Persians 
rushed to their ships and sailed away. But the 
Grecian sentinels saw from the heights, with con- 
sternation, that the fleet was sailing around the 
promontory Sunium, and steering to the West, 
evidently intending to surprise the undefended 
city. The adherents of Hippias had doubtless 
suggested this to the Persians, and a flashing 
shield, elevated upon the mountains, was to serve 
as a signal. Their cavalry, and a part of the army* 
had probably embarked, before the battle, for this 
very purpose. Miltiades acted promptly. Leav- 
ing Aristides with his men to guard the battle- 
field, he hastened, with the main army, to the 
city, and arrived at Athens, just as the Persians were about to land. At the 
sight of this band of heroes, Datis and Artaphernes abandoned their purpose and 
sailed awa} r . Hippias died on the return voyage. Great, however, was the fame 
of the Athenians, who were the first to prove themselves worthy of the democratic 
freedom which they had just achieved, and centuries afterward, patriotic orators used 
the victoiy of Marathon to inspire the Athenian people. Beside the burial mounds, 
which are } r et visible upon the plain of Marathon, the Athenians erected a monument 
to the champions of Greece, who had hurled to the ground 
the power of the gold-clad Medes and Persians. They 
erected also, a separate monument for Miltiades. The day 
after the battle two thousand Spartans arrived to help the 
Athenians. The3 r visited the battlefield, praised the heroic 
deeds of the Athenians, and then returned home. 

§ 52. Miltiades, the savior of Greece, did not long enjoy his fame. He per- 
suaded the Athenians to man a fleet, in order to conquer the islands of the .^Egean 
b. c. jss. Sea, which had submitted to the Persians. But as the attack upon Paros 
miscarried, he was accused before the people, of having deceived the Athenians by de- 
lusive promises. When the trial took place, he had not yet recovered from a wound 
received at Paros, and had to be carried into the courthouse on a stretcher. The pen- 




GREEK GENERALS. 





daric coin. (Persia.) 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



103 



alty of death, proposed by his enemies, was not 
inflicted ; but he was condemned to pay the costs 
of the war. Before he could get together the sum 
of fifty talents ($50,000), he died. His large- 
minded son, Cimon, paid the fine, and gave his 
father an honorable burial. Aristides, surnamed 
the Just, and Themistocles, were two Athenians of 
extraordinary abilities. Both had fought bravely 
at Marathon, and both sought to make the city 
great, but in different ways. Aristides would 
use no means to accomplish his ends, which were 
not entirely honorable and just. He followed his 
conscience, and saw no salvation for the state, 
except in the land-holding population and in the 
land army. Themistocles, an ambitious man, who 
could not sleep for thinking of the glory of J 
Miltiades, was less conscientious. He considerec 
only the advantage and the greatness of the city, I 
and frequently resorted to cunning and to decep-j 
tion. Moreover, he thought that the safety of! 
Athens la} r in her " wooden walls," that is in her 
ships and sailors. Abler than Aristides, he soon 
acquired greater popularity with the people, 
and in order to carry out his plans unhindered, he procured the banishment of the 




themistocles. (Vatican, Home.) 




forty oared greek boat. ( Vase Painting). 

b.c. 483. straightforward Aristides, by the so-called "potsherd" judgment* 
(Ostracism ; the name scratched upon a potsherd). 

§ 53. Great preparations for a new invasion of Greece were 
being made, when Darius died. His successor, Xerxes, a man 
puffed up with pride and flattery, took up his father's plan of 
revenge upon so large a scale that, according to tradition, he col- 
lected an army of 1,700,000 men, and a fleet of more than twelve 
b.c. 481. hundred ships. Having completed his preparations, 
and suppressed an uprising in Egypt with great success, he col- 
lected all his troops at Sardis, and then marched confidently across 
Ilium to the Hellespont. It was a motley army of all nations and 
all tongues, clad in various costumes and carrying all kinds of 
weapons, with which the Persian king crossed over two pontoon 

* Tliis was an arrangement by means of which every citizen who became so prominent as to endanger the equality of 
the citizens and the democratic constitution could be banished for a space of time, usually for ten years, without preju- 
dice to his rights or to his honor. To be ostracised was not a punishment but a political defeat. 




XERXES. 



104 



THE ANCIENT WORLD 



bridges not far from Abydos. Seven days, without interruption, were required 
to cross the Hellespont, and the army was followed b}' an endless procession of 

servants, of wagons 
filled with women 
and chambermaids, 
men servants and 
maid-servants, bag- 
gage, ornaments, and 
the like. The heavy 
armed Persian on his 
fiery horse, the half 
naked Arab on his 
camel, the tribes of 
East Iran with bow 
and battle-ax, the 
troops from Asia 
Minor, and the troops 
from the Caucasus 
with willow-work 
shields and wooden 
helmets, the Ethio- 
pians in the skins of 
panthers and of lions, 
were all to be seen in 
this amazing army. 
From the Hellespont 
they marched across 
Thrace, Macedonia, 
and Thessaly ; the 
fleet meanwhile sail- 
ing along the coast, 
in order to supply the 
army with whatever 
was needed. That 
the ships might not 
be shattered again at 
Athos, Xerxes em- 
ployed Greek and 
Phoenician laborers 
to blast it and dig it 
away. Thessaly sub- 
mitted without a 
blow. Boeotia, Argos 
and some of the 

smaller states were glad to offer earth and water. With threats the enemy came still 
nearer. The Greeks now showed what could be done by union, courage, and patriot- 




is 
j 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



105 



ism. At the urging of Themistocles they quicklj r established a union, proclaimed a 
general peace, and placed themselves under the lead of Sparta. In July, at the time 
b. c. •*.«.©. of the Olympic games, Xerxes appeared at the pass of Thermopylae, 
which was held by the Spartan king Leonidas, with three hundred Spartans and a 
few thousand allies. When commanded to surrender his arms, the Spartanleader 
answered, "Come and take them," and when told that the multitude of the enemy 
was so great that their shots and arrows would darken, the sun, another answered, 
"So much the better, then we shall fight in the shade!" For several days, the 
Persian king tried in 
vain to force a passage ; 
thousands of his soldiers 
fell victims to the 
bravery of the Greeks. 
Even the ten thousand 
immortals, the flower of 
the Persian army, must 
yield to Spartan 
strength. But a Greek 
traitor conducted apart 
of the Persian army, by 
a foot-path across the 
summit of the Oeta, so 
that they could fall 
upon the rear of the 
Greeks below. Hear- 
ing of this, Leonidas 
dismissed the troops of 
his allies ; but he him- 
self, with his three hun- 
dred Spartans along 
with seven hundred 
citizens of Thespise, 
who refused to leave 
him, chose to die a 
hero's death. Attacked 
from both sides, they 
.fought with leonine 
courage, until overcome 

by numbers, and worn out by fighting and from wounds, they perished utterly. 
Only the Thebans who had been compelled to take part in the fight, were treated 
mercifully ; but even these were marked with the stamp of the royal slaves, and sent 
home in dishonor. Leonidas and his heroic band were celebrated ever afterward in 
song, and a bronze lion marked the place where the Dorian hero had fallen. Boeotia 
and Phocis were now easily subdued, and the Persians pressed forward into Attica and 
reduced Athens to ashes. The old warriors who garrisoned the castle, after a brave 
resistance, were put to death. All citizens capable of bearing arms, were serving in the 




APOLLO BELVIDERE. 



10G 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



fleet. Women, children, and property had been, at the suggestion of Themistocles, 
carried to Salamis, iEgina, and other cities. A messenger was dispatched in haste to 
Susa, with the news of the triumph of the great king. A single accident disturbed his 
pleasure. A portion of the Persian army had marched to Parnassus, to rob and to destroy 
the sanctuary of Delphi. But when the warriors were clambering up the steep paths 
of the gloomy region, invisible hands hurled at them fragments of stone and rock, so 
that many were killed, and the others fled in terror. The Delphian's did not fail to 
ascribe the salvation of their temple to the intervention of their mighty god. 




RETURN OF THE GREEKS FROM SALAMIS. 



§ 54. Themistocles now became the savior of Greece. The united fleet of the 
Greeks had sailed from the promontory Artemisium, where it had fought successfully 
for several clays, into the Saronian Bay, whither the Persian fleet had followed. Eury- 
biades, the leader of the Spartan fleet, had determined to withdraw with the Pelopen- 
nesian ships, and to carry on the fight near the Isthmus of Corinth, in order to have the 
protection of the land force that was stationed there and covered by a wall. Themis- 
tocles regarded this plan as dangerous, and so he cunningly enticed the Persian king to 
attack him in the narrow waters, where the hostile ships would be hindered by their 
b. c. iso. own numbers. Thus happened the sea fight of Salamis, in which the 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



107 



Greeks were completely victorious. In despair, Xerxes beheld from a neighboring 
eminence, the destruction of his fleet and informed, through the cunning of Themisto- 
cles, that the Greeks intended to destroy the bridges across the Hellespont, he 
hastily retreated with the greatest part of his army through Thessaly, Macedonia and 
Thrace. But thousands of his warriors perished from hunger, cold, and fatigue, and 
great throngs were drowned in the river Strymon, by the breaking of the ice. 

§ 55. Xerxes left three hundred thousand picked soldiers under the command 
of Mardonius in Thessaly. These invaded Attica when the Athenians refused an 
offered alliance, and compelled the citizens, who besought the Spartans in vain for 
speedy help, once more to emigrate to the huts of Salamis. But when finally the 
Spartans sent a Peloponnesian army across the isthmus, in answer to the beseechings 
jb. c. 470. and threats of the Athenians, the battle of Platsea was fought by the 
Greeks under the command of the Spartan Pausanias, assisted by the Athenian Gen- 
eral, Aristides. The Persian army, though 
three times as strong, was completely de- 
feated and only 40,000 Persians returned 
across the Hellespont. The others, among them 
the brave commander Mardonius, were slain ; 
some in the battle, some at the storming of 
their camp, and some in their flight. The booty 
was immense. Upon the altar of "liberating " 
Zeus, the sacrificial fire flamed high. On the 
same day the Persians suffered a second defeat 
at Mycale, on the coast of Asia Minor, where 
they had drawn their ships ashore, and sur- 
rounded them with a fence of willow-work and 
reeds. Here too a Spartan was the leader, 
but the bravery of the Athenians and of the 
Milesians, made him successful. The camp and 
fleet of the enem} r were captured and destroyed 
by fire, and the sword of the Greeks made 
terrible havoc among the frightened and flying 
Persians. 




MF.DEAN AND PERSIAN NOBLES. 



2. — Athens Overlordship (Hegemony) and the Periclean Age. 

§ 56. After the battle of Platsea the war was waged chiefly at sea. As the 
Spartans possessed fewer ships, the command gradually passed over to the Athenians, 
who had behaved moreover, during the whole war, with much bravery and magnanimity. 
The treason of the Spartan General Pausanias also furthered the leadership of the 
Athenians. Certain noble Persians, among them relatives and friends of the king, had 
been taken prisoners at the capture of Byzantium (Constantinople). These were sent 
by Pausanius, without the knowledge of his allies, to their royal master. Pretending 
that they had escaped secretly, they carried, really, a message to Xerxes, from the 
Spartan General, that he would help him to conquer all Greece, if the king would give 
him his daughter in marriage, and make him governor of the Peloponnesus. When 
Xerxes agreed to this, the ambitious man became so arrogant that he disregarded en- 



108 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



tirely the Spartan laws and modes of life; clothed himself in fine raiment, spread a 

splendid table, and 
was accompanied and 
served by Persian 
staff bearers. At the 
same time his tyran- 
nical nature made the 
Spartan authority 
everywhere unpopu- 
lar. The Spartans, 
when informed of his 
conduct, recalled 
him ; but their author- 
ity among maritime- 
states was so weak, 
that they voluntarily 
gave up the chief con- 
trol, although they 
maintained in form 
their right to com- 
ri mand. Pausanias 
: still carried on in 
3 Sparta secret com- 
; munication with the 
- Persian king, but his 
2 treason was exposed 
by a slave. He fled 

AT>otlt B. C. 411. tO a 

temple as a suppliant, 

but the enraged Spar- 
tans closed the tem- 
ple gates upon him, 
and compelled him to 
die of starvation. 

§57. While Pau- 
sanias w r as thus de- 
stroying the power of 
his country, the three 
Athenian command- 
ers were contributing 
greatly to the pros- 
perity of their native 
city, by their remark- 
able, though various ■ 
talents. Themistocles 
surrounded Athens with a strong wall, and built the splendid harbor of the Piraeus, 




110 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



which was afterward united by Cimon and Pericles with the main city, by a long 
double wall. This brought upon him the irreconcilable hatred of the Spartans. 
For they did not wish Athens to be fortified, and consequently they charged 
Themistocles with complicity in the treason of Pausanias ; — this too at a time 
when his enemies had succeeded in ostracising him for ten years. Themistocles 
s.c.4ji. now fled to Asia. The Persian king gave him an honorable wel- 
come, and three cities of Asia Minor for his maintenance. But when the king 
urged him to assist in subduing Greece, he is said to have taken poison rather 
than become the betraj'er of his country. His ashes were secretly deposited by 
his friends in Grecian soil, aud centuries afterward his posterity possessed consid- 
erable rights in Magnesia. Aristides, by his integrity, contributed greatly to the 
prosperity of Athens. The confidence reposed in his chai'aeter induced the Greek 
b. c. -too. islands and maritime cities to make an alliance with the Athenians, 
in which they pledged themselves to contribute money and ships for the prosecution 
of the war. 

A treasury was established at Delos, and the manage- 
ment of this common treasure as well as the leadership of 
the union fleet, was given to the Athenians. But the fur- 
nishing of ships soon became a burden to the small states, 
and they compounded for it bj r higher contributions. This 
gave the Athenians the wished-for opportunity to increase 
their navy, and to bring many islands and smaller maritime 
states under their control. Their naval superiority enabled 
them to bring the allied treasure to Athens, and to deposit 
it in the sanctuary of Pallas Athene. They could also treat 
their allies as tributary subjects. Aristides died so poor 
that the state provided for his funeral, and for the education 
of his children. 

§ 58. Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and Pericles con- 
tributed no less to the greatness of Athens. The first, by 
b. c. *aa. his successful enterprises at sea, for he had a 
'double victory in Asia Minor over the fleet and the army of 
the Persians. This closed the war, and brought about the 
so-called peace of Cimon, which secured independence to all the Greek cities and 
islands. He enlarged the territory of the Athenian state, and expended his large 
fortune in the adornment of "the city, where he laid out the beautiful gardens and the 
famous portico known as the Academy and the Stoa. In his time, Sparta was sorely 
b. c. -tas. afflicted by a terrible earthquake. The greater part of the city was 
destroyed, and in the midst of the distress, the Messenians and Helots took up arms 
to conquer their freedom. In their extremity the Spartans appealed to Athens, and 
Cimon, who had a great preference for their institutions, succeeded in getting an 
army sent to their assistance. But the suspicious Spartans sent it back, which so 
b. c. 403. offended the Athenians, that they ostracised Cimon, and gave to the 
Messenians the maritime city Naupactus, when they were obliged, after a ten years' 
b. c. 4ss. struggle, to give up their mountain fortress, Ithome. At the battle 
B.C.4S7. of Tanagra, the Spartans and their Thessalian allies, obtained some 




pericles. (British Museum,. 
London.) 



THE GREEK AVORLD. 



Hi 



advantages over the Athenians who would not permit the banished Cimon to fight in 
their ranks. But the brave conduct of his old comrades, who threw away their lives 
in the struggle, convinced the Athenians that Cimon was a true patriot. So they 
called him back, and obtained a new victory at Grape mountain, (Oenophyta). 
This established their overlordship in all Greece. Cimon died on the island of 

reticles, Cyprus, in the year 449, in the midst of a new campaign against 
about b. c. -iso. the Persians. Pericles was so distinguished for his talents, his culture, 
his eloquence and his military skill, and exercised such an influence upon the com- 
munity, and the people of Athens, that the years of his activity are known as " The 
Age of Pericles." He adorned the state and city by the erection of temples and 
great buildings (Parthenon, Propylseum). He encouraged the arts and sciences, he 
invited men of genius, like the great artist, Phidias, into his hospitable home, where 
Aspasia, of Miletus, presided with grace and dignity; he procured for everyone means 
and opportunity to perfect and to distinguish himself, and created a taste for art, lit- 
erature, and poetry in the lowest classes of the people. Though noble and rich by 
birth, he was a man of the people, and devoted to democratic principles. To him was 
due the ordinance that every Athenian citizen, who served in a court of justice, or who 
was present at the popular assembly, or served in the army or the navy, should receive 
a daily stipend. He made generous distribution of 
money among the needy masses. ' He arranged for splen- 
did festivals, plays, and processions for the pleasure of the 
people, and he brought the Athenian state to such a 
degree of culture, that almost all citizens were capable of 
holding office, and hence the arrangement by which nearly 
all public places were filled bj' lot, was less dangerous in 
Athens, than it would have been in any other city. At 
the same time Pericles preserved for Athens her rank 
among the other states ; Athenian ships ruled the iEgean 
sea, making the Islanders tributary to the city, and bring- 
ing to it immense sums of money. The statue of Pallas 
Athene in the Parthenon, wore a garment of beaten 
gold. Athenian armies fought victoriously against 

b. c. **?. Thebans and Spartans, until the fatal 
battle of Coronea ended their good fortune. In this battle the Athenians were beaten 

b.c. 445. hj Boeotian aristocrats and fugitives. Many were slain, many were 
captured, and Pericles was compelled to save the city from destruction by a hasty 
peace. 




ALCIBIADES. 



3. Peloponnesian War. (431-404.) 

§ 59. This peace of Pericles was of short duration. The prosperity of the Athen- 
ians filled Sparta with envy and dislike. The arrogance and severity*- with which 
Athens treated her subjugated allies, especially the island _<Egina, created dissatisfac- 
tion and hate. Two hostile powers soon confronted each other : the Athenian union, 
to which most of the cities of the coast and the islands belonged, which was sup- 
ported by the democratic party in all the states, and the chief strength of which 
consisted in its navy ; and the Pelopennesian union, with Sparta at his head, to which 



112 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



the Dorian and the JEolian states adhered, which was supported b} r the aristocratic 
party of the different cities, and which relied upon its veteran army. The Spartans 
hesitated long before beginning the conflict, but when the Corinthians complained that 
the Athenians had broken the peace, by assisting the island Corcyra in her war against 
the mother city, and when they complained that the Athenians had besieged and 
sorely distressed the Corinthian colony, Potidsea, in Macedonia, and when the little 
Dorian city, Megara, whose life depended upon its trade with Athens, complained that 
it was excluded from all the sea-ports and markets of Attica, the Peloponnesian War 
b. c. 431. was begun. A war that lasted twenty-seven years and devastated 
the country most terribly. 

§ 60. The war was declared. A Spartan army under King Archidamus, invaded 
Attica and devastated the land. Pericles thereupon gathered the people into the cit} r , 
and equipped a fleet that sailed along the coast of the Peloponnesus, and ravaged the 
country everywhere. But the overcrowding of Athens pro- 
b. c. 429. duced a terrible plague. Thousands were 
swept awaj r , and at last Pericles himself fell a victim, afte"r he 
had buried his two , sons and many of his dearest friends. The 
death of the great man was for Athens a terrible misfortune, 
because selfish demagogues like the tanner Kleon, acquired 
great influence by flattering the people, and sought to prolong 
the war. Athens, weakened by the strife of parties, saw the 
b. c. *?». Plateaus, their truest allies, yield to the Spar- 
tans, and saw Platrea herself leveled to the ground, her cour- 
ageous citizens slaughtered, and their wives and children led 
away to slavery. 

Lesbos and Mitylene were, on the other hand, conquered 
by the Athenians. In their rage, they determined to kill all 
the male inhabitants, and to reduce all the women and children 
to slavery ; but nobler feelings prevailed, and they executed 
only a thousand of the most guilty. Shortly after this, the 
Athenian general, Demosthenes, took possession of Pylos in 
b. c. 425. Messene, and began to lay waste the Spartan 
territory. The Spartans sought in vain to drive him out ; their attack was repulsed, 
and more than 400 Spartan Hoplites were shut up in the barren island Sphacteria. 
Here they nearly perished of hunger ; the only food that they received, came by the 
hands of daring Helots trying to earn their freedom. Finally they were compelled 
to surrender to Kleon, who was bringing reinforcements to the Athenians. Kleon 
thereupon believed himself to be a great general, obtained the command of the 
entire army, and marched against the Spartan general Brasidas in Thrace. But he 
was defeated at Amphipolis and killed in his flight. The peace party now obtained 
the upper hand at Athens and concluded the peace of Nicias. The struggle between 
b. c. 421. the aristocratic and the democratic parties in the cities of Greece had 
meanwhile become dreadful. Nowhere was it bloodier, than on the island Corcyra, 
where the noble families were completely destroyed. With the help of the Athen- 
ians, the Democrats of the city overcame their enemies, shut them up in a building 
and stoned them to death. This was a death-blow to the prosperity of the beautiful 




darius. ii. {King of 
Persia, B. G. 424-405). 



THE GREEK WORLD. 113 

island, with its olive orchards. Where the Spartans conquered, the Aristocrats pun- 
ished their enemies with death and banishment ; where the Athenians prevailed, the 
Democrats treated their antagonists with equal severity. 

§ 61. The conclusion of a peace, without consulting the allies, embroiled Sparta 
with the Corinthians ; the latter united with Argos, Elis, and a few Arcadian cities, 
to deprive the Spartans of the over-lordship in the Peloponnesus. They were sup- 
ported by the youthful Alcibiades, the nephew of Pericles, who now for the first time, 
gave proof of his skill and persuasive eloquence. He was rich, handsome, educated, 
and a powerful orator, so that he was fitted to take the place of Pericles, except that 
he lacked the tranquility and the prudence of his great relative. This war of the 
Spartans, with Corinth and her allies, would have ruined the city on the Eurotas if 

b. c. as. they had not been conquerors in the battle of Mantinea. The sup- 
port given by the Athenians to the union of Argos, and her cruel treatment of the 
island Melos, which had remained neutral during the war, excited anew the wrath of 
the Spartans, and brought the rotten peace of Nicias to an end. 

§ 62. The Athenians now sent the finest army and navy, which had ever sailed 

b. c. *is. from the Pirteus, against the Dorian city, Syracuse, in Lower Italy. 
The expedition was commanded by Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus. But Alcibiades 
was almost immediately recalled, to answer charges of crime against the religion and 
constitution of the city. He and his companions were accused of mutilating the 
busts of Hermes, at the street corners, and open places of the city, and of desecrating 
the Eleusinian mysteries in a private house. Hungering for revenge, he fled to Sparta 
and stirred up the Spartans to a renewal of the war. By his advice, the Spartans oc- 
cupied the little city of Declea, in order to hinder the export of grain; and they sent 
their'able general Gylippus to the help of the Syracusans. This determined the war 
against the Athenians. Lamachus fell at the siege of S} r racuse ; the Athenian ships 
were destroyed in the harbor, and when Nicias and Demosthenes arrived with rein- 
forcements, they were surprised by the S}'racusans and their Spartan allies, and, after 
two bloody battles, were taken prisoners with all their troops. The Athenians who 
did not perish in the fight, worked as slaves in the stone quarries ; the brave generals 

b. c. -us. Nicias and Demosthenes perished in the market-place of Syracuse, by 
the hand of the executioner. 

§ 63. Painful rumors brought the first news of the terrible blow, and when the 
rumors were confirmed, hardly a family in Athens escaped mourning. The allies of 
the city abandoned her, and joined the enemy ; the Spartans renewed the war by land 
and by sea, and the Persian Governor of Asia Minor supported them. The aristo- 
cratic party, in the city itself, sought to overthrow the constitution, and made a secret 
compact with the Spartans. But in spite of all, the Athenians held out for eight years 
against her enemies, and won two important naval battles. They recalled Alcibiades, 
and made him commander of army and navy. They could easily plunge the columns, 
upon which his crimes were inscribed, into the depths of the sea, but neither they nor 
he could restore the ancient glory of the Athenian fleet. The acclamations of the citi- 
zens might greet the returning exile, and even the gods might seem to be appeased 
with his revival of the Eleusinian procession. It was a passing dream. In a few 
months he was degraded from the command, because, in his absence, the battle of 

b. c. *o7. Ephesus was lost by his subordinates. He withdrew to Thrace. And 
8 



114 



THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 



for a moment fortune favored the Athenians. They won the victory of Lesbos, in 
b. c. 4oe. which the Spartan general Kallikratidas was slain, but in their joy, they 
neglected to gather together the corpses and the fragments of ships. For this-omis- 
sion, six of the Athenian generals were condemned to death. 

§ 64. The astute and enterprising Lysander, was at this time the leader of the 
Spartans. He availed himself of the favor of Cyrus, the younger, governor of Asia 
Minor, to enlarge the Lacedaemonian fleet with Persian reinforcements. He took 
advantage also of the negligence of the Athenian commanders who, contrary to all dis- 
cipline, had permitted their crews to go ashore. He fell upon them suddenly at 
b. c. jos. iEgospotanios (Goat's River), near the Hellespont, and captured all 
their ships but nine. The power of Athens was gone. Lysander first reduced to sub- 
jection the islands and cities friendly to the Athenians, and then attacked Athens by 
sea and land. The crowded city, torn and tortured by party strife, and by starvation, 
b. c. joj. soon surrendered. The long walls and fortifications were pulled down 
to the sound of the flute; all the ships, save twelve, were given over to the Spartans, 
and all the fugitives and exiles brought back. Lysander then proclaimed the end of 
the republic, abolished the democratic institutions at one stroke, and established the 
government of " The thirty t} - rants." At the head of these Athenian Aristocrats stood 
Critias, a talented but passionate man, who punished the leaders of the democratic 
party with death and banishment. Nor did he spare the moderate men who dared to 
differ with him. Thus Theramenes, a man of great ability, and acquainted with all the 
movements of this troubled time, was put to death by this Spartan-Athenian. 

Lysander arranged also for the destruction of Alcibiades. 
His dwelling was surrounded and set on fire, by the troops 
of the Persian Governor of Asia Minor ; when he tried to 
escape from the flames, he was shot to death with arrows. 
He was not yet fifty years old. 

Nevertheless, this reign of terror was of short duration. 
Thrasybulus, a patriot and a resolute man, collected the fugi- 
b. c. 403. tives and the exiles and marched against 
Athens. Critias fell in battle ; the others of the Thirty were 
betrayed into the hands of the victorious patriots. Some 
were executed ; the rest were banished. Euclides, the first 
Archon, and Pausanias, the Spartan king, thereupon agreed 
upon a compromise between the two parties. The democratic 
constitution was restored, the rights of propert} T conserved, and 
a general amnesty proclaimed. But the people were too degen- 
erate for the old laws and institutions ; they loved ease and 
quiet and pleasure ; they hated discipline and effort ; and courtesans, with their entic- 
ing wickedness, undermined the family life and the home. 




4. Socrates. 

§ 65. This degeneracy of the Athenians was clue largely to the Sophists. These 
were itinerant teachers, who taught a sham-wisdom full of subtleties and fallacies ; 
theirs was the art to make "the worse appear the better reason." Wealth}" young 
men paid them enormous fees for teachings, which poisoned the sources of domestic 






111 

if 







< 

s 

a 

Eh 



o 






116 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



and civic life. In opposition to these Sophists, Socrates entered the lists. He was an 
Athenian citizen, a sculptor by profession, whose aim was to unmask these charlatans, 
and to awaken in the hearts of his scholars, the feeling for religion, morality and right. 
Socrates delivered no lectures, but by questions and answers in the open street, or 
under the blue sky, or in the Athenian workshops, he taught his philosoptry, the chief 
object of which was, " Know Thyself." Even Alcibiades and Critias could not resist 
the charm of his personality, ugly as his features were ; and the Sophists were speech- 
less before his luminous mind, his simple and unpretentious life, his moral dignit} r and 
his scorn of wealth. But his questions and cross-questions, and his biting irony, made 




DEATH OF SOCRATES. (David.) 

him many enemies. And as several of his scholars had taken part in the overthrow of 
democracy, a charge was brought against him, when popular government was restored, 
for corrupting Athenian youths and for teaching false gods. In a simple defense, 
Socrates proved to his judges the falsity of this charge. But instead of beseeching 
them with tears and moans, to acquit him, he closed his speech with the assertion that 
he had earned a place in the ranks of those honorable men who, for their public 
services, were maintained in the city hall at the state's expense. This angered the 
Judges, and by a small majority, they condemned Socrates to death. His friends, 
especially the rich citizen Crito, urged him to escape. He refused. With his friends 










o 
ft 






118 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



about him, he discoursed, in his last hours, upon the immortality of the soul, and theD 
b. c. 399. drank the fatal hemlock with the cheerfulness and tranquility of a 
sage. He wrote nothing. But his famous disciple Plato, who taught in the academy, 
placed his own doctrines iu the mouth of Socrates. Plato himself was called the 
divine, on account of his sublime ideas and his poetic imagery, and the artistic perfec- 
tion of his expositions. These were in the form of dialogues, and abound in sublimi- 
ties and subleties of thought, as well as in extraordinary beauties of expression. 
Xenophon, the Athenian writer and general, was another famous disciple of Socrates, 
whose nature and teaching he made known to posterity, in several philosophical 
writings, and particularly in his Memorabilia, or " Reminiscences of Socrates." 

5. The Retreat of the Tex Thousand (B. C. 400) 

§ 66. Xenophon's chief historical work is the Anabasis. This is an account of 
the campaign of the younger Cyrus against Persia, and the retreat of the Greek 
soldiers under his (Xenophon's) leadership. After her conflict with the Greeks, the 
Persian kingdom grew continually weaker. In the provinces the Satraps did as they 
pleased, and provoked rebellion everywhere; at court the selfish weaklings and the 
intriguing women abandoned themselves to lust and luxury, and by their struggles for 
the crown, destroyed the rnonarclvy. Under these circumstances the younger Cyrus, 
satrap of Asia Minor, conceived the plan of depriving his brother Artaxerxes of the 
kingdom. He collected a considerable army, the corps of which consisted of Spartan 
b. c. *oi. and Greek soldiers, and started for Persia. In the plains of Cunaxa 
a battle took place, in which the Greeks were victorious, but Cyrus was slain by his 
brother. The victorious Hellenes were therefore summoned to surrender : they refused. 
The Persians then agreed, with an oath, that they should return home unmolested, under 
the command of Tissaphernes. But on the waj r , Clearchus and the other Greek com- 
manders were inveigled to an interview, and treach- 
erously murdered by the Persians. Xenophon, who 
had accompanied the expedition as a volunteer, now 
placed himself at the head of the disheartened and 
bewildered Greeks, and led them through incredible 
perils to the shores of the Black Sea, and thence to 
Byzantium. Without knowledge of the country or 
the language, and without guides, they were com- 
pelled to cross pathless mountains, to wade through 
rivers, and to pierce the snow drifts of deep and 
dangerous gorges ; everywhere pursued by the Per- 
sians and attacked by the natives. When at last 
they beheld, from an eminence, the waves of the sea, 
they fell upon their knees and greeted it with cries 
of joy. In Trapezium they rested for thirty days, 
regaling themselves with festivals and contests. 
Finding no ships to take them to Byzantium, they 
marched by land along the coast of the Black Sea. 
Cheirosophus, the Spartan companion of Xenophon, 
ri'ATO. died at Sinope; and Xenophon led the remnant 




THE GREEK WORLD. 



119 



to Thrace, where for a time they served as mercenaries. Finally they followed the 
Spartan King, Agesilaus, to Asia Minor. Xenophon returned to Athens, was banished 
immediately, and ended his days in the Peloponnesus. 

6. The Time of Agesilaus and Epaminondas. 

§ 67. Sparta was now the chief power in Greece. But she misused her author- 
ity, oppressed the other states, and excited the hatred of her allies. The ancient 
simplicity and severity of life had long disappeared. Foreign wars had brought 
wealth ; this produced greed and luxury and a train of evils. Kings and leaders 
became purchasable ; a few families possessed boundless riches, in which they rioted, 




EPAMINONDAS SAVING THE LIFE OF PELOPIDAS. (H. Vogel.) 

while the poor lacked food and raiment, and not even Agesilaus proved strong enough 
to restore the ancient customs. Nor were the other states any longer the homes of 
virtue and patriotic zeal. The citizens abandoned military service to hireling soldiers, 
and laid aside their arms and love of glory. 

The Persians, angry at the Spartans for their secret support of Cyrus, compelled 

them to a war. Agesilaus was already pressing victoriously through Asia Minor, when 

Aaesiiaus, the Persians stirred up enemies at home against him. The Boeotians, 

jB.c39e.35s. and Corinthians, jealous of Sparta and insulted often by her, were 

easily induced, by Persian gold, to join against her. Humiliated Athens ventured 

b.c. 395. to assist. Another war began, of which Bceotia was the theatre. At 



120 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




EPAMINONDAS. 



Haliartus, Lysander lost the battle and his life. The Spartans, in their extremity, re- 
b. c. 3S4. called their exiled King Agesilans. Coronea was won by him, but the 
Persians under the Athenian Conon, rendered his victory worthless, by their defeat of 
the Spartan ships at Cuidus. Agesilaus withdrew to the Peloponnesus, to carry on the 
war with Corinth ; Conon, with the help of Persia, set about restoring the fortifications 
of Athens and the Piroeus. All the Greek states now vied with 
b. c. 3S7. each other for the favor of the Great King, and 
Sparta agreed to the peace of Antalcidas, in which the west coast 
of Asia Minor was ceded to the Persians, and lost to freedom 
forever. 

§ 68. This peace contained the further declaration that all 
Greek states should be free. The Spartans, as guardians and execu- 
tors of the treaty, dissolved therefore all alliances. They conquered 
jb. c. 3S5. and destroyed Mantinea, compelling the inhabitants 
to live in open towns ; they placed their aristocratic adherents in 
authority in all the cities ; they exercised throughout Greece a 
compulsory arbitration. " Pride goeth " however " before a fall." The Greek cities 
of Macedonia had formed an alliance, under the lead of Olynthia. The Spartans 
commanded them to dissolve. They refused. A Spartan army landed at Olynthia, 
b. c. 3so. and compelled submission. Returning through Bceotia, the Spartan 
leader, at the entreaty of the Ariscocrats of Thebes, took possession of the castle, and 
overthrew the democratic constitution of the state. The Democrats 
were exiled, or executed, or imprisoned. 

§ 69. The Aristocrats did not long continue their exultation 
and their violence. The fugitive Democrats collected at Athens, 
and opened correspondence with their friends at Thebes. It was 
agreed that they should return disguised as peasants ; and assem- 
bling secretly in the house of a friend, should surprise and murder 
the chiefs of the aristocratic party. The plot succeeded. The 
democratic constitution was restored ; the Spartan garrison was com- 
pelled to surrender the castle. This led of course to war. Thebes 
was then fortunately under the guidance of two great and patriotic 
citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. Both of them were remarka- 
ble for courage and military genius. Epaminondas invented the 
Theban phalanx, and Pelopidas organized the young men into the 
'• sacred troop," (compare the new model of Cromwell, the Iron- 
sides). The Athenians at first supported the Thebaus. but when 
Thebes began to subject the neighboring cities to herself, especially 
b. c. *ia. the re-built Platfea, her ancient ally, Athens, united 
, with Sparta in a new treaty. Thebes refused to accept the condi- 
greek theatres. b. c. 371. tions of this agreement, and a Spartan army invaded 

(Made from colored -q^^ jj ut at tne battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas and Pelopidas 
w } y-J routed them so completely" , that the power of Sparta was broken 

forever. Four hundred Spartans and six hundred Periceki, with their general 
Cleombrotus perished in the fight ; and the fugitives were so numerous, that Agesilaus 
"put to sleep " the old Spartan law, which required all who fled the field to be branded 
as dishonorable. 




122 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



§ 70. Epamiiiondas now invaded the Peloponnesus, and approached the never- 
fortified eapitol of Laeonia, that had seen no enemy in five hundred years. But the 
preparations of Agesilaus, and the determined attitude of the Spartans and of their 
wives and children, restrained him from attack. But he emancipated the Messen- 
ians, gave to the exiled children the land of their fathers, and rebuilt for them the 

b. c. 369. city of Messene. Four times in succession, Epaminondas marched 
through the Peloponnesus, the last time to chastise Megalopolis. The Spartans, and 

b. c. 363. a part of the Arcadians, met him at Mantinea. The Spartans lost the 
battles, but the Thebans lost Epaminondas. Not until he was assured of victory, 
did the hero permit the fatal spear to be drawn from his wound, and (like Wolfe at 




types or greek womex. (Showing Dress of Hair.) 

b. c. 3S8. Quebec) " die content." Pelopidas died two years earlier, and the 
octogenarian, Agesilaus, lost his life a few years later, returning from an adventurous 
expedition into Egypt. Epaminondas is a commanding figure in history. Magna- 
nimous and just, a man of genius and of probity, a patriot and a warrior, he lived 
the life of the righteous, and died as poor as Aristides. With his dying breath, he 
counselled the Thebans to use their victory to gain a peace. The Athenians, who 
b. c. 338-355. had renewed their naval power, attempted, it is true, to subjugate the 
maritime cities ; but the Carion King Mausolus, and the threats of Persia compelled 
the in to desist. Their new naval alliance was perforce dissolved. Greece was now a 
dismembered body ; Hegemony henceforth a reminiscence only. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



123 



7. — The Golden Age of Greece in Literature and Art. 

§ 71. While the Greeks were wasting their strength in struggle, and their free- 
dom in party strife, the plastic and poetic arts reached their full perfection. The 
drama, which was originally connected with the religious festival of Dionysus, the 
God of the Vineyard, became most wonderful in the productions of iEschylus, Soph- 
^schuius, ocles and Euripides. All three wrote tragedies. ^Eschylus, who 
b. c. sss-^aa. fought against the Persians at Salamis, was then in his forty-fifth 
sophocies, year ; Sophocles, then a boy of fifteen, sung in the chorus that 
b. c. 495-40G. celebrated the victory ; and Euripides was born on the day of the 




the temple of bacchus at Athens. ( G. Rehlender.) 

battle. Seven plays of iEschylus (Prometheus Bound, Agamemnon, The Persians) 

Euripides, have been preserved ; they breathe the spirit of the great fight for 

jb. c. is<>- too. freedom and, though at times obscure and difficult, are bold in thought 

Aristophanes, and sublime in style, reverent of the gods and of ancient customs, 

B.C.4B2-3SS. and inspired with a sense of human dignity. Seven tragedies of 

Sophocles have also been preserved (Antigone, (Edipus, Electra). These reflect the 

age of Pericles, its refinement and intellectual intercourse ; they are, accordingly, the 

unapproachable models of beauty and harmonious completeness. Of Euripides we 

inherit nineteen pieces (Medea, Alcestis, Iphigenia). These belong to the period of 



124 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




HERODOTUS. 

( Visconti. ) 



the Sophists. Feelings are more prominent and varied ; the speeches abound in cun- 
ning phrases, epigrams and popular common-places, and the emotions of the spectator 
are adroitly played upon bj- scenes of suffering and lamentation. The creative energy 
and genuine pathos of ^Eschylus and Sophocles are atoned for in Euripides, by de- 
tailed descriptions, by excessive sensibility, and by smooth and ornate diction. 

Aristophanes brought comedy to perfection. He mocked the 
faults and follies of his time with pungent and daring irony, for he 
did not hesitate to produce his contemporaries on the stage. In the 
" Frogs," he attacked the weeping Euripides and his pathetic 
dramas; in the "Clouds'" he attacked Socrates, whom he repre- 
sents as the worst and absurdest of the Sophists ; and in the 
" Knights " he did not spare the mighty Cleon and the greedy 
demagogues of Athens. The Chorus of the Greek Drama is a 
lyric comment upon the action of the play ; " but passing beyond 
the immediate scene, deals with the past and the future, with distant 
periods and peoples, with humanity and with life, discussing the 
great results of existence, and uttering the teachings of wisdom." 
(Compare Matthew Arnold's "Poetiy is a Criticism of Eife.") 
The leader of the chorus stood with his troop in front of the stage ; 
the chorus expressing in rhythmic movements, and to the sound of 
music, the feelings and the impressions produced upon the spectator, by the unfolding 
drama. The splendid theatres which were erected in many places, were masterpieces 
of architecture, and contributed greatly to the elevation of the drama. A wealthy 
citizen of Athens could do nothing more popular than to produce a new play, or a 
richly decorated chorus at his own expense. 

§ 72. The prose literature of the Periclean age is quite 
as wonderful as the poetry. Plato's dialogues are the sub- 
pinio. lime thoughts of a rich and creative mind, 

jb. c. j«»-34s. clothed in the noblest speech and forms of 
HeroaotHs. exposition. Herodotus, of Halicarnassus> 
jb. c. 450. described in candid and eloquent simplicity, 
the conflicts of the Greeks with the Persians, interweav- 
ing with his narrative many traditions of the Oriental and 
Hellenic races. He had traveled widely, and conversed 
with the scholars and priests of all the lands, the history of 
which he narrated. He described, with singular accuracy, 
what he saw with his own eyes, though he repeats many 
fabulous stories learned from priests and poets. He wrote 
for the people in simple and hearty phrase. He tells how 
the Greek love of freedom, intelligent self-reliance and 
organization, proved victorious over Oriental servitude, 
undisciplined mobs and Asiatic pageantry. The deities are 
the directors of human affairs; history is the result of provi- 
dential foresight ; victory belongs not to the proud and the arrogant, but to the 
humble and patient. For Herodotus "the course of history is the judgment of the 
gods." The books of Herodotus, tradition tells us, inspired the patriot Thucydides 




DEMOSTHENES. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



125 





b. c. ±?o-±ot. to his immortal work. Banished from Athens, for his late arrival at 
the battle of Amphipolis, he devoted the years of his exile to the composition of the 
history of the Peloponnesian War. His "thought- 
weighted " sentences made his work intelligible to the 
cultured only. In Herodotus, we have the calm and 
fulness of the epic, in Thucydides, the vivid brevity of 
the Drama. The History of the Peloponnesian War 
closes with the twenty-first year of its duration. 
Thucydides did not survive to see the ruin of his be- 
loved Athens. He was murdered in 402, just after 
returning from his exile. But Xenophon took up the 

xenopuon, incompleted task. Lucid, fluent, and dobic capital. 

b. c. j/s.r>«. picturesque in style, he had neither the depth or the historical fidelity 
of him, who gave us the immortal characterization of Pericles. An admirer and 

eulogist of the Spartans, especially of Agesilaus, Xeno- 
phon, in his narration, is resolutely and deliberately 
partial, so that the great Thebans, Pelopidas and 
Epaminondas are thrown into the shade. His history 
ends with the battle of Mantinea. Xenophon wrote 
also a pedagogical biography of the elder Cyrus, a kind 
of romance, in which he represented the founder of the 
Persian monarchy as a model regent. It is really a 
political pamphlet, — an attack upon the instability of 
ionic capital. republican government and a eulogy of royal rule. 

§ 73. Oratory also reached its highest development in Athens at this time. Elo- 
quence was in the beginning a gift of Nature, an inborn talent. But at the time of 
the Peloponnesian war it was treated as an art. Schools of oratory were established, 
where the Athenian youths who wished to devote them- 
selves to public life, to the management of the state 
or to the pleading of causes, were taught the principles 
of persuasion and the rules of delivery. Ten Attic ora- 
tors have bequeathed to us written orations. The 
isocrates, greatest of these was Isocrates, who 
b. c. 43G-33S. was distinguished not only for the per- 
fection of his style, but for his great success as a 
teacher. The most famous of his pupils was Demos- 
thenes, who struggled with incredible energy against 
Demosthenes, natural disabilities, until he became 
b. c. 3ss-333. the greatest orator of antiquity. He 
knew how to excite, to enchain, and to inspire his lis- 
teners. His delivery was dramatic, and his transitions corinthian capitai 
from the serious to the sarcastic, swift and powerful. 
Witty and pathetic by turns, his invective was often 
terrible. He was a patriot and a statesman, true to his convictions and resolute in 
his policy. In his twelve philippics, he urged the Athenians to a war against Philip 
of Macedonia, of whose purpose to undermine the liberties of Greece, he was con- 




{From the 
Choragic Monument of. 
Lysicrates.) 



126 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 





vinced quite earty. His rival iEschines adhered to the Macedonian king, and when 
the Athenian people bestowed upon Demosthenes a golden crown, iEschines sought, 

in a splendid oration, to procure 
the repeal of their edict. This 
gave Demosthenes opportunity, 
.A.\f/i/jif-x. in his great ora- 
f js. c. 3i4. tion " On the 
Crown," to crush his enemy so 
completely, that he was obliged 
to retire from Athens, and to 
close his daj's as a teacher of 
oratory in the island of Rhodes. 
§74. Architecture, sculp- 
ture and painting reached their 
perfection in the period be- 
tween Pericles and Alexander 
the Great. Thej T assumed an 
importance, and reached a per- 
fection among the Greeks, un- 
known in any other period or 
to any otherupeople of human 
history ; they were interwoven 
with the whole life of the peo- 
ple ; the feeling for art was a 
gift common to all classes, and 
their encouragement an essen- 
tial element of public policy. 
In their architecture, symmetry 
and harmony so pre vailed, that 
every building formed a beautiful whole. The chief decoration of their public build- 
ings were the columns, distinguished into three classes, by their capitals ; the strong 
plain Doric, the slender 
Ionic, with its curled 
capital, and the richly 
decorated Corinthian. 
These were used princi- 
pally at the entrances 
of their temples, and in 
their porches and corri- 
dors ; but the private 
dwellings of the Greeks 
were small and insignifi- 
cant. The great sculp- 
tors were Phidias, Sco- 
pas of Paros, Praxiteles 
of Athens, and Lysippus ; and their masterpieces, some of which have been preserved, 




VENUS OF MILO. 




ATHENIAN YOUTHS RIDING IN PROCESSION. 

Phidias.) 



{Frieze of Parthenon. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



127 



are still regarded as unapproachable. The polytheistic service, with its statues and 
temple decorations, was favorable to the arts, but not more so than the universal 
artistic instinct of the people. A famous man was usually honored by the erection 
of a statue, or the placing of his bust upon a pedestal ; and the cities vied with each 
other in adorning their streets and public places with works of art. The beautiful 
bodies of. the Greeks were never distorted by ugly costumes, and their gymnastic 
exercises gave the sculptors opportunity to study the naked body in every variety of 
posture. The Apollo Belvedere, the Laoeoon group, the Medicean Venus, the Venus 
of Milo, and countless other statues and reliefs are splendid proofs of Greek genius. 
The famous painters were Zeuxis, Parrhasius and Apelles. But of their pictures we 
have none. A few copies of them are to be seen upon Grecian vases, and in some 
decorations in the remains of ancient buildings. Music, dancing, and dramatic art 
were likewise cultivated by the Greeks, especially in connection with their religious 
festivals. 




III. THE MACEDONIAN PERIOD. 
I. Philip of Macedonia (360-336). 

O the North of Greece lies the rough mountain land of Mace- 
donia. The inhabitants, thereof, were slightly mixed with Hellenic 
blood, and had, in the course of time, adopted Greek military cus- 
n. c. 3oo. toms and been admitted to the Olympic games. 
The kings who dwelt at first in ^Egse, and afterward in Pella, 
traced their origin to the Heraclides in Argos. The people were 
warlike, fond of fighting and hunting, of tournaments and carous- 
ings. Two years after the death of Epaminondas, Philip came to the Macedonian 
throne, a prince, who united the sagacious skill of a statesman, to the genius of a great 
soldier. He loved and honored Greek culture, but held firmly to the customs of 
his people, and even shared in the drunken carousals of the native nobility. And yet 
he was generous, astute, treacherous and intriguing. He possessed a well-equipped 
army, eager for fight, and dreaded, especially, because of its peculiar line of battle, 
called the phalanx. 

§76. Philip's efforts were directed to the subjugation of the discordant Greek 
states. His watched-for opportunity came with the sacred wars. The Thebans, eager 
to absorb the neighboring Phocis, charged before the Amphictyonic council that the 
Phocians had taken possession of lands belonging to the temple at Delphi. The 
council condemned the accused to pay a heavy fine, 
and when they refused, delivered them to the The- 
bans for punishment. The angry Phocians there- 
upon seized the temple of Delphi, carried off the 
treasures therein deposited, purchased with them a 
great arm}', and resisted the Thebans successfully 
for ten years, invading Bceotia and even capturing 
some cities. The Thebans wearied and wasted by the strife, turned for help to Philip 
of Macedon. He responded at once ; conquered Thessaly, and urged his way through 




MACEDONIAN COIN. 



128 



THE ANCIEXT AVORLD. 



Thermopylae into Phocis. Philomelus and Onomarchus, the Phocian leaders,- were 
slain and the entire people subjugated. They were expelled from the Amphictyonic 
council as an accursed race, and Philip was admitted to their place; their cities were 
destroyed ; the inhabitants carried off into slavery or kept at home as serfs. 

§ 77. Philip had already brought the Grecian colonies in Macedonia under his 
control, and in the neighborhood of Amphipolis, a region rich in gold mines, he had 




LAOCOON GROUP, VATICAN. 



built the city of Philippi. He conquered the proud Olynthia, and punished it severely 
by the loss of property and liberty. But he attained his cherished object by the 
b. c. 339-338. Locrian war. The Locrians, like the Phocians, seized a piece of land 
belonging to the temple at Delphi and were punished by the Amphictyonic council. 
They refused to pay the fine. ^Eschines of Athens then moved in the council that 
the Macedonian king be entrusted with their punishment. Philip hastened forward 




< 

Hi 



<! 

M 

z 
o 

a 



m 
W 



130 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



with his army, subdued the Locrians, and occupied, quite unexpectedly, the important 
city Elatea. This act of violence startled the Athenians, and obtained a hearing for 
Demosthenes. He negotiated an alliance with the Thebans, and induced them to 
equip a considerable army ; but the undisciplined troops, with their incapable leaders, 
were helpless before the •Macedonian phalanx. In spite of the bravery of the " sac- 
red band " of Thebes who perished to a man upon the battle field, Philip won the 
b. c. 33s. battle of Cheeronea, which put an end forever to the liberties of Greece. 
Demosthenes pronounced the funeral oration of the fallen patriots, and the century-old 
Isocrates died by his own hand, so as not to survive the downfall of Greek freedom. 




ARISTOTLE AND ALEXANDER. 



Philip, however, treated the Greeks with friendly clemency, so as to reconcile 
them to Macedonian rule. For he intended, at the head of all the Greek states, 

b. c. 337. to attack the decaying empire of the Persians. He convened a council 
at Corinth, proclaimed peace throughout all the land, and established a union under 
the lead of Macedonia. He had already been named the absolute commander-in-chief, 
and had designated the number of troops to be furnished by each state, when, at 

b.c. 33e. the wedding-feast of his daughter in .lEgse, he was murdered by a 
vindictive body-guard or (as some think) at the instigation of his abandoned wife 
Olympia. The assassin was slain on the spot by the furious warriors. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



131 




coin of tarsus. (Asia Minor.) 



2. Alexander the Great. 

§ 78. Philip was succeeded by his large-minded son Alexander, who was twenty, 
one years old when he became the king of Macedon. His education had been received 
from Aristotle, the great thinker and investigator ; and he remained, throughout his 

life, a friend and admirer of Grecian art and literature. 
Directly after his coronation, the Greeks acknowledged 
him as their commander-in-chief against the Persians. 
But he was first obliged to expel from his borders the 
wild tribes that had invaded Macedonia. And sud- 
denly the rumor ran through Greece that Alexander 
b.c. 335. had been killed. A wild hope of free- 
dom excited the cities to rebellion. The Thebans 
murdered a part of the garrison in their castle ; Athenians and Peloponnesians pre- 
pared for war. Like a flash Alexander hastened to Thebes, leveled its houses and 
walls to the ground, and reduced the citizens to slavery. Only the castles, the temples, 
and the house of the poet Pindar were spared. This terrible judgment alarmed the 
rest of the Greeks ; and the conqueror, soon repenting of his severity, accepted their 
repentance and submission. 

§ 79. In the spring of 334 Alexander marched against Persia. His army was 
b.c. .is*. not large, but splendidly officered with men like Clitus, Parmenio, 
Ptolemy, Antigorms. At the passage of the Hellespont, Alexander was the first to 
leap to the Asiatic shore ; at the field of Troy 
he ordered games and sacrifices in honor of the 
heroes of the olden time. Achilles was his 
chosen model, and Homer his constant com- 
panion. 

The first encounter took place at the 
Granicus River, where a superior force of Per- 
sians was easily defeated. But the impetuosity 
of the young king nearly cost him his life ; he 
was saved by the prompt courage of his general 
Clitus. The western part of Asia Minor was 
now rapidly subdued. Halicarnassus taken by 
storm, the other Greek cities submitted willing- 
ly, and even greeted the conqueror with expec- 
tant enthusiasm. In the city of Gordium he 
found the ancient wagon of Midas, the pole of ' 
which was tied to the yoke by a knot most in- 
tricate. '• Whoso unties this knot, shall be the 
conqueror of Asia" ran a well-known oracle. 
Alexander cut it with a stroke of his sword. 
He then marched across the Cicilian highlands, and made himself dangerously ill by a 
bath in the chilly waters of the Cydnus. Philip, his physician, mixed a potion for 
him, which the king drank eagerly, handing to the astonished doctor as he did so, the 
letter of Parmenio, his general, in which Philip was falsely accused of intending to 
poison him. 




Alexander the great. (Equestrian.) 



132 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



§ 80. Darius Codomanus himself now confronted him with a larger army ; but 

v. c. 333. suffered a complete defeat at Issus. The unhappy king, who was 

worthy of a better fate, fled with the remnants of his army into the interior, while 

Alexander prepared to subjugate Palestine and Phoenicia, and Parmenio compelled the 

rich Damascus to surrender. The 
booty was immense ; the royal 
treasure and the royal family fell 
into the hands of the Macedonians. 
Darius, bowed down bj r his misfor- 
tunes, offered the king all Western 
Asia, and the hand of his daughter 
as the price of peace ; and an enor- 
mous ransom for his mother and his 
wife, the most beautiful woman in 
Persia. But the son of Philip re- 
fused. " If I were Alexander," 
counseled Parmenio, " I would 
accept the conditions." "So would 
I," was the answer, " if I were Par- 
menio."' 

§ 81. Palestine and Phoenicia 
submitted without resistance ; but" 
Tyre, trusting in her strong posi- 
tion, defiantly refused. There- 
upon began a seven-months' siege. 
From the mainland to Island-Tyre, 
a dam was built, upon which towers 
were erected. From these the 
Macedonian soldiers hurled all 
manner of missiles into the city, 
while the ships of Alexander as- 
sailed it from the sea. The Tyrians, 
however, baffled his effort by equally 
cunning expedients, and withstood 
him with desperate courage. At 
b. c, 332. last the city was 
conquered. The surviving inhabi- 
tants were led into slavery, and the 
city given over to destruction. 
The rich and well-defended frontier 
citj 7 of Gaza, the famous remnant 
of the Philistines, suffered a like 
fate. The Macedonian king now 
conquered Egypt, and by building the city of Alexandria gave to commerce a new 
direction. From Memphis he undertook the difficult and dangerous march to the 
famous oracle temple of Zeus Amnion, situated in the beautiful oasis of Siwah. _ The 





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s 






o 

9. 
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O 

A 

P 
Z 
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y. 
m 



o 

<& 

o 

EH 



134 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



priests of the temple declared him to be the son of their God, which gave him great 
importance in the eyes of the superstitious Orientals. 

§ 82. Alexander found Egypt easy to conquer, so great was the dislike of the 
ancient population for the Persians. Having established a new government, he 

marched against Darius, who had meanwhile 

brought together a great army. Crossing the 

b. c. 331. Euphrates . and the Tigris, he 

1 encountered the Persians, not far from the ruins 

of Nineveh. In the battle of Arbela, with his 

little army, he defeated the great host of Per- 

coin oe tyre. sians. And Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, with 

their immense treasures, fell into his hands. The existing ruins of the sepulchres of 

Cyrus and Darius, still bear witness of the splendor of this cradle of the Persian 

house. 

Alexander celebrated his victory with a riotous banquet, at the close of which, he 





ALEXANDER AT THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER AMMON. 

marched at the head of a Bacchanalian procession, and hurled, with his own nands. 
flaming torches into the splendid buildings of Persepolis, in revenge for the burning of 
Athens and the desecration of the Hellenic sanctuaries. 

When Darius heard that Alexander had passed through the Persian mountains, 
had conquered Susa "the golden castle " and Persepolis "the high portal," and was on 
his way to Media, he fled from Ecbatana, his summer residence, into the mountainous 




ALEXANDER BEFORE TYRE. ( H. Voyel.) (pp. 135.) 



136 



THE ANCI-ENT WORLD. 



Bactria, where he was murdered by the traitor Bessus. Alexander bemoaned the fate 
of his unhappy enemy, defeated and captured the murderer, who had assumed the title 
of king, and had him nailed to the cross. 

§ 83. The snow-covered Hindu mountains were crossed by his daring soldiers, 
who nearly perished of hunger and fatigue; and, after taking possession of the moun- 
tain regions near the Caspian Sea, Alexander undertook to make them accessible by 
new highways. He was not satisfied with war and conquest merely. He wished to 
make the wild mountaineers acquainted with the forms of Grecian life, and to adapt 
them to a new order of political existence. Four new cities each called Alexandria, 
became centres of the caravan trade, and diffused the Greek language and the Greek 
civilization throughout the East. In storming a mountain castle he captured the beau- 
b. c. 33o. tiful princess Roxana, the pearl of the Orient, and made her his wife. 
In Bactria he celebrated his splendid marriage feast ; it was to be the sign that the 
conflict between Greece and Asia was ended. Alexander was now to be known as 

" the great king," and 
he borrowed more and 
more from the despotic 
and gaudy customs of 
the oriental monarchs. 
He received the Asiatics 
in royal purple ; lie 
found pleasure in their 
prostration and in their 
worship : he surrounded 
himself with Persian 
staff-bearers and cour- 
tiers ; he was no longer 
their conqueror, but 
their king. This be- 
havior embittered the 
Macedonian nobles. In 
their selfishness and ar- 
rogance, they murmured at Alexander's treatment of the conquered. At the head of 
the discontented, stood Parmenio and his brave but violent son Philetas, the captain of 
the bodyguard. They stirred up in the army the cry for home, that the campaign might 
b. c. 3-zo. be ended and the booty divided. They formed a conspiracy ; but it was 
discovered. . Philetas was condemned to death and pierced through by the lances of 
his comrades, and to prevent the news from reaching his father, who was in command 
of Ecbatana and its treasures, two captains were detailed to murder him. They 
approached the unsuspecting Parmenio, as he was entering the castle-garden of the 
'Median capital, and stabbed him to death. The next year, as Alexander was preparing 
for a campaign against India, another fit of passion led to the death of Clitus, who had 
saved the king's life at the battle of Granicus. At a drunken carouse at Maracanda, 
the flatteries of the Greek sophists so enraged the Macedonian warrior, that he broke 
forth in violent upbraiding of the king. Alexander seized the lance of one of the 
b. c. 3zs. guards, and hurled it at his general, who fell bleeding to the ground. 




GRAVE OF DARIUS, near persepolis. (From Flandin.) 




ALEXANDER DISCOVERS THE DEAD BODY OF DARIUS. (pp. 137.) 



IQlf 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



The sobered king then threw himself upon the corpse, and for three days refused all 
meat and drink in his sleepless grief. 

Callisthenes, the nephew of Aristotle, also trifled away by his criticisms the favor 
of the king. He was cast into chains, and held a prisoner until he died. 

§ 84. Alexander kept marching to the East, in order to conquer the wonderful 
and famous land on the river Indus, in spite of the repeated murmurings of the Mace- 
donian leaders. But the inhabitants of 
Northern India, stimulated by their priests, 
offered him greater resistance than he en- 
countered with the cowardly subjects of the 
Persian king. In the storming of strong 
castles, his life was often in great danger, and 
if the native princes had been united, the 
Macedonians would have failed in their 1111- 
n. c. 33c. dertaking. But some of 
them joined with Alexander against Porus, 
the mightiest of the princes beyond the 
Hydaspes (Dschelum). The passage of this 
river in sight of the enemy, and the battle 
that followed, in which the brave Porus was 
taken prisoner, belonged to the greatest 
martial achievements of antiquity. 

Alexander founded a city, Bucephala, 
in memory of his fallen battle horse; and 
the city Nicea, in memory of his victory. 
He then resumed his march eastward to the Ganges, but the Macedonians were so 
loud in their complaints, that he reluctantly consented to turn back. Twelve stone 
altars, on the shore of the river Hyphasis, designated the eastern terminus of his 
conquering march. 

Porus and the other Indian princes, were given back their lands subject to Mace- 
donian authority. A fleet of boats was built for sailing down the Indus, in order to 
discover the unknown lands of the South, and to 
open up a commerce between the East and the 
West. Nearch, the commander of this fleet, sailed 
along the coast to the Persian gulf, while Alexan- 
der himself with the army took the way through ' 
the desert. But this undertaking proved disas- 
trous ; three-fourths of the army were lost in two 
months. The soldiers who had defied the sword 
and the lance in so many battles, succumbed to 

b. c. 3ss. the tortures of hunger, and of fatigue, and of thirst in the barren 
desert, or fell victims to malaria, sunstroke, the choking dust, and the nocturnal 
frost. 

Alexander shared the hardships and dangers of the march, with the meanest of 
his army, and rewarded the survivors with gifts and festivals as soon as he arrived in 
the rich oasis city Pura. Thence they marched without difficulty, through Caremania, 




MEDEAN NOBLE. 




coin op Alexander. ( Containing 
Image of Lysimachus). 




DEFEAT OF PORUS BY THE MACEDONIANS. 



{pp. 139.) 



140 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



where Nearch united his forces with the main army, after a voyage full of dangers and 
of marvels. 

§ 85. During his absence, the governors and officers of the country had greatly 
oppressed the people, and Alexander's first care was to punish their infidelity. He 
then sought to unite the victors and the vanquished into a single nation, and to diffuse 
every where the culture of the Greeks. He furthered the marriage of his officers and 
soldiers with the maidens of the country, and himself married a daughter of Darius. 
A wedding feast of five days took place in Susa, where more than ten thousand 
Macedonians celebrated the splendid nuptials, which were to be the capstone of his 

great plan for the 
union of Greek and 
Persian. But this 
sublime idea of a 
great empire, with 
equal rights for all, 
was incomprehensi- 
ble to the Macedon- 
ia n s and to the 
Greeks. When 
Alexander favored 
the young men of the 
Persians, armed them 
with Macedonian 
■weapons, and gave 
them places in the 
royal army, and when 
he filled up the Mace- 
donian life-guard 
with Parthian and 
Iranian knights, the 
Macedonians became 
suspicious that the 
king - was seeking to 
do without them. 
Irritated and embit- 
tered, they broke out 

in open rebellion, when the king on the shores of the Tigris expressed his purpose 
of sending the older soldiers home. With a wild outcry all demanded their dismis- 
sion. A few ringleaders were drowned in the Tigris, and the rest were proudly 
told to go whither they would. They soon surrounded the castle, beseeching pardon 
and merc} r . After a long delay, the king forgave them and sent his old comrades, 
10,000 in number, with rich presents and lai'ge privileges, back to the land of their 
fathers. 

Alexander soon began to love the oriental mode of life. His court at Babylon, 
the capital of his empire, was full of splendor. Ambassadors from Greece, Italy and 
many other lands brought him congratulations, and flattered his achievements. Ban 




THE GREEK WORLD. 



141 



quets and festivals succeeded each other without end. But the foundation of a world- 
empire, with Hellenic forms of life, never left his thoughts. To open up new highways 

n. c. 324, for commerce he went to Ecbatana. Here he celebrated the great 
festival of Dionysos, with sacrifices and processions, with chariot races and foot races, 
with dramatic and artistic contests, with banquets and feasts. Nevertheless the king- 
was quite unhappy. The faithful friend of his youth, Hephsestion, who had abandoned 
himself to the enjoyment of the hour, died suddenly in the flower of his years. It 
was the prelude to the king's own departure. The funeral celebration, which he ap- 
pointed in Babylon for his beloved friend, was one of his last acts. A violent fever 
attacked him and hurried him to the grave, in the midst of his plans to conquer Arabia, 

n. c. 323. and before he could make arrangements for the succession to his throne. 
When asked to whom he left his kingdom, he replied, "to the worthiest." His 
dead body was brought from Babylon to Alexandria for burial. His memory has 
been kept alive by the poetry, and the story of East and West. His life of heroic 
achievement and magnificent enterprises, filled the minds of his contemporaries and of 
posterity with astonishment. And the brevity of his splendid career, which was 
short as a meteor's flash, has not detracted from the eternal significance of his ideas and 
achievements. 



IV. THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE. 



86. 



a. ALEXANDER S SUCCESSORS. 




LEXANDER left only one brother, a man of disordered mind, and 
two infant children, the youngest born after the father's death. 
His empire fell to pieces as rapidly as it had been acquired. 
His generals fought each other in bloody and cruel wars, in the 
course of which the house of Alexander perished utterly, and 
finally divided his kingdom into three parts, Macedonia, Syria, 
and Egypt. Perdiccas, to whom Alexander had given his signet- 
ring, at first assumed the dignity of regent; but he was murdered by his own rebellious 
b. c 321. army, while engaged in war with Ptolemy the governor of Egypt. 
Antigonus thereupon acquired the greatest power, having captured and imprisoned 
b. ft 3*6. Eumenes, the chief support of Perdiccas. He seized the treasures in 
Susa, and was able to hire so many soldiers that he could defy all the generals and 
compel them to acknowledge him as regent. But Seleucus of Syria, Ptolemy of Egvpt, 
and Kassander of Macedonia, combined against him 
and his son Demetrius, who was afterward surnamed 
Poliorketes, the besieger of cities. The war that 
followed involved both Asia and Greece. Seleucus 
b. ft 312. succeeded finally in conquering Baby- 
lonia and the eastern provinces, but Ptolemy was 
defeated by Demetrius, in a sea-fight, near the island , ,.,,,.,,. 

B.C.30S. of Cyprus. Antigonus now assumed 
the title of King, in which he was followed by his rivals; the war was finally ended at 




142 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



B. C. 301. 



the battle of Ipsus, in Asia Minor, where the octogenarian, Antigonus, 
lost his life, and his son Demetrius found safety in flight. Seleucus retained Syria, 
and Egypt fell to the Ptolemies. 



k 




The Achaian League. 
§ 87. 



TETRADRACHM OF ANTIOCU. 



Tlie last struggle of Greece. 

After the battle of Chaeronea, 
Greece stood under the control, or at 
b. c. 3*». least, under the influence 
of the Macedonian kings ; and all attempts 
of individual states to escape this domina- 
tion, ended in disaster. Agis II. for 
instance marched against Antipater the 
Macedonian regent, but the brave Spartan 
b. c. 33o. perished with five thousand of his warriors, in the battle of Megalopolis. 
The Athenians continued the old quarrels between Aristocrats and Democrats. And 
when Phocion, with the help of the Macedonians, acquired control for his party, many 
Democrats, among them Demosthenes, left the city. His enemies threatened to deliver 
him to the Macedonians. He took refuge in a temple of the Peloponessus, and rather 
b.c. 322. than fall into the hands of his foes, drained a cup of poison. "Death 
is a glorious refuge," he cried to the Macedonian partisan, who sought to take him 
prisoner. "Death protects from shame." His ashes were afterward carried to Athens, 
where his memory remained in honor. In the year 318 the Democrats obtained the 
b. c. 3is. upper hand, and compelled the aged Phocion to drink the hemlock. 
Party rage now began to soften ; but the love of freedom and of countr} r , as well as 
civic virtue, disappeared even more rapidly. The arts and the sciences continued to 
flourish, and Athens remained the centre of civilization; but the 
greatness of her people was gone forever. Demetrius, the Phalerian? 
b. c. 317-307. a highly cultivated and luxury-loving statesman, , 
ruled the city for ten years under Macedonian authority; and I 
Demetrius, " the besieger of cities," the handsome, knightly and 
pleasure-loving son of Antagonus, succeeded him. Their sensuality 
and luxury corrupted utterly the remnants of civic virtue, and the 
Athenians became pitiful flatterers and contemptible parisites. 

§ 88. But about the middle of the third century the Achaian league was formed, 
B.c.2so. to which Aratus of Sicyon gave such power and importance, that he 
attempted the control of all Greece, especially after the accession of Corinth to the 
union. As general of the league, he sought, by the founding of a confederation, to re- 
vive again the national energy and unity. But his success excited the envy of Sparta, 
at a time when two large-minded kings,. Agis the fourth and Kleonienes, were trying 
to renew her ancient virtue. The landed property of SjDarta had fallen into the hands of 
a few rich families ; these ruled the state, choosing the ephors always from their own 
number. Other citizens were destitute of rights and property, and in debt to the rich. 
The two kings sought relief by abolishing the office of ephors, making void the debts, 
and by a new distribution of land and a restoration of the institutions of Lycurgus. 
AmsTv., But Agis was cruelly murdered by his enemies, although Kleomenes 
. b. c. 24i. was able, by his firmness, to carry out his purposes in Sparta. When 




ANT10CHUS III. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



143 




COIN OF PTOLEMY II. 



however, the latter attempted to compel the other Peloponnesian states to submit to 

nieomenes. Spartan rule, he was defeated by the Achaiau league and their Spartan 

jb. c. a3e-33o. allies, in the battle of Sellasia. He fled to Alexandria, where he and 

his companions fell by their own hands. Twelve 

years after his death, Sparta was conquered by the 

b. c. 20s. league and compelled to abolish the 

institutions of Lycurgus. Her wealthy citizens were 

murdered or banished, and the ancient city of heroes 

converted into a den of thieves. Philopoemen, the 

commander of the league and the conqueror of the 

jb. c. is3. Spartans, in a war against the Mes- 

senians, fell into the hands of the enemy, and was compelled to drink poison. With 

him perished the "last of the Greeks," and the power of the union. The Romans 

soon conquered the whole country without great difficulty. 

c. The Ptolemies and.Seleucids. 

§ 89. Seleucid and Ptolemy were the most fortunate of Alexander's successors. 
The first conquered all the land from the Hellespont to India, and founded the Syrian 
kingdom of the Seleucids. He built the splendid Antioch on the river Orontes, and 

Seleucia on the Tigris. These and the forty 
other cities, which were built by his successors, 
so diffused Greek life and language in the East, 
that Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt became the 
chief seats of culture and commerce; but the 
heaping up of riches brought in an effeminacy 
of luxury and lust, the people became indolent 
and servile, paying their kings with the meanest 
flattery. Bloody cruelties, the domination of 
women and favorites, and universal immorality 
constitute the history of the Syrian kingdom. 
b. c. 224-187. Antiochus the third called also 
the great is renowned for his campaign against 
India, and for his unlucky struggle with the 
Romans ; as the kings became weaker, small 
kingdoms, like Pergamos in Asia Minor and 
Parthia at the North were established by enter- 
prising men. Egypt under the Ptolemies had 
soter, a like experience ; the first 

f b. c. 2so three, Soter, Philadelphus, and 
Euergetes founded a great military and naval power, by means of 
which they acquired territory in all directions; commerce brought 
wealth, the civil administration was perfected in a high degree. Alex- 
andria became the seat of international traffic, and the centre of Greek 
art, literature, and culture. The famous museum, with its numerous manuscripts and 
residences for poets and scholars, was connected with the royal palace ; religion con- 
sisted of mingled Greek and Egyptian elements; the splendid worship of Serapis and 




EGYPTIAN PRIEST, AND MAN AND WOMAN OF 
LOW CASTE. 



JP/i ilatlelp" us. 
f B. C. 221. 
Euerf/etes, 
f B. C. 221. 



144 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Isis was blended with the service of the Helenic gods, but the men who accomplished 
this were, like the royal family itself, like strangers, Greeks and Jews ; hence this cul- 
ture touched only the service, without ennobling the heart, for it took no root in the 
popular mind ; the court in Alexandria was as famous for its cruelty, its debauchery, 
and its immorality, as for its splendor, its wealth, land its culture. 



d 



and the Ptolemies. 




TJETKADRACHll OF ANTIOCHUS IV. 



The Jews Under the Maccabees. 

§ 90. Judaea was, for a long while, the subject of quarrel between the Seleucids 
The rulers of Egypt first took possession of the land, and made it 
tributary ; but they did not disturb the ancient 
institutions, and permitted the high priests, with 
the council of seventy (or Sanhedrim), to control 
religious life and domestic affairs. Many Jews 
settled in Alexandria, where they became 
wealthy and powerful, but lost gradually the 
customs, language and faith of their fathers, or 
blended them with Greek life and thought. 
At the instance of the second colony, a number of Alexandrian Jews, (tradition 
sa} r s seventy-two), completed a Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures, which 
jb. c. ss-t-ts7. is known as the Septuagint, and which greatly furthered the spread 
of Christianity. But the Syrian king, Antiochus the Great, wrested Judaea from the 
Ptolemies, and Antiochus Epiphanes even plundered the temple treasures in Jerusalem, 
and determined to abolish Jewish institutions and the worship of Jehovah. His 
attempts to force Greek paganism upon the Jews, provoked a desperate resistance, 
and this led to cruel persecution. At last the people, in their desperation, rose against 
their tormentors, under the lead of the high priest 
Mattathias, and his five heroic sons. The eldest 
f b. c.ieo. son, Judas Maccabaeus, conquered 
peace, in which the Syrians permitted the re- 
establishment of the Jewish worship. His 
f b. c. ias. brother Simon freed Judaea from 
Syrian rule, and as priest and prince, conducted 
affairs with righteousness and wisdom. His suc- 
cessors conquered the Edomites, but party hatred and domestic quarrels soon weak- 
ened the power of the people. The whole nation was divided between the Sadducees 
and the Pharisees. Both parties held to the Mosaic law, but were wide apart in their 
political and their social life, and in their religious ideas. The Pharisees, as worship- 
ers of tradition, laid great stress upon the observance of minute requirements and 

external usages. This led to hypocrisy and 
sham-holiness : the Sadducees, who were for the 
most part rich and aristocratic, sought to recon- 
cile the Mosaic system with Greek life and 
thought. A third sect, the Essenes, lived in a 
fraternity, held their goods in common and served 
God by separating from the world, by penitence 
and works of love. The hostility of these parties, 




SHEKEL OF SIMON MACCABEUS. 




HEBREW SHEKEL. 



THE GREEK WORLD. 



145 



and the resulting weakness of the people, brought them finally under Roman rule. 

The last of the Maccabean family was murdered by Herod the Great, a man of 
Herod, b.c. 30 astonishing gifts and astonishing crimes. Under the protection of 

Rome, he ruled over Judaea for thirty-six years. The 
Jews hated him bitterly ; so to obtain their favor lie re- 
built the temple of Solomon in great splendor. At the 
last his suspicions made of him a bloody monster, the 
murderer of his beautiful and beloved Mariamne, and of 
his own children. And the last notice of him in Holy 

writ shows him seeking the life of the infant Jesus. 




A HALF SHEKEL. 



e. Culture and Intellectual Life in the Alexandrian Age. 

§ 91. The conquests of Alexander and of his successors, carried Greek culture 
Theoo-uos. far to the East, and into the larger part of the ancient world. Com- 

b. c. 27o. ruerce and the intercourse of nations were extended, and civilization 
greatly furthered. But the intellectual life did not keep pace with the spread of 
civilization. In poetry nothing of importance appeared, except the Idylls of Theoc- 
ritus, and a few dramatic poems which have been lost. History and oratory fell far 
Euclid, behind the nobler productions of the earlier time. But erudite studies 

b. c. 290. and practical sciences flourished greatly. Learned critics and gram- 
marians arranged and explained the earlier Greek writings. Natural science and mathe- 
matics, geography and astronomy, which hitherto were in their rudiments, were now per- 
fected. Euclid composed his manual of geometry. Eratosthenes and Hipparchus de- 
f b. c. sua. veloped astronomy. Archimedes, of Syracuse, acquired immortal re- 
nown, by his discoveries in mechanics and physics; and Hippocrates laid the foun- 
dations of medical science. But the chief study was philosophy. For the Pagan 
religion gave no peace to the soul and no strength for human life. Men turned there- 
fore to the schools of philosophy founded by Plato and Aristotle. Among these, the 
Stoics and the Epicureans were the most famous. Socrates had taught that hap- 
piness was the true end of life. Antisthenes, his pupil, believed that the surest 
way to obtain happiness, was to renounce all pleasures, and 
accordingly taught that contentment was the highest goal 
of human effort. His pupil, Diogenes, who lived in a cask, 
gave up all the enjoyments of life, and practiced a heroism of 
renunciation, which excited the admiration of the great Alex- 
ander. This school was called the cynical school, originally 
from the place where Antisthenes taught. Diogenes was 
humorously called " the dog," because of the wretched life that 
he led, and because his indifference to culture and refinement 
seemed better fitted for a dog, than for a man. This doc- 
trine of the Cynics was ennobled in the Stoic philosophy, of which Zeno, a con- 
temporary of Alexander, was the teacher. According to the doctrine that he 
delivered in the Stoa at Athens, man arrives at happiness only by enduring all the 
changing phases of life, joy, and pain, fortune and misfortune, with equanimity. 
Whatever happens is of necessity, and according to the highest law ; to bear it 
tranquilly, therefore, is the noblest wisdom and the beginning of peace. An- 
10 




.MITES OF HEROD. 



146 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



other pupil of Socrates, Aristippus of Cyrene, taught an opposite doctrine. Life 
consists, he said, in learning to blend discreetly the pleasures of sense and of intellect. 
His pupil, Epicurus, framed this art of enjoyment into a system of doctrine that pre- 
sented rational pleasure as the aim and purpose of human life. His followers carried 
his doctrine much further. Epicurus taught that happiness was to be found in a 
freedom from pain, and from circumstances that disturbed contentment. But his 
disciples taught that the satisfaction of sensual lust was the chief aim of life, and thus 
converted his philosophy into a doctrine of carnal pleasure and sensual delight. 




STOIC PHILOSOPHER. 




C. ROME. 




THE RACES AND CUSTOMS OF OLD ITALY. 



HE beautiful peninsula bounded on the north by the 
majestic Alps, traversed from north to south by the 
Apennines, and surrounded on the east and south 
and west by the Mediterranean Sea, was inhabited 
in the earliest times by many tribes of different blood. 
Upper Italy on both banks of the Po (Padus) was 
the home of Gallic races, who, divided into many 
branches and communities, possessed numerous cities 
both in the fertile plains and along the sea-coast. 

Middle Italy was the dwelling-place of several 
small tribes, some of which were counted aboriginal 
and others of which had migrated from afar. To the latter belonged the Etruscans, 
to the former the Sabelli. The Sabelli were split up into different warlike and free- 
dom loving tribes and of these the Samnites, Sabines and Marsians were the most im- 
portant. The Oscans were of the same blood and to these belonged the Volscians on 
the sea-coast, the iEequi on the left bank of the Anio and the Hernici on the high- 
lands of Algidus. The Latins, a sturdy agricultural people in the " broad plain " 
south of the mountain river Tiber were another old Italian race. But in their inter- 
course with Cumse and other colonies of Lower Italy, the Latins had absorbed the 
mythical ideas of the Greeks and other elements of culture ; witness the story that 
iEneas, after the destruction of Troy, came to Latium with a band of Trojan heroes 
and married the daughter of the Latin king. 

Lower Italy was covered along both coasts with Greek colonial cities, while Sam- 
nites, Campanians, and Lucanians inhabited the inland districts, where they carried 
on continual war with each other. 

Campania, with its vineyards and cornfields, belongs to the most beautiful and fer- 
tile regions of the earth, and there the Romans built a multitude of splendid country 
houses. 

(147) 



148 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



The Etruscans were the most remarkable of the inhabitants of Middle Italy. 
They were a confederation of twelve independent cities, of which Caere, Tarquinii and 
Perusia, near the Trasimenian lake, and Clusium and Veii are best known. The 




a£& 



FLIGHT OF jENEAS WTTH ANCHTSES CARRYING THE LARES FROM TROY. 

single cities were governed by a nobility of priests. These nobles (Lucomones) 
elected in war times a federal head to whom they gave an ivory chair, a purple toga, 
and an escort of twelve lictors with bundles of rods and axes, such as were given in 
after times to the Roman Consuls. They were a people who reverenced the Gods ; 
their priests alone were in the possession of the astronomical and natural science upon 
which rested their worship of the twelve supernal and infernal Gods. The High Priest 
officiated at the sacrifice of animals with which were united predictions derived from 
the inspection of their entrails (haruspices). They were skilled in the casting of 
bronze, in pottery and in metal work of all kinds; existing ruins of temples, dikes, 
roads, bridges bear witness of their genius for building. Etruscan vases, porcelain 
vessels decorated with paintings which have been discovered in large numbers, fur- 
nish striking proof of their industry and artistic feeling. But the oppressive aristoc- 
racy which robbed the artisan and the peasant of freedom and enthusiasm soon ar- 
rested this promising Etruscan culture. 

Sabines, Samnites and Sabelli led a simple life in their poorly fortified homes. 
They loved their herds and their fields ; they loved war also and counted freedom 
their greatest good. From time to time they vowed to the Gods a "sacred spring- 
tide." All the children and all cattle born in this holy year belonged to the Gods, 
chiefly to Mars. The cattle were either sacrificed or set free at once,- but the children 
when they reached a certain age were driven forth to conquer for themselves a home. 
The Latins dwelt in thirty states ; these formed a league of which Alba Longa 




HARUSPEX OFFICIATING. 



(pp. 149.) 



150 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



was the capital. Agriculture and civil liberty flourished among them ; their religion 
was based upon nature-worship and closely connected with the tilling of the soil. To 
their deities belonged Saturn, the God of seedtime and his wife Ops, the 
Goddess of plenty ; Vesta also, the venerable Goddess of the hearth, whose 
pure, sacred flame in the round temple of the Forum was kept always burn- 
ing by the vigilance of six vestal virgins. The federal assemblies of the Latin 
union were held in a grove on the Albanian mountain. ops. 




I. ROME UNDER THE RULE OF KINGS AND PATRICIANS. 



§9? 










jj 
111 



1. THE KINGS (763—509.) 

[ING NUMITOR of Alba Longa, so runs the ancient story, was a 
descendant of the Trojan ^Eneas. He was deprived of his throne 
by his brother Amulius, and his daughter Rhea Silvia was conse- 
crated to Vesta, so that she would remain unmarried and childless. 
When, however, she bore to Mars, the god of war, the twins Rom- 
ulus and Remus, the uncle commanded the children to be exposed 
on the shores of the Tiber, where they were suckled by a wolf and 
found by a shepherd, by whom they were 
brought up. By accident they learned of 
their origin and their grandfather's fate to 
whom they restored his throne ; then they 
erected Rome in memory of their rescue, on 
the left bank of the Tiber on the Palatine 
Hill. Hardly were the walls of the city 
erected before they were stained with the 
blood of Remus, who was killed by his 
brother. 

But Rome— such is the latest view — 
originated like Athens (§ 32) in the union capitoline wolf. (Bronze Statue.) 

b. c. »53. of independent communities ; three tribes of Latin and Sabine blood 
united for defence and commercial advantage in the building of a finely located 
capitol. 

§ 94. When the city had been founded, the legend continues, Romulus pro- 
claimed it a city of refuge for fugitives and thus attracted inhabitants. But as these 
Komuius had no wives, and the neighboring tribes refused to give them their 
b. c. 730. daughters, he arranged a series of games to which he invited the sur- 
rounding peoples. When now all eyes were fixed upon the contestants, the Romans 
at a given signal rushed upon the virgins present and carried them into the city. 
This rape of the Sabine women provoked a war with the Sabines. Both sides were 
drawn up in battle-array when the kidnapped women rushed between them, their hair 
dishevelled and their raiment torn, and by declaring that they would. share the fate of 
the Romans, allayed the strife. A treaty was made, according to which the Sabines of 
the Capitoline hill united to form one community, with the Latins of the Palatine; the 




152 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Sabine King Titus Tafcius should rule jointly with Romulus, and after their death, a 
Latin and a Sabine should be chosen alternately by the Senate and the choice ratified 
in the assembly of the people. Some time after this, an Etruscan settlement on the 




RAPE OF THE SABINE WOMEN. 



Coelian hill was incorporated into the Roman commonwealth. Romulus vanished from 
earth, in a manner unknown and was worshiped as a God under the name Quirinus, 
and after this the citizens of Rome were called also Quirites. 







1. Shield of Macedonian Hypaspist. 

2. Early Greek Helmet. 
S. Later 

4. Earlv " " 

5. Greek Shield. 

6. Etruscan Sword. 

7. Persian " 

8. Etruscan " 

9. Roman Helmet. 

10. Breast Shield. 

11. 12, 13, 14, Greek Lances. 

15. Roman Helmet. 

16. Greek Sword. 



ANCIENT ARMS AND ARMOR. 

17. Greek Dagger. 

18. " Double-edged Sword. 

19. Persian Scabbard. 

20. Etruscan Shield. 

21. Roman Helmet. 

22. 23, Persian Helmets. 

24. Roman Armor. 

25. " Helmet. 

26. Persian " 

27. '• Shield. 

28. " Bow. 

29. " Shield. 

30. 31, Roman Lances. 



32, 33, 34, Roman Field Standards. 
35, 36, Roman Lances. 
37, 38, 39, Roman Field Standards. 
40. Roman Shield. 



41. 


•' 


Armor. 


42. 


" 


Shield. 


43. 


" 


Armor. 


44. 


" 


Scutum. 


45 


46," 


Falchions. 


47, 


Batte 


ing Ram and Tower. 


48. 


Roman Falchion. 


49. 


Ballista. 



(153) 



154 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



§ 95. After the warlike Romulus came an interregnum and then the wise Sabine, 

xuma pontpiiins Nurna Pompilius, who organized the new state with laws and relig- 

about b. c. too. ious institutions. He founded sanctuaries, increased the number of 

priests and gave rules for sacrifices and»predictions. Two-faced Janus, the God of all 

beginnings in space and time was honored with a temple at the entrance of the 

Forum, the gates of which were open during war and closed during peace. 

Like the Greeks who had their laws confirmed by divine utterance, Numa Pom- 
pilius declared that he had received his religious ordinances from the Nymph Egeria, 
whose sacred grove lay to the south of Rome. 

§ 96. The next two kings, the Latin Tullus Hostilius and the Sabine Ancus 

Tuihis Hostilius Marcius extended the territory of the little state by lucky wars until 

about b. c. eso. four more hills were united to the three already named ; hence the 

.■iiwii.v niaieius name of the city of seven hills. Tullus Hostilius waged war with 

about b. c. ess. Alba Longa. The armies confronted each other when it was agreed 

to decide the fate of the two cities by a duel of champions. Three brothers 

were chosen on each side, the Horatii and the Curatii. Two of the Roman 

champions had fallen already, when the victory was won for them by the cunning 




THE HORATII GOING FORTH TO BATTLE. {David.) 

and courage of the remaining brother. All three of the Curatii were wounded, 
but the Roman champion was as yet unharmed. The latter fled, pursued by 
each of the Curatii, who, weakened by their wounds, could not keep together. 
Turning upon the foremost one, the Roman slew him before the others could assist 
him. Then attacking and overpowering the second of them, the fight was his. For 
the third of the Curatii could hardly hold his shield ; he fell at the first blow and with 
him the independence of Alba Longa. The city was destroyed soon afterwards and 
its inhabitants transferred to Rome. Other cities of the neighborhood met the same 



156 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 






ens ethout B. C 



Servius TifWiic* 
about B. C. S50. 



fate under Aneus Marcius. The conquered citizens were transported to Rome, where 
they received dwelling places and a. small property, but were not allowed to share i:i 
the privileges of the older settlers. The latter were called Patricians, the new-comers 
Plebeians. They had personal liberty which distinguished them from the clients or 
dependents of the Patricians. These clients could not appear personally in the courts ; 
their patron appeared for them, and for this protection they must wait upon him as 
their lord. In the course of time the clients and all non- citizens were merged with 
the plebeians. The conquered communities that were not transported to Rome for- 
feited one third of their fields; this was converted into peasant farms for the Romans, 
and thus the communal land of Rome was increased enormously. Ancus Marcius 
built also the harbor-city Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. 

§ 97. The three last kings Tarquinius the elder (Priscus), Servins Tullius and 
Tai-vuinius Pris- Tarquinius, the proud (Superbus) belonged, according to tradition, 
to the Etruscan race ; and the tradition is confirmed by the character 
of their buildings and of the customs that they brought to Rome. 
The elder Tarquin laid the foundations for the enormous Capitol, 
which his son Tarquin the Proud completed according to his father's 
plan. The building consisted of the tower and the splendid temple dedicated 
to the three highest Etruscan deities, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The same 
king constructed the cloaca maxima, subterranean canals built of enormous stone 
blocks, the circus maximus and the great market-place or Forum. Tarquin was mur- 
dered by the sons of his predecessor and succeeded by his son-in-law, Servius Tullius, 
who reorganized the state. The Plebeians of the city and vicinity were first divided 
into thirty tribes, each having its own 
president and assembly. In the second 
place he divided the whole population, ac- 
cording to their wealth, into five classes ; 
and these into 198 centuries (or hundreds) 
for taxing, voting and military purposes. 
After the eighty centuries of the first-class 
to which the patricians belonged had 
voted, came the eighteen centuries of 
knights. Thus the richer citizens ac- 
quired greater power, but were bound on 
the other hand to serve as heavy-armed 
soldiers without pay, and their taxes were 
heavier. A sixth class, the Proletariat, 
the unpropertied crowd was exempt from 
taxation and military service but also 
powerless in political affairs. These 
changes, which tended to merge the Pa- 
tricians with the richer Plebeians, and to 
establish the kingdom upon a broader the elder brutus. 

basis of popular power drew upon Servius Tullius the hatred of the Patricians and 
with their help he was murdered by his son-in-law Tarquinius Superbus. The transi- 
tion of power from Servius Tullius to Tarquinius Superbus is represented in legend 




ROME. 



157 



as tragical and cruel. Via Scelerata (Wicked Way) is the well-known name of the 
street through which the wife of Tarquin drove furiously over the body of her mur- 
dered father. 

§ 98. Tarquin the Proud extended the frontier of the State by successful wars 
TaiQutniits with the Latins, whom he united in a league under the authority of 
superhus Rome. He completed the Capitol and deposited there the collection 
jb. c. S3J-SOO. of ancient oracles, the Sibylline books; he planted the first colonies 
in the land of the Volscians, in order to extend still further the dominion of Rome. 
Nevertheless he excited the hatred of the patricians, when he sought to increase his 
limited authority as king. His violence to the Senate and the Patricians, together with 
the heavy taxes and forced contributions exacted from the Plebeians, produced a 
general discontent, which broke into rebellion when the Romans learned of the out- 
rage upon the virtuous Lucrezia, committed by one of the king's sons. Two relatives 
of the royal family, L. Tarquinius Collatinus and Junius Brutus took an oath 
over the corpse of the murdered Lucrezia (who had killed herself in the desperation 
of shame) to avenge her death. Thereupon they called the people to freedom, and 
the destruction of tyrannical monarchy. The king apprised of the rebellion raised 
the siege of the maritime city of Ardea, a city built upon a rock, and hurried with 




BRUTUS CONDEMNING HIS SONS TO DEATH. 



his army to Rome ; he found the gates closed against him, the people having deposed 
him in full assembly. His army thereupon deserted him and with his sons he went 
into exile. As in Greek story so in Roman legend the overthrow of tyranny and the 
establishment of republican government are richly embellished with poetic fiction and 



158 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



the catastrophe of Tarquin was of course represented as the consequence of impious 
crimes on the part of the Etruscan dynasty. The expulsion of the Kings was perhaps 
a revolutionary uprising of Latin and Sabine elements against Etruscan rule. 

2. EOME AS A REPUBLIC UNDER THE PATRICIANS. 

a. Horatius Codes, Tribunes of the Plebs, Coriolanus. 

§ 99. The Senate now possessed supreme authority in Rome. It confirmed the laws 
that were adopted in the assemblies of the people upon its suggestion ; it nominated 
the officers that the people elected. Instead of a King, two consuls who were chosen 
annually, ruled the State, declared justice, and commanded the army. The calendar 
designated each year by the ruling consuls. The name of King disappeared except 
in the case of the King of sacrifices, who under the oversight of the senate managed 
all affairs of ritual and religion. " The Gods must not go without their wonted 
mediator." Only a Patrician could fill this and the other offices. The young com- 
monwealth was destined to undergo many struggles, within and without, and the story 
of them abounds in striking legends. 




MUCIUS SCJEVOLA BEFORE PORSENNA. (H. Vocjel.) 

During the consulate of Brutus and Collatinus, a number of young patricians 
formed a conspiracy to restore the exiled royal family. When this was discovered 
the stern Brutus condemned the guilty to death, although among them were his own 
two sons. From without the Etruscan King Lars Porsenna, whose help had been 
implored by Tarquin, beseiged the Janiculum hill on the right bank of the Tiber. The 



ROME. 



159 



Romans sought to dislodge him but were driven back and saved only by the bravery of 
Horatius Codes who defended the wooden-bridge across the Tiber. When the 
Romans had hewn down the bridge Horatius sprang in full armor into the river and 
swam to the opposite shore. The republic erected a statue of him and gave him all 
the land he could mark out with a plough in a single day. Another Roman, Mucius 
Scaevola entered the Etruscan camp, intending to murder the king. Knowing the 
language, he was able to reach the royal tent. But by mistake he stabbed a splen- 
didly attired servant, instead of the king. Thereupon Porsenna sought by threats to 
compel him to confess, but Mucius thrust his right hand into an adjacent sacrificial 
flame as proof that he feared neither pain nor death. Hence the name Screvola (left- 
hand). Startled by these evidences of bravery and patriotism, Porsenna made peace 
at once and hastened home. Yet the Romans were compelled to give up one-third of 
jb. c. sor. their territory and to furnish hostages. The people of Veii and the 
Latin union also made war upon Rome in behalf of the Tarquins. In this war Brutus 
the founder of the Commonwealth and Aruns Tarquinius met and killed each other. 

In this war too the Romans appointed for the first time 
b. c. 4s>». a dictator, who outranked the consuls 
and possessed absolute authority in the city and in the 
field. Dictators were named for six months only and 
when the danger was over laid down their extraordi- 
nary office. The appointment was made by the Con- 
sul in the hour of midnight, amid solemn religious 
ceremonies. 

§ 100. Tarquin, unable to regain his royal dignity 
betook himself to Cumae where he died. The state was 
b. r. 405. now in the hands of the Patricians, 
who no longer fearing the return of the royal family 
ceased to conciliate the Plebeians and oppressed them 
by the severest debtor laws. The Plebeians were re- 
quired to pay heavy ground rents for their little prop- 
erties and to serve in the army without pay, furnishing 
their own equipments. While they were on a cam- 
paign, their fields were unfilled. Bad harvests pro- 
duced poverty, and to escape impending misery they 
borrowed money of the rich Patricians at eight and ten 
per cent. Unable to pay promptly, they became the 
property of the creditors, who sold them and their chil- 
dren as slaves, or kept them on their own estates as 
bondsmen. As there was no law to protect the un- 
fortunate debtor, the Plebeians emigrated to the sacred 
mountain five miles from Rome, intending to found a 
b. c. 4o*. new city. The Patricians sent Menenius 
Agrippa to them, to persuade them to return. Agrippa told them the fable of the 
belly and its members, how by their strife the whole body was endangered, and he 
promised them relief. The Plebeians were coaxed back, and obtained at first five, and 
afterwards ten tribunes or protectors. These while in office were sacred and inviola- 




Jfe 



fijBwg^nMii 



CORIOLANUS. 



160 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

ble ; they could forbid the execution of all senate-decrees and consular edicts that 
seemed to injure the welfare of the Plebs, and if this failed they could suspend the col- 
lection of taxes. The Roman people regarded always with pride this bloodless seces- 
sion. Soon afterwards a famine broke out in Rome, and when finally ships laden with 
corn arrived from Sicily, the proud Patrician Coriolanus moved in the Senate that 
none should be distributed to the Plebeians from the public store-houses until they 
had consented to abolish the tribunes. The Plebeians thereupon placed their ban 
upon him in the great assembly and compelled him to fly. Thirsting for revenge he 
persuaded the Volscians to follow him in an attack upon Rome. Devastating all be- 
fore them, they marched to the twenty fifth mile stone, when the mother and sister of 
Coriolanus came out to intercede for the city, and induced him to withdraw. The 
b. c. 401. angry Volscians are said to have killed him ; but the captured cities 
they retained. 

b. The Fabians, Cincinnatus, the Decemvirs. 

§ 101. These quarrels of Patrician and Plebeian so weakened Rome that her 
enemies took one territory after the other from her control. The Plebeians, who had 
won the former battles, showed no disposition to shed their blood, in order to make- 
their oppressors richer and mightier. They sometimes even suffered themselves to be 
defeated, when a cruel Patrician was their leader. This happened in a war against the 
Veii, where one of the Fabii commanded. And the shame of this event so changed 
the disposition of that family, that they took up the cause of the Plebeians, and then 
b. c. 477. marched out with them against Veii. They came back from many 
campaigns victorious and loaded with booty, but returning again to attack the enemy, 
they were so thoroughly defeated, that only one survived the destruction of his race. 
As the Veii preyed upon the Roman territory from the North, so the Volsci and the 
JEqui invaded it from the South. The latter, who occupied territory reaching almost 
to Rome, attacked the Romans at Mt. Algidus with such success, that these would 
have been taken into captivity, but for Cincinnatus. For when the Senate learned of 
the danger of the army, Cincinnatus was named Dictator. The great Patrician had 
become so poor, through various misfortunes, that he possessed only a small property 
b. c. 458. on the left bank of the Tiber. He was plowing in his field when the 
call of the Senate reached him. He placed himself at the head of the #ij fan youth, 
hastened to the scene of danger, and surrounded the enemy in the night. The iEqui 
were forced to surrender their arms, their baggage, their horses, and their beasts of 
burden, and to pass under the yoke formed of three spears. 

§ 102. Bitter quarrels broke out between Plebeian and Patrician about equality of 
rights. The Plebeians demanded agrarian laws, a written code, and a share in the 
offices. 

The Roman commonwealth was in possession of great tracts of land, the use of 
which was given to the Patricians, on condition that they paid a tenth of the produce 
into the state treasury, and in addition, a sum of money for the shepherds on the pas- 
ture lands. But the Patricians came to look upon this as their own property, culti- 
vated it through their clients or slaves, paying neither the tenth part of the produce 
nor the wages of the shepherds. From time to time the Plebeians demanded land laws? 



ROME. 



161 



whereby they also could obtain a part of the public land. But their demands were 
always stoutly resisted. The consul, Spurius Cassius, a meritorious and famous man, 
b. c. 4so. who offered the first land law, was hurled from the Tarpeian rock, and 
his house reduced to ashes. 

§ 103. The administration of justice was exclusively in the hands of the Patri- 
cians. Their judgments rested upon traditions and unwritten customs, and were often 
arbitrary and unjust. The Plebeians consequently demanded fixed and written laws. 
After a stubborn resistance on the part of the Patricians, the tribunes of the Plebeians 
succeeded in sending ambassadors to Southern Italy and to Athens to study their laws, 




THE DEAD VIRGINIA. ( H. Vofjel.) 

and to select from them those that seemed adapted to the conditions of Rome. Upon 
their return, both classes agreed that all officers should give up their places, and that 
ten Pat'jcians should be given absolute authority, and charged with the formation of 
a nen _ude. These (Decemvirs) performed their task with great ability, and their 
jb. c. 431-450. laws were received with such applause by the assembly of the people, 
that the Decemvirs were appointed for a second year, so that their work might 
be perfected. But the reappointed Decemvirs now abused their unlimited power. 
During the second year of their dominion they fined, imprisoned, exiled, and exe- 
cuted so many of the Plebeians as to draw down upon them a bitter hatred. Siccius 
Dentatus, an old hero of the people, was murdered at their command, and at the close 
11 



162 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

of the second year they continued themselves in office, without the authority of the 
assembly. But the popular hatred first broke forth when Appius Claudius, one of the 
most powerful of these Decemvirs, claimed the beautiful Virginia as his slave. She 
was the daughter of Virginius, a leader of the Plebeians, and the bride of a former 
tribune, Lucius Icilius. In the midst of a great crowd Claudius beard the case in the 
Forum. One of his clients declared that Virginia was his escaped bond-maid. Hardly 

b. c. «». had the wicked judge declared in his client's favor, when the father 
rushed to his daughter, and drove a dagger through her heart. The people surrounded 
the dead body of the beautiful virgin, the Plebeian army marched into the city and 
camped on the Aventine Hill, and demanded, with threats, the banishment of the 
Decemvirs and a return to the old order. When the Senate and the Decemvirs hesi- 
tated, the people were advised by an old tribune to do as their fathers did, and abandon 
the city. Immediately the armed men formed in line, and marched through the city 
and to the gate ; men and women, old and young, followed in their train. Their 
departure broke the stubbornness of the Patricians. The Decemvirs were compelled 
to abdicate. Appius Claudius killed himself in prison, one of them was executed, and 
the rest were banished. But the laws of the twelve tables remained in force, and 
became the basis of the Roman code. 

§ 104. The Plebeians compelled, soon afterward, another concession. Marriages 

b. c. 445. between Patrician and Plebeian were legalized, and the children of 
such marriages protected in their rights. But when the Plebeians demanded a share 
in the consulate, the Patricians declared that they would rather abolish the office 

b. c. jjs. entirety. This led to the creation of military Tribunes with consular 
power. These were commanders of the army and chief magistrates, chosen by each of 
the two classes. Occasionally the Patricians were strong enough to prevent the elec- 
tion of Plebeian consular tribunes. And sometimes they were bold enough to elect 
consuls. But this arrangement lasted, notwithstanding these infractions, for nearly a 
hundred years. To mollify the Patricians two Censors were appointed, whose duty it 
was to make out the census list, in which all Roman citizens were designated, accord- 
ing to wealth and rank, as Senators, Knights, or Burgesses. They were also charged 
with the building of temples, streets and bridges, and with the oversight of public 
morals. Breaches of decency and of the public peace the}' punished with disfranchise- 
ment and loss of rank. 

c. The Taking of Rome by the Gauls and the Licinian Laics. (389 366.) 

§ 105. By a new arrangement, the citizen soldier now received pay during a cam- 
paign, and the troops were able therefore to stay longer in the field. As a consequence, 
the Romans extended their territory in the South, and under Camillus conquered the 
b. c. 39«. Etruscan city of Veii, whose inhabitants were either slain or carried 
into captivity. This was a death blow to the power of Etruria. The haughty com- 
mander became unpopular, through his ostentatious triumph and his unequal distribu- 
tion of the booty. The Tribunes of the people called him to account, but rather than 
appear before them, he went into voluntary exile, just at 'the moment when the city 
most needed him. 

§ 106. For at this time the Gauls crossed the Apennines, and besieged the Etrus- 
can city, Clusium. The inhabitants sought help of the Romans, who sent ambassadors 




THL GAULS IN ROME. 



(pp.UZ.) 



164 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




to confer with the enemy. When these weTe unable to persuade the Gauls to raise the 
siege, they took part in the fight and slew one of the Gallic chiefs. This so enraged 
the Gauls, that they marched at once upon Rome, and defeated the Roman army so 
«. c. 300. utterly at Allia, that onty a few fugitives escaped from the field. The 
day of the battle was forever afterward marked black in the Roman calendar, and kept 
as a day of penitence and prayer. Rome was abandoned by the women and children, 
and occupied at once by the Gauls. They set fire to the empty city, murdered the 
eighty old men who had remained behind to appease the gods by their blood, and then 
surrounded the capitol to which the soldiers had withdrawn. Under the command of 
Marcus Manlius, this gar- 
rison resisted so stubbornly 
that the enemy finally 
agreed to retire for a thou- 
sand pounds of gold. 
Their chief, Brennus, to 
increase the sum, threw his 
sword into one scale, and 
a doubtful story relates 
that Camillus, with a troop 
of fugitive Romans, pur- 
sued the retreating enemy 
and took away their booty. a roman triumph. 

§ 107. The Roman people were so disheartened by this invasion, that they talked 
of removing to the abandoned city of the Veii. With difficulty, the Patricians suc- 
ceeded in persuading them to remain. And to prevent a return to such a plan, the 
houses in Veii were destroyed, and Rome was hastily rebuilt with narrow and crooked 
streets and small dwelling houses. But the Patricians reclaimed their ancient priv- 
ileges, and proceeded to execute the debtor laws with the old severity. The savior of 
the capital, Marcus Manlius (Capitolinus), took the part of the oppressed and impover- 
ished Plebeians. This brought upon him the hatred of his own class. They accused 
b. c. 3s.». the hero of aiming at kingly power, condemned him to death, hurled 
him from the Taipeian rock, razed his house to the ground, and stamped his memory 
with infamy. This cruelty however aroused the Plebeians from their apathy. Two 
courageous and talented tribunes of the people Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius pro- 
is. e. 37?. posed the following laws: Consuls should be again elected, of which 
one should always be a Plebeian. No citizen should have on lease, more than five hun- 
dred acres of the public land, the rest to be distributed in small portions to the Ple- 
beians as free-hold farms. The interest of debts already paid should be deducted from 
the capital, and the remainder should be collected in three yearly installments. 

Against these proposals, the Patricians struggled mightily for ten years. But the 
firmness of the two tribunes led to their adoption, and to the abolition of Patrician 
n. c. 3«e. privilege. The pontifical offices, the new judicial dignity of Praetor, 
and some other positions were left to their exclusive control. But only for a short 
time. Just before his death, Camillus dedicated a sanctuary, at the foot of the capitol, 
to Concord. This was a monument of the settlement of the ancient quarrel ; and Rome 
now entered upon a period of civic virtue and of heroic greatness. 



ROME. 
II. ROME'S HEROIC AGE. 



165 



THE SAMNITE WARS AND THE FIGHTS "WITH PYEEHUS. 



§108. 




OVING swarms of Gauls still worried the Romans. Titus Manlius 
and Marcus Valerius distinguished themselves in fighting these, and 
the Romans now skilled in war, attacked the neighboring tribes. 
The Samnites, who dwelt among the Apennines, resisted most stub- 
bornly, and with these they were compelled to fight with little 
interruption, for more than fifty years. The war was begun by the 
inhabitants of Capua and the Campanian plains. Samnite free- 
booters had captured the Etruscan colony of Capua, but had rapidly degenerated in 

this city of pleasures. The Samnites in the mountain attacked these effeminate 

Samnites of the plain who, unable to defend themselves, turned to Rome for help. The 

Romans refused at first, but when the Capuans acknowledged their authority, they 

marched against the Samnites and defeated them at Cumae. And a second army of 
b. c. 342. the Samnites suffered such losses at the Caudine passes, that 40,000 of 

their shields were collected on the battle field. 

§ 109. The Romans were now threatened by their former allies, the Latins. 

These refused to acknowledge any longer the supremacy of Rome, and demanded 

equality, and a share in the Senate, in 

the consulate, and in the other offices. 
b. c. 3 jo. The Romans rejected their 

demands, concluded a hasty peace and 

alliance with the Samnites, and turned 

their arms against the enemy nearer home. 

As the hostile armies stood near Vesuvius, 

the Consul, Manlius Torquatus, forbade all 

single combats. His own son disobeyed, 

and was condemned to death by the stern 

father ; his comrades however celebrated 

the memory of the young hero by a great 

funeral banquet. The battle of Vesuvius 

was decided in favor of the Romans, but 

chiefly by the self-sacrifice of the Plebeian 

Consul, Decius Mus. He had himself de- 
dicated to death by a priest, and then clad 
b. c. t io. in white, he rushed on 

horse-back into the midst of the hostile 

throng. After the battle the Latins, the 

Volscians, the JEqui, and the Hernici were admitted to an alliance with the Romans. 

They were allowed to rule themselves, but were required to serve in the Roman armies. 

The brazen prows (rostra) of the Volscian ships, taken in this campaign, were used to 

decorate the tribune of the orators in the Roman Forum. 

§ 110. The Samnites now grew jealous of the Romans, and boundary quarrels 




samnian warrior. ( Vase Picture from 
Paris Louvre.) 



166 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

b. C..321. brought on another war. This was advantageous for the Romans, 
until they recklessly marched into the Caudine passes. Here they were surrounded 

b. c. 321. by the enemy under Pontius, and compelled to pass under the yoke. 
But the Senate refused to ratify the compact that the Roman consuls had made with 
Pontius, and delivered the two consuls, Veturius and Posthumius, in chains, to the 
Sainnites. The Samnites refused to receive them and even spared the hostages in 
their hands. But they attacked Rome once more. The new Roman commanders, 
Papirius and Fabius, did their utmost to wipe out the shame of the former defeat, and 
were so successful that the Samnites were compelled to seek foreign help, first from 
b. c.3io-3os. the Etruscans, and then from the Sabellians. But the energy of Rome 
increased with the number of her enemies. The Samnites were compelled to make 
terms. But the peace was of short duration, for the Samnites united with the Ura- 
brians, the Gauls, and the Etruscans, to carry on a third war, and in order to be near 
their new allies, they abandoned their own wasted territory and went to Umbria. But 
'the battle of Sentinum, where the younger Decius Mus followed the example of his 

b. c. 293. father, destroyed the last hope of the allies. Shortly afterward the 
great Samnite commander, Pontius, fell into the hands of the Romans; he was led in 
chains to the city on the Tiber, and suffered a violent death in prison. Once more 

b. c. 2oo. the Samnites attacked the Romans, but in vain. Curius Dentatus in- 
flicted upon them a second defeat, in which the Samnite youth drenched the battle- 
field with their blood. The Samnites and their allies were compelled to acknowledge 
the supremacy of Rome, and to serve as allies in the army of their victors. The 
Romans planted military colonies in the subjugated lands, but treated the vanquished 
with sagacious clemency. 

§ 111. During the Samnite wars, the rich and cowardly Tarentines behaved 
with great duplicity, and when a Roman ambassador offered them an advantageous 
treaty, they rejected it with scorn. The Romans therefore, as soon as the) r were mas- 
ters of the Samnites, marched against lower Italy. The Tarentines sought help from 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who gladly seized the opportunity, to increase his renown 
and his conquests. He was a worthy antagonist, — a man of courage and of noble 
bearing, although his army was made up of men from every nation. Partly because 
b. c. 2SO-279. of his famous line of battle, and partly because of his elephants, 
Pyrrhus was victorious in two battles ; and when he made preparations to attack 
Rome, the Senate seemed desirous of peace. But the blind Appius Claudius had him- 
self carried into the Senate to protest against such conduct, and persuaded them to 
send Pyrrhus word that no peace could be agreed upon, until the enemy left Italy ; 
" that Rome would never make peace with a victorious foe." The wisdom and digni- 
fied bearing of the Senate, which seemed to the ambassadors of Pyrrhus, like "a 
gathering of kings," the integrity and simplicity of the Roman generals, Fabricius and 
Curius Dentatus, and the courage and the discipline of the Roman legions, excited 
the admiration of the King, who hitherto had known only the degenerate Greek 
world. Not long after this Pyrrhus was called, by the Syracusans, to Sicily, to defend 
them against the Carthaginians ; but as he was preparing to take possession of the 
beautiful island, he was compelled by the Sicilian Greeks to depart. He marched 
once more to Tarentum, but was soon defeated so completely by the Romans, under 

B.c.27s. Curius Dentatus, at Maleventum (ever afterward called Beneventum), 



ROME. 167 

that he hastened to get back to Greece. Some years afterward Pyrrhus was killed in 
battle at the city of Argos. And about the same time Tarentum was made tributary 
to Rome, having lost her fleet and a part of her art treasures. The conquest of lower 
Italy soon followed. The vanquished peoples were compelled to recognize the sov- 
ereignty of Rome, either as allies or as subjects ; and the depopulated cities were col- 
onized with Romans, to whom all others were subordinated. The city on the Tiber 
was now in control of Italy. The renown of Rome had reached the Orient, and the 
Egyptian king, Ptolemy Philadelphus, sent a splendid embassy to the Senate, seeking 
an alliance with the Roman people. 

2. The Punic Wars. 

a. The First War With Carthage (B. 0. 264.-241.) 

§ 112. Carthage, a commercial city on the north coast of Africa, had been 
b. c. sso. founded centuries before by Phoenician wanderers, and had reached 
great wealth and power through the enterprise and the intelligence of her inhabitants. 
The Carthaginians carried on an extensive trade with all the countries bordering on 
the Mediterranean. They planted colonies in southern Spain and in Sicily, and grew 
so rich that the suburbs of their city was like a garden, and decorated with numerous 
splendid villas. But civic freedom, mental culture, and nobility of purpose, were un- 
known to these rich traders. The administration of law and of justice was in the 
hands of a plutocracy. Art and literature were hardly cultivated ; their religious 
worship was stained by human sacrifices, and their falsehoods and cunning were so 
well known, that Punic faith was a proverbial expression for treachery and strategem. 
For a long time the Carthaginians fought with the Syracusaus for the possession of 
Sicily; and when Dionysius, the son of a mule driver, but a young and daring warrior, 
b. c. 4oa. made himself sole ruler of Syracuse, and established, with the help of 
b.c. 367. a mercenary army, a despotism in the city, the Carthaginians rapidly 
gained ground. His son, Dionysius the younger, was a cruel and sensual prince, who 
b.c. sev. was driven from the city by the Corinthian hero, Timoleon. After 
b. c. 3jj. he had liberated Syracuse, Timoleon won the victory of Crimesus, 
whereby a limit was set to the progress of the Carthaginians. But another bold 
adventurer, Agathocles, originally a potter by trade, made himself tyrant of Syra- 
cuse ; and renewed the war, which was conducted with such varying fortune, that 
Syracuse was besieged by the Carthaginians, and Carthage by the army of Agathocles 
at the very same time. Agathocles, however, conquered the North coast of Africa 
b. c. 300. and assumed the title of king. But his army was soon annihilated, 
and he himself compelled to escape secretly to Syracuse, where he re-established 
his authority by r murder and cruelty. He was finally poisoned, and so excruciating 
was the pain he suffered, that the hoary tyrant consented to be burned to death. 
b. c. 289. A period of chaos followed. The Campanian mercenaries (Mamer- 
b. c. ass. tines) of the dead tyrant took possession of Messina, murdered or 
banished the population, plundered and devastated the whole island. In their extrem- 
b. c. 27o. ity, the Syracusans chose the brave and popular Hiero for their king. 
In alliance with the Carthaginians, Hiero attacked the Mamertines, and besieged their 
city Messina. The Mamertines thereupon turned to Rome for help. 

§113. The more honorable citizens of Rome opposed an alliance with the Mam- 



168 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



ertine robbers ; but the Senate could not resist the temptation afforded them 
by this opportunity to conquer the rich and beautiful island of Sicily, although 
they perceived that the jealous Carthaginians, who were already in possession of 
the castle of Messina, would resist them to the last extremity. The Roman re- 
inforcements soon succeeded in driving the enemy from the walls of the city, in 
b. c. 363. forming an alliance with Hiero of S3'racuse, and in depriving the 
Carthaginians of the important city Agrigentum. The Romans thereupon proceeded 
to build a fleet, according to the model of a wrecked Carthaginian ship. With this 
fleet they attacked the Carthaginians, and by means of grappling bridges, whereby 
the hostile ships could be invaded and the fight made to resemble a land fight, 
they won their first naval battle at Mylae, near the Liparian islands. This victory 
of the Consul, Duilius, so elated the Romans, that they determined to deprive the 
Carthaginians of the dominion of the Sea, and sent their Consul, Regulus, with a fleet 
and a great army, to Africa. Regulus marched victoriously to the gates of Carthage, 
supported by the recreant cities and tribes of North Africa. The Carthaginians sued 
for peace, but the haughty conqueror insisted upon such hard conditions, that thej r 

determined upon a desper- 
ate resistance. They in- 
creased the number of 
their mercenary troops, 
and intrusted the conduct 
of their defence to the 
skilful Spartan, General 
Xanthippus, who defeated 
the Romans so completely 
at the harbor city of Tunis, 
that only two thousand of 
their army escaped. The' 
others were either killed 
or taker, captive. Among 
the captives was the Con- 
b. c. ass. sul, Regulus. The recreant cities were terribly punished by the Cartha- 
ginians. Enormous contributions in money and cattle were levied upon them, and 
three thousand Numidian chiefs and civil officers are said to have died upon the cross. 
§ 114. This blow was followed by a series of calamities. Two Roman fleets were 
wrecked by storm, and the Romans compelled for years to abstain from naval warfare. 
And even on the land they ventured no great battles. They feared the elephants 
which had been so decisive at Tunis, and which they themselves had not learned to 
use. Gradually, however, they recovered their strength and courage. They made a 
b.c. 25i. successful attack from Palermo, drove back the Carthaginians and cap- 
tured their elephants. The Carthaginians, it is said, thereupon sent Regulus to Rome 
to negotiate an exchange of prisoners, exacting from him beforehand, an oath that he 
would return to captivity if the negotiation failed. Regulus dissuaded the Senate from 
the exchange, because he said it was injurious to Rome; and then, true to his oath, 
returned to Carthage. The Carthaginians were so enraged, that they killed the mag- 
nanimous man with cruel tortures. Victory wavered for many years. Appius Clau- 







ROMAN BOAKD1NU BK1DOK. 



170 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



B.e.1149. dius, who, in spite of unfavorable auspices, entered upon a battle at 
Drepanum, was defeated on sea and land. Finally the Carthaginian General, Ham- 
ilcar Barcas, took possession of the citadel Eryx, from which he was able to watch all 
the movements of the Romans. This endured as long as Drepanum was sufficiently 
provisioned, but as soon as Rome, in consequence of patriotic enthusiasm, was pro- 




REGULUS DEPARTS INTO CAPTIVITY. 



vided by wealthy citizens, and by the use of the temple treasures, with a fleet of 200 
b.c. 24,1. vessels, the Romans were able to blockade the town. And the consul 
Lutatius Catulus so completely defeated the Carthaginian navy at the iEgean islands, 
that they consented gladly to a peace, in which they gave up Sicily and the fortresses 
which they had so long defended, and agreed to pay an immense sum to defray the 
expenses of the war. 



EOME. 



171 



b. The Second Carthaginian War. (218-202.) 

§ 115. The Carthaginians refused to pay their mercenar}*- troops their stipulated 
b. c. mo. wages. This led to a terrible war that lasted through three years. 
b. c. 237. Meanwhile the Romans transformed Sicily, the granary of Itahy, into 
the first Roman province. They took possession also of Corsica and Sardinia, not how- 
ever, without severe struggles with the half barbarous inhabitants. They took away 
the island Corcyra and a few cities along the coast, from the pirates of Illyria. Their 
b. c. aae. hardest fight, however, was with the Cisalpine Gauls. These had 
b. c. 333. come down from the Alps and from the valley of the Rhone, and had 
fallen upon Etruria. The Romans defeated them in two bloody battles at Telamon, 
b. c. 325. on the Etrurian coast, and at Clastidium, on the river Po. They then 
b. c. 333. took possession of the fertile tracts of land on both sides of the Po, 
and united them with Rome by two great highways, known as the Via Flaminia and 
the Via JEmilia. Cisalpine Gaul from this time was governed as a Roman province. 

116. The Carthaginians, meanwhile, had been making conquests in South Spain. 
At first under the brave Hamilcar Barcas, and, after his 
death in battle, under the sagacious Hasdrubal, They built 
New Carthage, and thereby awakened the fear and the 
jealousy of the Romans. Hasdrubal was therefore compelled 
to sign a treaty, in which he recognized the Ebro as a 
boundary beyond which Carthage must not extend her 
conquests. The Romans at the same time formed an 
alliance with the rich and powerful trading city of Sagun- 
tum, which is held to have been a Greek colonj 7 . Hasdrubal 
was soon murdered. He was succeeded by Hannibal, the 
son of Hamilcar, then in his twenty-fifth year. Hannibal 
combined the sagacity of his predecessor with the boldness 
and the genius of his father, and, as a boy, had sworn on 
the household altar eternal hatred to the Romans. He 
began his career by a few successful battles with the Spanish tribes, and then 
b.c. 319. starting a quarrel about boundaries, he attacked Rome's ally Sagun- 
tum. He was warned, in vain, by Roman ambassadors, to abandon the siege. 
He referred them to the Senate of Carthage, but meanwhile, after eight months 
labor, compelled the city to surrender. To speak more truly, he entered the 
city, which the inhabitants had transformed into a burning ruin. For when the last 
hope of saving the city had departed, they gathered their possessions together 
in the market place, set them on fire and then plunged into the flames, except a 
few who perished by the sword of the enemy, or under the embers of their burning 
houses. The Roman embassy in Carthage thereupon demanded the surrender of 
Hannibal. The senate hesitated and vacillated. Quintus Fabius, saying that 
he carried in his bosom peace and war, bade them choose. They demanded war 
with a loud voice. Opening the folds of his toga the Roman exclaimed " take then 
war ! " Thus began the famous war of Hannibal, a mighty war of races, which was to 
determine whether the Greek-Roman culture of the west, or the Phoenician-Semitic 
culture of the east, should shape the development of mankind. 

§ 117. In the spring of the year 218 B. C. Hannibal crossed the Ebro, subdued the 




HANNIBAL. 



172 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



tribes of that vicinity, and then, with an army of 90,000 foot soldiers, 12,000 horsemen 
and thirty-seven elephants, crossed the Pyrenees. At the same time his brother, 
Hasdrubal, with a mixed army and a considerable fleet, held Spain in his control ; 
Hannibal marched through South Gaul, conquered a passage across the Rhone, and 
B.e.ms. began the immortal passage of the Alps. (Probably by the Little St. 
Bernard.) The soldiers, as they ascended, fought continually with the wild inhabitants 
and with the snow and ice. They forced their way across the walls of rock, and along 
the edges of terrible ravines, without shelter and without rest. The half of the army 
and all the cattle perished on the way. But his losses were soon made up when Han- 
nibal, after fourteen days, arrived in upper Italy. The consul, Cornelius Scipio, was 




QUINTUS FABIUS DECLARES WAR. 

defeated and severely wounded in a cavalry fight on the Ticin us river. His colleague, 
the heedless Sempronius, in spite of the wonderful bravery of his tired, hungry 
soldiers, was defeated utterly in the battle at Trebia. And this decided the Gallic 
tribes, on both sides of the Po, to attach themselves to Hannibal. After a short rest in 
Liguria, he began the difficult march across the Apennines. On this march he lost one 
b. c. 2it. of his eyes by inflammation. He now devastated Etruria, and at Lake 
Trasimene he fought the Consul Flaminius. The latter by his rashness brought upon 
himself a complete defeat, in which he perished, and his warriors were either slain or 
drowned in the lake. The fight was so hotly contested that an earthquake, which tore 
up the ground beneath the combatants, remained unnoticed. The way to Rome now 



ROME. 



173 



stood open to the victor, but the defiant courage of the Latin and Italian population of 
middle Italy, and the courageous bearing of the senate, made the Carthaginian general 
hesitate to press forward, with his exhausted troops, into the heart of the enemy's 
country. Driven back from the walls of Spoletium, he concluded to march along the 




HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS. 

east coast of the Mediterranean toward Apulia, and to detach from Rome the people of 
lower Italy. 

§ 118. Hannibal was now confronted by a man whose prudence and sagacious 
strategy caused him many difficulties. This was the Dictator, Fabius Maximus, the 
dilatory (cuncator). Fabius avoided an open battle, but pursued the enemy step by 



174 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



step, taking advantage of every unfavorable position. In Campania, where he 
occupied the mountain heights, he forced Hannibal into a position so dangerous, that 
the Carthaginian escaped only by a strategy. He tied burning branches to the horns 
of oxen and, by driving them through the mountains, was able to deceive the Roman 
general. Nevertheless the Roman people murmured at the dilatory conduct of the- 
war, and by their senseless urging, induced the Consul Tarentius Varro to venture a 
battle against the judgment of his colleague, iEmilius Paulus. . This resulted in the 
b. c. 2te. terrible defeat of the Romans at Cannae, where the number of the slain 
was so great, that Hannibal is said to have collected three bushels of gold rings taken 






from the arms of the dead knights. 



These he sent to Carthage. 




BATTLE OF CANN^. 



Parties were 



Among the captured, 
was the noble Mm\- 
lius Paullus. This 
battle-day of Cannae, 
like that of Allia, was 
marked black in the 
Roman calendar, and 
observed as a day of 
penance and pra} r er. 
The invincible senate 
preserved, in the 
midst of disaster, its 
courage and compos- 
ure. All who had 
fled at Cannae were 
declared dishonored, 
and expelled from the 
army, and the return- 
ing consul was 
thanked by the sen- 
ate, because he had 
reconciled, and vied 



not despaired of the salvation of the republic 
with each other in patriotic devotion. 

§ 119. Hannibal deemed it unwise to march at once against Rome with his weak- 
ened army, so he went into winter quarters in the rich and luxurious city of Capua. 
But his rough warriors were so weakened by the pleasures of the city, that they lost 
all zest for fight. The Romans, on the contrary, were uncommonly active, preparing to 
put fresh troops in the field in the early spring. Hannibal received no reinforcements 
from Carthage. Two successful engagements filled the Romans with courage, and 
made it possible for them to chastise the cities in Lower Italy and Sicily, which had 
gone over to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. Marcellus sailed across to Sicily and 
besieged Syracuse, but this was so bravely and successfully defended by the people, with 
the help of the ingenious mathematician and scientist Archimedes, that Marcellus was 
b. c. 214. able to conquer the city only after three years of tremendous effort. Ter- 
b. c. 212. rible, however, was the revenge of the Romans. The soldiers murdered 
and plundered. Archimedes„was clubbed to death. The works of art were carried to 
Rome, and the glory of Syracuse was destroyed forever. Capua suffered a like fate. 



176 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

Two Roman legions surrounded the city. The inhabitants besought Hannibal for 
help. The latter marched to the gates of Rome, hoping that the Romans would 
abandon the siege in order to save their capital. The excitement in Rome was almost 
wild, when the flames of the neighboring cities announced the coming of the enemy, 
and the terrible phrase " Hannibal is at the gates," never disappeared from the mem- 
ory of the people. Nevertheless, only a part of the troops left Capua for Rome. Han- 
nibal was compelled to retreat, and the starving Capua compelled to surrender. Twentj'- 
b. c. mi. eight Capuan senators died by their own hands ; ' fifty -three were be- 
headed ; the citizens were reduced to slavei\y, and their property divided among for- 
eign settlers. The treasures of Capua were carried to Rome, all rights were abolished, 
b. c. 2o». and Roman prefects ruled the city. Two years later, Tarentum came 
again into the power of the Romans. Fabius Maximus, " the shield of Rome," led the 
inhabitants into slavery and took possession of their treasure, but did not disturb the 
statues of " the angry gods." Terror soon led the recreant states back to Rome, and 
Hannibal's situation without money, without reinforcements, and without provisions, 
jb. c. 20s. became, with every day, more critical. His victory at Venusia, where 
Marcellus, " the sword of Rome," fell into an ambuscade, was the last successful deed 
of the great Carthaginian. 

§ 120. Hannibal's only remaining hope was Spain, now that he was abandoned 

by his ungrateful country. His brother, Hasdrubal, was 
there. He had successfully resisted the Romans for a 
long time, until confronted by the young and able Corne- 
lius Scipio, who so pressed him, that he could no longer 
remain, and therefore determined to unite with his 
brother, who had called him to Italy. Crossing the Alps, 
b. c. sos. as Hannibal had done, he arrived in upper 
Italy, and, moving along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, 
he pushed forward to the camp of his brother, who was 
confronted in lower Italy by the Consul, Claudius Nero. 
The consul now resolved upon a daring plan. Unper- 
ceived, he slipped away to Umbria, formed a union 
b.c. sos. with his colleague, Livius Salinator, at- 
tacked and destroyed the army of Hasdrubal, near the 
river Metaurus, before Hannibal received news of his 
brother's arrival, the Romans having captured all the 
Carthaginian messengers. Hasdrubal's bloody head, 

.„ . x which the returning consul hurled into the Carthaginian 

Cornelius sctpio. [Africa nun.) ° .,-,■,. i , 

camp, was the first notice that the distressed general 

received of his impending fate. 

§ 121. But Hannibal in adversity revealed the true greatness of his military 
genius. Without aid from abroad, meanly supported by his native city, abandoned by 
his Italian allies, except the few cities which, like Crotona, were afraid of Punic gar- 
risons, or of Roman vengeance, he maintained himself nevertheless against a superior 
foe, with the remnant of his army, for several years. Meanwhile Cornelius Scipio con- 
quered Gades, the last bulwark of the Carthaginians, and, having completed the con- 
quest of Spain, returned victorious and laden with booty, to be rewarded with the 




178 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Roman consulate by his grateful fellow-citizens. But he soon grew tired of the cap- 
ital where he had many powerful opponents, and where the constitution and the laws 
hampered his imperious will. Moreover, his soul thirsted for activity, and the applause 
of the people spurred him on to new enterprises. The cautious Senate refused to 
sanction his plan of a campaign in Africa, but appointed him governor of Sicily. 
Scipio opened a recruiting camp in- Syracuse. The Roman warriors, who had fled from 
Cannee, and many other volunteers, hastened to his standard, and many cities made 
contributions, in order to provide his army with all the requisites for a great expedi- 
tion. Scipio then set sail across the Mediterranean, and with the help of the Numicl- 
ian king, Masinissa, the Romans surprised the camp of the Numidians and Cartha- 




ANCIENT UTICA. 



b. c. aoj. ginians, not far from Utica, set fire to their tents of straw and wooden 
huts, and defeated the united enemy with great loss. Masinissa had formerh r fought 
against Scipio, but changed sides when his neighbor, Sj'phax, of West Numidia, a 
friend of Carthage, robbed him of his kingdom and of his beautiful bride, Sophonisbe, 
the daughter of Hasdrubal, and compelled him to flee to the desert. Syphax fell into 
the hands of Scipio in a second battle, and was carried prisoner to Rome, where he 
soon perished miserably. His stolen wife, Sophonisbe, hoped to escape the vengeance 
of the Romans by a speedy marriage with Masinissa, but, when threatened with 
captivity, she preferred the cup of poison which was given her by Masinissa. After 
such blows as these, Carthage had but one remaining hope, Hannibal and his Italian 



ROME. 



179 



army. With mutterings and tears, the hero abandoned the land of his glory, in obedi- 
ence to the call of his country. He sought in vain, in a personal interview with Scipio, 
to make a treaty of peace. Scipio refused and the battle of Zama followed, which, in 
b. c. ao3. spite of the bravery of the veteran soldiers and the skilful disposition 
of the Carthaginian general, ended in his defeat. Hannibal now advised peace on any 
terms. The Carthaginians were compelled to promise to begin no war without the 
consent of the Romans, to give up all claim to Spain, to surrender their war ships, and 
to pay a large yearly tribute. After burning the Carthaginian fleet, and conferring 
the kingdom Numidia upon his friend Masinissa, Scipio (henceforth Scipio Africanus) 
returned to Rome, where a splendid triumphal procession awaited him in the decorated 
streets. Hannibal, on the contrary, was compelled to abandon his native country, and 
as a persecuted fugitive, carried his hatred for Rome to the court of the Assyrian king 
Antiochus. 



c. Macedonia Conquered Corinth and Carthage Destroyed. (B. C. 146.) 

§ 122. Macedonia 
and a part of Greece 
was at this time gov- 
erned by King Philip 
III., a young man of 
intelligence and wit, 
and attractive man- 
ners, but faithless, 
sensual, and wicked. 
He had formed an 
alliance with Hanni- 
bal, and made war 
upon the Romans and 
their allies in Greece 
and Asia Minor. 
Consequently, after 
the Punic wars, the 
Romans turned their 
arms against him. 
They sent Quintius 
Flaminius, a man 
who delighted in Greek art and literature into Greece, to stir up the Hellenic 
b. c. 107. cities to rebellion. The Macedonians were attacked and defeated at 
Dog's Head (Kynoskephala), a Thessalian range of hills not far from Pharsalus. 
Philip was compelled, by this defeat, to acknowledge the independence of Greece, to 
surrender his fleet and a large sum of money, to give up all his foreign possessions, 
and the right of waging war. In order to flatter the vanity of the Greeks, Flaminius 
announced, in the most ostentatious manner at the Isthmian games, the liberation of 
b. c. 196. Greece from Macedonian rule. But the Romans soon sought to exer- 
cise dominion over the Hellenic states. The warlike iEtolians therefore placed them- 
selves at the head of several Greek tribes, as the Achaians had formerly done, and 




BATTLE OF ZAMA. 



180 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



appealed to the Syrian king, Antiochus III. Antiochus, at whose court Hannibal was 
a guest, followed their call; but he wasted his time in banquets and debauchery, in- 
sulted the Macedonian king, his natural ally, instead of attacking the Romans at once 
and with united energy. The Romans marched swiftly into Thessaly, stormed Ther- 
mopylae, and compelled the Assyrian king to retreat to Asia. He was followed thither 
b. c. too. by a Roman army under Cornelius Scipio, the brother of Africanus. 
At Magnesia a sanguinary battle was fought, in which Antiochus was utterly defeated. 
He was compelled to purchase peace by ceding to Rome all his European possessions, 
and all the lands of Western Asia this side of the Taurus. In addition he paid an 




CAPTURE OF THE CARTHAGINIAN FLEET BY THE ROMANS. 

enormous sum of money. The iEtolians were also subjugated and punished with 
heavy fines. Hannibal, to escape the Romans, fled to King Prusias of Bithynia. 
b. c. is3. When the latter could no longer protect him, he took poison to escape 
his enemy. He had faithfully kept the oath of his boyhood in a struggle of fifty 
3'ears. His great antagonist, Scipio, died about the same time on his estate in Lower 
Italy far from Rome, from which his enemies had driven him ; and to fill up the 
measure of this fateful year, Philopcemen also was compelled to drink the poi- 
soned cup. 

§ 123. Perseus, the wicked son of Philip III., persuaded his suspicious father to 



HOME. 181 

b. c. 181. murder his noble son Demetrius, who was well disposed to the Roman 
people. Remorse soon carried the unhappy father to his grave. And as soon as 

x. c. no. Perseus ascended the throne, he began a new war which led to his 
overthrow. His immense, riches made it possible for him to have'made great prepara- 
tions, but his avarice and stubborn conceit made him an easy prey to the skillful and 

b. c. ies. experienced Roman general, iEmilius Paulus. Perseus was defeated 




TITUS Q. FLAMINIUS PROCLAIMING LIBERTY TO THE GREEKS. (II. Vogel.) 

at the battle of Pydna, and fled with his adherents to the island of Samo-Thrace, but 
they were compelled to surrender themselves unconditionally to Octavius, the com- 
mander of the Roman fleet. And the king with his treasures, his captive children 
and friends, was led in triumph through the streets of the city of the world. To all 
his pleadings the Romans answered, "Free yourself from shame," but he had not the 
courage to take his own life. He died a captive at Alva. Macedonia was divided 
into four districts, which were granted republican government. A thousand noble 



182 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



b. r. no. Achaians ("among them the great historian Polybius) were carried as 
hostages to Rome. 
Twenty years later a 
pretended son of 
Perseus (false Philip 
as he was called) 
raised the standard 
of rebellion against 
Rome. This gave the 
Romans the wished- 
for opportunity to 
convert Macedonia 
b. c. ijs. into a 
Roman province. 
Metellus soon over- 
came the pretender, 
but he had hardly 
left the conquered 
land, when the 
Achaian league took w 
arms, hoping to break 5 
the yoke of Roman £ 
bondage. Metellus § 
marched to meet « 
them and had defeat- § 
ed them in two bat- 2 
ties, when he was suc- 
b. c. mi. ceeded 
by Mummius, a rough 
and uncultivated war- 
rior, by whom the 
splendid city of 
Corinth was stormed 
and burned to the 
ground. The Corin- 
thians were either 
slain or sold into 
captivity; the works 
of art destroyed, sold, 
or carried off to 
Rome ; Greece con- 
verted into a Roman 
province, and, under 
the name of Achaia, 
made subject to the 
governor of Macedonia. A phantom of their former freedom and self-government 




ROME. 



183 




was conceded to the Greek cities, but only a phantom. Roman oppression and 
Roman taxation soon destroyed the prosperity of the once flourishing cities, and 

quenched the love and liberty and the 
patriotism of former centuries. The Spar- 
tans became mercenary soldiers, the Athe- 
nians wandered about as artists and scholars, 
actors and dancers, and poets. The Romans 
patronized them and despised them. 

§ 124. Carthage meanwhile returned 
coin of perseus. tf » ner former prosperity. The jealousy of 

Rome revived, and Cato concluded his 
famous speeches invariably with the declaration "-Carthago delenda est." "Carthage 
must be destroyed." Trusting to Roman protection, the Numidian king Masinissa 
enlarged his territory 
at the expense of 
Carthage, provoking 
boundary quarrels 
and invasions. Rome 
declared these inva- 
sions a breach of the 
treaty, and declared 
war. The Carthagi- 
nians pleaded for 
mercy, and delivered 
b. c. i4o. to the 
Romans three hun- 
dred hostages, their 
arms and their ships. 
Nevertheless the 
sentence was pro- 
nounced, " Carthage 
must be torn down." 
The citizens were 
permitted to build a 
new town ten miles 
distant from the sea, 
but they determined 
rather to be buried 
under the walls of 
their houses, than to 
abandon their ancient 
and beloved home on 
the sea. A daring 
courage, a patriotic 

enthusiasm seized all ranks and ages. The city became a camp ; temples were con- 
verted into forges and armories. Even the veteran legions of Rome were powerless in 




BATTLE OF PYDNA. 




184 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

the presence of this enthusiasm. Frequently defeated, their condition was extremely 
critical, when the younger Scipio, the talented son of vEmilius Paulus, and the 
adopted son of Scipio, became consul and dictator. He finally succeeded in con- 
B.c.iia. quering the starved and pest-stricken city. But only after a des- 
perate resistance, and six clays of murderous conflict in the streets. The rage of the 
embittered combatants and a terrible conflagration destroyed the majority of the pop- 
ulation. A desperate band of Roman deserters, who with the general, Hasdrubal, and 
his wife and children, defended the temple of " The god of rescue," despairing of 
their lives, set the building on fire, expecting all to perish in the flames. But 
Hasdrubal did not share the heroic feeling of his wife ; he escaped and sought mercy 
from the Romans. Fifty thousand inhabitants escaped the sword, but they were sold 
into slavery, or doomed to long imprisonment by the victorious Scipio, henceforth 
known as the younger Africanus. "Let Carthage be leveled to the ground," was 
the decree of the Roman senate. " Let the barren 
site be torn up by the plow, and the soil be 
cursed forever." For seventeen days the fire 
raged, and the proud mistress of the Mediterra- 
nean became a pile of ashes. " Where the indus- 
trious Phoenicians had wrought and traded for 

five centuries, Roman slaves now pastured the coin of . oexandek <■. ■■ : > 

herds of their absent masters." The subject 
territory was henceforth known as the Roman province, Africa. 

d. Roman Culture and Manners. 

§ 125. The acquaintance of the Romans with Greece wrought great changes in 
Roman culture, Roman morals, and Roman habits of life. The works of Grecian art 
and literature, taken from the plundered cities, produced a taste for culture, and 
awakened new feelings and new ideas. A powerful party, at the head of which were 
the Scipios, Marcellus, Flaminius, and others, favored Hellenic philosophy, poetry 
and art, patronized Greek scholars, poets and philosophers, and sought to bring to 
Rome not only the art treasures, but the mind and the language of the conquered 
people. Roman poets appeared who followed Grecian models. Plautus and Terence 
piantus, b. c. 18*. wrote comedies, and the latter was patronized by the younger Scipio 
and his friend Lselius. Twenty comedies of Plautus and six of Terence have been 
Terence, b. c. iso. preserved, and have been frequently imitated by modern dramatists. 
The Romans, however, were practical people ; their thoughts were directed to the art 
of war, to the administration of the state, and to jurisprudence. The common people 
had more pleasure in parades, in gladiatorial fights, and fights with wild beasts, than in 
the productions of art or the gifts of the Muses. But the richer classes introduced 
into their homes the elegance and refinement of Greek life, clothed themselves in fine 
raiment and gave luxurious banquets. They adopted too the social politeness of the 
Oriental, his sensual pleasure, his lust of the eye and lust of the mind. As a conse- 
quence the ancient morals, discipline, simplicity, moderation, and fortitude began to 
disappear. This led M. Porcius Cato to form an opposition party, in order to resist 
these innovations. As censor, he proceeded with the utmost severity to put down 
Greek philosophers, Greek orators, Greek festivals, Greek religious usages and every 



ROME. 



185 



kind of luxury' and sensual splendor. Cato also composed writings upon agriculture 
the basis of Rome's ancient greatness, and upon the old Italian races, whose simplicity 
and moral purity he contrasted with the degenerate manners of his own time. Yet 




METELLUS IN GREECE. 



Cato's own example, for he himself learned Greek in his old age, shows that strict ad- 
herence to the ancient and traditional, must succumb to the progressive tendency of a 
new epoch. 



186 THE ANCIENT AVORLD. 

III. ROME'S DEGENERACY AND THE PARTY STRUGGLES OF 



126. 




THE REPUBLIC. 

1. NtTMANTIA, TIBERIUS, AND CAIUS GKACCHUS. 

HE Roman dominion was increasing, but Roman virtue, Roman pa- 
triotism, the sources of their greatness, were as rapidly decreasing- 
The rich and the noble 
formed a new aristocracy, 
which, like the earlier 
Patrician, appropriated to 
itself all dignities and 

offices. To increase' their inherited glory by 

victories and triumphal processions, they sought 

continually for new wars, in which they could 

be conspicuous. And in order not to diminish 

the riches upon which the power of the family 

was based, and yet at the same time to enjoj' 

every pleasure and delight, the provinces were 

plundered and their clients were oppressed. 

The Optimates, the men of the new nobility, 

were made pro-consuls and pro -praetors in the 

conquered lands. Surrounded by a mob of 

secretaries and officials, they looked far more 

to their own advantage, than to the happiness 

of the people of the provinces. The richer 

members of the order of Knights farmed out the taxes, paying into the state treasury 

a definite sum, and 
then, by means of tax- 
gatherers, doubling 
and tripling this 
a m o u n t . Hungry 
tradesmen and 
money-lenders took 
the little that was left 
by the officials and 
the tax-gatherers, so 
that a generation was 
long enough to de- 
stroy the prosperity 
of a Roman pro- 
vince. A law existed, 
it is true, which gave 
the outraged people 
the right to accuse 
their oppressors at 




ROMAN LADY AND SLAVE. 




DEAD GLADIATOR HAULED TO THE SPOLIARIUM. (A. Wagner.) 



ROME. 



187 



the close of an administration and to require a restoration of their property. But 
the judges all belonged to the aristocracy or the plutocracy. Accordingly the guilty 
went scot-free, or were condemned to pay a small penalty or banished from Rome for a 
brief period. 

Occasionally a pro- 
vince sought to shake off 
the yoke, and to conquer 
freedom in battle. The 
first example of such an 
uprising was given by the 
inhabitants of Spain, the 
Lusitanians, who dwelt in 
what is now Portugal, 
under their brave leader 
Viriathus, and the heroic 
Spanish race who dwelt in 
and around Numantia. 
Viriathus was murdered 
by a band of faithless con- 
spirators, but the Numan- 
tians defied the Romans 
for five years, and com- 
b. c. 130. pelled from 
the Roman Consul, whom 
they surrounded in the 
mountains, the recognition 
of their independence. 
But the Senate refused to 
confirm this agreement. 
The Consul, stripped of his 
decorations and with his 
hands tied behind his back, 
was delivered to the 
enemy, and the war re- 
sumed. But the brave 
mountaineers were not yet 
conquered. The younger 
Scipio now took the field, 
and having restored the 
ancient discipline, was 
able, with his army, to 
compel the surrender of 
b. c. 133. Numantia. The intrepid citizens died by their own hand, rather than 
endure the taunts of the victors. Scipio (henceforth Numantinus) destroyed the 
empty city, whose ruins still look down upon posterity, the glorious monument of a 
noble struggle for independence. 




THE TAKING OF CARTHAGE. 



188 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



§ 127. The new nobility not only filled all the offices, excluding all newcomers 
from positions of high honor, but possessed all the public land, and rapidly absorbed 
the small freeholds by purchase, usury, 
intrigue, and even violence. This brought 
about a great inequality of fortune. The 
free-hold farmers, the strength of ancient\ 
Rome, disappeared entirety, while the 
Aristocrats accumulated great estates, 
which were cultivated by hordes of slaves. 
These were known as latifundia. Throngs 
of beggars, composed of men and women, 
hunted from house and barn by cruel land- 
lords, wandered through Italy, the picture 
of human misery. Tiberius Gracchus, son 
b. c. 133. of Cornelia, and grandson 
of the great Scipio Africanus, now rose up 
as the protector of oppressed povert}'. 
He proposed to renew the Licinian laws 
so that no one should jjossess more than 
500 acres (jugera) of the public land. 
The rest to be distributed in small por- 
tions among the needy families. He was 
met with a storm of hatred. The Aristo- 
crats found another tribune of the people 
to veto the proposal of the tribune Tiberius, 
And as, by Roman law, the tribunes 
must be unanimous, the proposal was de- 
feated. But Tiberius Gracchus urged the 
people to depose his colleague, and thereby 
violated the sanctity of the office. His 
enemies accused him of intending revolu- 
tion ; he lost gradually the favor of the people, and at an election of tribunes, he, 
with 300 of his adherents was slain by the Optimates and their supporters. The peo- 
ple who had abandoned him, honored his memory by 
the erection of his statue. 

§ 128. Caius Gracchus, the younger brother, was 
as brave, as determined, and far more talented. He 
jb. c. 123. renewed the proposal of Tiberius, and 
with it proposed a distribution of grain at fixed prices, 
to the poorer citizens. His extraordinary eloquence 
and his humane efforts, created for him a powerful fol- 
lowing among the people, whose pressing misery he 
sought to relieve by building highwaj"S, by public 
works, and by the founding of colonies on the African 
coast. As he marched through city and land, no one 
ventured to oppose him, especially as the great Scipio 




ROMAS DANCING WOMAN. 




TRIUMPHAL QUADRIGA. 



ROME. 



189 



Africanus ^Emilianus had beeu found one morning murdered in his bed. But when 
the tribune of the people, urged by his violent friend, Fulvius Flaccus, proposed to 
give the right of Roman citizenship to the allies, in order to strengthen his following 
and his power, the Aristocrats, in their terror, determined to destroy him. As in the 

case of his brother, a tribune was won over, Livius Drusus 
.vetoed his proposals, and made the people believe that this 
'increase of Roman citizens was a blow directed at them- 
selves. He promised them also many advantages, if they 
coin of tryphon. {Syria.) would support him in his contest with Gracchus. A terrible 

fight took place between the two parties, the Aristocrats, 
with the consul Opimius at their head, and the adherents of Gracchus and of Fulvius. 
Fulvius and 300 of his companions were slain, and their corpses thrown into the Tiber ; 
Gracchus escaped to a grove beyond the river, and perished at the hands of a faithful 
slave, who plunged, as his master commanded, a sword into his breast. The laws and 





CORNELIA AND THE GRACCHI. (H. Vogel.) 

a. c. 121. ordinances of Gracchus were abolished ; his party friends punished 
with death, imprisonment, and exile. The Aristocrats were once more the rulers of the 
republic. They declared the memory of the Gracchi infamous. But the people paid 
the noble brothers an increasing tribute of reverence. 



The Times of Marius and Sylla. 
§ 129. The Jugurthine War. — The Aristocrats disgraced their rule by greed 



190 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




ROMAN CHAIR OF STATE. 



and bribery, by the defiance of every feeling of justice and of honor. Jugurtha the cun- 
ning, skillful, and ambitious grandson of Masinissa of N'umidia, took advantage of this 
moral degeneracy and corruption in Rome, and killed two sons of his uncle, who had 

been made joint rulers with 
him. He took possession of 
their states, the sovereignty 
of which the Romans had 
guaranteed them, and by 
bribing influential Senators, 
he was able to remain in pos- 
session of his plunder, and 
to heap crime upon crime. 
Finally the anger of the peo- 
ple compelled the Senate to 
send an army to Africa ; but 
the Numidian king, by brib- 
ery and corruption, produced 
such disorder in the army, 
that the}' were beaten in the 
first encounter and compelled 
to pass under the yoke. This 
disgrace so embittered the Romans, that the Senate was compelled to take measures for 
s.cioa. the punishment of the insolent king. Metellus was sent with fresh 
troops to Africa. He restored discipline to the army, and victory to the Roman 
standards. But the people were so embittered against the aristocracy, that they were 
determined, at eveiy cost, to drive them from control. To this end they needed a bold 
leader from their own circle, and they found one in the ambitious Caius Marius, a man 
of ignoble birth, but brave, enterprising, endowed with great military ability, and 
filled with hatred for the rich and the aristocratic. The rough warrior despised all 
culture and refinement. And, smarting from an insult which he had received from the 
haughty Metellus, was eager for revenge. He offered himself as consul, was elected 
b. c. tor. by the popular party, succeeded in having Metellus pushed aside, and 
himself entrusted with the conduct and completion of the Jugurthian war. The 
energetic Marius and his severely disciplined armj r , soon proved too strong for 
Jugurtha, with all his cunning and expedients. He was conquered, and driven to take 
refuge with Bocchus, king of Mauritania. But this faithless and vacillating prince 
b. c. tos. delivered him to Cornelius Sylla, who was next in rank to Marius. 
The " Son of the desert " was carried in triumph to Rome, imprisoned in an under- 
ground cell of the capital, and starved to death in his " Chilly bathroom," as he called 
his dungeon, upon entering it. 

§ 130. The Cimbrians and Teutonians. The African war was not yet ended, 
when the Cimbrians and Teutonians appeared on the Roman frontiers. These northern 
races were of gigantic size and strength, and were marching forward with their women, 
children, and property, to conquer for themselves new homes. They were clad in skins 
of beasts and in iron armour, and carried enormous shields, long swords and heavy 
b.c. 113. clubs. They first attacked the Romans in Karinthia. The latter had 



ROME. 



191 



expected to lead them into an ambuscade, but were defeated in a bloodj- battle, after 
which the barbarians marched through Gaul, plundering and ravaging. Within four 
years, they annihilated five consular armies in the valley of the Rhone and on the 
shores of Lake Geneva. At this juncture, Marius, whom the Romans had re-elected 
b. c. loa-ioo. repeatedly to the consulate, contrary to the law, appeared as the savior 
of the republic. His army, recruited from all classes and tribes of Italy was proof 
against fatigue of every kind. Marius exercised the strictest discipline, compelled his 
soldiers to endure all manner of hardships, and to perform every kind of labor. The 
Teutons returning from an expedition into Spain, and marching toward Upper Italy, en- 
countered Marius at Aqua; Sextite, and were 
defeated with terrible slaughter. The Cim- 

b. c. 102. brians, who had meanwhile 
broken through the Tyrol, and the valley of the 
Etsch, into upper Italy, abandoned themselves 
to the pleasures offered them by that rich coun- 
try: and were suddenly overwhelmed by Marius 
and his colleague Lutatius Catulus, near Ver- 
cellae. The rough courage of these Germans, 
who slaughtered themselves and their children, 

b. c. 101. rather than enter into slavery, 
made the Romans tremble. Small remnants of 
the Cimbrians sought shelter in the Venetian 
Alps, and in the mountains of Tyrol, where 
their posterity remain to this very day. The 
battle of Vercellre gave new strength to party 
quarrels, as the Democrat, Marius, demanded 
for himself the glory of the day, which, in the 
opinion of the Aristocrats, belonged to Catulus. 

§ 131. The War Against the Allies. Marius, the savior of Italy, the pride 

b. c. too. and the hope of the popular party, was rewarded with a sixth consulate. 
The Aristocrats now gathered about Cornelius Sylla, an ambitious statesman of military 
genius, who united in himself the culture of the Aristocrat and the vices of the people. 
His was a strong mind in a strong body. Under his leadership, the Aristocrats made 
rapid progress in opposition to the Democratic party. The illegal conduct of Satur- 
ninus, the tribune of the people, who, secretly, supported by Marius, distributed corn 
to the poo'r, and lands in Gaul and North Africa to the soldiers of Marius, was the 
prelude of a terrible party -struggle, which became more threatening with every clay. 
The exile of the haughty but blameless Metellus, who refused to execute the decree of 
the people, was intended to deter the senators from all opposition. By r deeds of mur- 
der and outrage, Saturninus prolonged his period of office, and obtained for his com- 
panion, the infamous Glaucia, the consular dignity. Marius now grew ashamed of his 
allies and abandoned them. This gave the Optimates the courage to oppose their 
antagonists. The lawless conduct of the factions now destroyed all public order, and 
the popular excitement broke out in insurrection and street-conflicts. The Democrats 

n. c. oo. were beaten ; their leaders, with many of their adherents, were murdered 
bv the aristocratic youths, who tore the tiles from the roof of the capitol to hurl upon 




INHABITANT OF GERMANY AT THE BEGIN- 
NING OP OUR ERA. 



192 



THE AXCIENT WORLD. 



their heads. But the mass of the people and their Italian allies, continued their disor- 
der and violence. Livius Drusus, the younger, sought to mediate between the Senate 
and their opponents, and proposed to help the poor by land laws, colonization, and dis- 
tribution of corn; and to satisfy the allies by conferring upon them the rights of citizen- 
ship. But the Aristocrats refused to listen to him ; he was attacked in his own house, just 
b. c. at. as he was dismissing the crowd that had escorted him home, and he died 
in a few hours. The murderer was not discovered, and the proposed laws of Drusus 
came to nothing. The cheated allies, who were enthusiastic for the plans of Drusus, 
now rushed to arms, determined to conquer equal rights or independence. The 

Sabellians, the Samnites, and the Marsians declared 
their independence of Rome, formed an Italian league, 
b. c. Boss. and proclaimed Corfinium, under the 
name of Italica, the capital of the new union. Veteran 
armies took the field. In Rome the people put on 
mourning, armed the freed-men and gave equality of 
rights to the Latins, the Etruscans, and the Umbrians. 
And after wavering fortunes and many bloody battles, 
the Romans succeeded in conquering the enemy. The 
proud anti-Rome, Italica, sank back to its former 
obscurity. But the danger was yet so imminent, that 
the Romans deemed it prudent to concede the rights 
of citizenship to all their allies. But they divided these 
new citizens among eight tribes only, so as to limit 
their political power. 

§ 132. The First War Against Mithridates. 
Hardly were the allies pacified, when the Romans were 
attacked from the East by a brave and able prince, 
Mithridates, king of Pontus, on the Black Sea. He 
sought to unite into one great league, the Asiatic and 
Greek states, which were brought to despair by the 
oppression of Roman tax-gatherers, and to conquer 
independence from Roman rule. Faithless and cruel, 
but strong, energetic, and invincibly courageous, the 
king of Pontus was the most important enemy of the 
Roman people ; and against him, they defended them- 
selves like the lion of the desert against the hunter. 
In western Asia, at the command of Mithridates, on one terrible day, all men 
who wore the toga, 80..000 in number, were put to death. At the same time, 
the king took possession of Roman territory, and sent an army into Greece to 
protect the Athenians, the Boeotians, and others who had joined him. The Roman 
Senate thereupon gave Sylla the command of the war against him. Sylla had 
distinguished himself in the war against the allies, and had been chosen consul. 
jb. c. ss. But Marius, with the help of the eloquent tribune, Sulpicius, and of 
the " New citizens " obtained a decree of the people, according to which he was him- 
self entrusted with the conduct of the Mithridatic war. The two messengers who 
brought this edict into Sylla's camp, were stoned to death by the angry soldiers, and 




ROMAN CENTURION. 




GERMAN WOMEN DEFENDING THEIR WAGON CASTLES. (A. de NeuVllle.^ 

13 (pp. 193. ) 



194 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Sylla marched straightway to Rome. He drove Marius, with eleven of his companions, 
into exile as traitors to their country, restored the authority of the Senate, arranged 
for the safety and the order of the city, and then resumed the campaign against Mith- 
ridates. Marius escaped manifold dangers, and found his way to Africa. 

§ 133. The First Civil War. Sylla first stormed Athens, which atoned for its 

rebellion by a terrible massacre. He then plundered the temple of Delphi, and con- 

b. c. se. quered the army of the king of Pontus in two battles. He marched 

through Macedonia and Thrace to Asia Minor, and compelled Mithridates to make a 

b. c. 84. peace, in which Rome once more 
acquired control of Western Asia, and in addi- 
tion, a large sum of money and the entire navy 
of the Pontian king. The rebellious cities and 
districts were punished severely by fines and 
confiscation. Flavius Fimbria, the adherent of 
Marius, who had defeated Mithridates before 
Sylla's arrival, was now threatened by the latter, 
and abandoned by his soldiers. The cruel de- 
stroyer of new Ilium, thereupon took his own 
life, in a temple at Pergamos. Marius mean- 
while had left the ruins of Carthage, and re- 
turned to Italy. He gathered about him a 
band of desperate men, and allying himself 
with the Democratic leaders, Cinna and Serto- 
rius, marched to the gates of Rome. The city 
weakened by hunger and discord, soon surren- 
dered, and Marius gave his vengeance free 
course. Mobs of rough soldiers plundered and 
murdered on every side. The leaders of the 
Aristocratic party, the most respected and 
renowned Senators and Consulars, were slain, 
their houses plundered, their property confis- 
cated, and their corpses abandoned to dogs and 
vultures. Marius then had himself chosen 
consul for the seventh time, and thus reached 
the goal that had been promised him by an 
oracle in his youth, and toward which he had 
struggled restlessly for many years. The ex- 
citement, in which his own rage and his fear of Sylla's prosperity and revenge had 

b. c. se. brought him, chased all peace from his soul. He abandoned himself 
to drink, and a violent fever soon put an end to his life. Two years afterward Cinna 
was slain in a soldiers' quarrel. 

§ 134. In the year 83 before Christ, Sylla landed in Italy and marched 

b. c. S3. immediately to Rome. In Lower Italy he defeated several times the 
Democratic consul, besieged the younger Marius in the fortified city of Prasneste, 
driving him to suicide ; and then in a bloody battle near the gates of Rome, defeated 
the Marian party and the rebellious Samnites. Marius, before his departure from 




EAGLE ON ROMAN STANDARD. 



ROME. 



195 



the capital, had put to death the venerable Pontifex Maximus, Scsevola, and other 
chiefs of the opposition party; and Sylla, to revenge them, slaughtered four thousand 
prisoners in the Circus Maximus, in the presence of the trembling Senate. 100,000 

b. c. sa. human lives had already perished in the civil war, when Sylla " the 
fortunate," as he was called, published the 
proscription lists, upon which stood the 
names of those Romans who were to be 
plundered and murdered. All ties of blood, 
of friendship, of gratitude, and piety were 
thereby torn asunder. Sons attacked their 
fathers, slaves their masters ; terror and 
outrage everywhere prevailed. Sylla was 

b. c. sa. proclaimed dictator and 
published the Cornelian laws, by which the 
whole authority of the state came into the 
hands of the Aristocrats. The power of the 

b. c. 79. tribunes was broken ; the 
administration of justice, and the system 
of taxation, entirely reorganized. These 
arrangements completed, Sylla resigned his 
dictatorial office and retired to his estate, 
where he soon died, either from a hemor- 
rhage or from a terrible disease, brought 
upon him by his mode of life. His corpse 
was brought to Rome and committed to 

b. c. 7s. the flames with magnifi- 
cent funeral ceremonies. He was without 
faith, but not without superstition ; he relied upon his star and his own strong mind, 
but silenced the voice of his conscience by a scrupulous observance of religious rites. 

3. The Times of Cn^eus Pompeius and of Txjllitjs Cicero. 

§ 135. The death of Sylla did not restore peace 
to the shattered commonwealth. The proscribed 
and persecuted Democrats gathered about their brave 
b. c. 75. and upright leader Sertorius, and 

fought successfully against the Roman armies in 
Spain. Supported by the natives, whose favor 
Sertorius had been able to win, they thought of 
§§} establishing a republic, independent of Rome ; and 
not until Sertorius had been murdered at a banquet 
by his jealous comrades, was Pompeius (who had 
gladiatobs. {From an Antique early joined the party of Sylla and was now regarded 
Mosaic.) as j tg cn i e f) arj l e to suppress the insurrection. His 

good-natured manners and conciliatory character made him a successful mediator. 
Half hero and half adventurer, his chivalrous bearing captivated the popular imagi- 
nation, and aroused the enthusiasm of the army. 




pompey. {Palazzo Spada, Borne.) 




196 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



§ 136. When Pompey returned to Italy from Spain, he was confronted by a new 
enemy, the insurgent slaves. Seventy gladiators escaped from Capua, broke open the 

b. c. 72. slave prisons in Lower Italy, and sounded a cry for a war of freedom. 

In a short time their number had increased to fifty thousand. At their head stood the 
bold Thracian, Spartacus. Their first intention was to return home. But after con- 
quering two Roman armies that had undertaken to bar their way, they were filled with 
the hope of destroying the Roman power, and of revenging themselves for their ill- 
treatment. The peril of Rome was great and imminent, but lack of discipline and 
harmony divided the slaves, and led to senseless expeditions. The consul Marcus Cras- 
sus was consequently able to surround the poorly armed bands in the mountain forest 




DEATH OF SPARTACUS. (H. Vogel.) 

of Sila, and, having isolated them, to conquer each group singly. Spartacus, with a 
part of his army, forced a passage to Lucania, but was defeated, after a heroic resist- 

b. c. vi. ance, in a bloody battle at the river Silarus. The power of the insur- 
rection was now utterly broken. All prisoners were put to an excruciating death. A 
few remnants of the army succeeded in reaching Upper Italy, but were annihilated by 
Pompeius. The two victors were rewarded, the following 3 r ear, by an election to 
the consulate, and vied with each other for the favor of the people, by their lavish 
expenditures. 

§ 137. But Pompey acquired his chief renown in Asia, where he carried to a suc- 
cessful termination, the war against the pirates and a second war against Mithridates. 
The pirates had their homes in the barren mountain regions of southern Asia Minor: 



ROME. 



197 



from these they made plundering voyages over the Mediterranean, devastating the is- 
lands and the coast, kidnapping aristocratic Romans, in order to obtain great sums as 
ransoms, and interrupting everywhere commerce and travel. Pompeius was therefore 

b. c. 97. intrusted, by the Gabinian law, with a dictatorship over the seas, islands 
and shores of the Roman commonwealth 
and provinces. In three months he 
scoured the whole Mediterranean sea, 
driving out the pirates ; then conquered 
the fortified castles and cities of their 
own land, and deported the prisoners to 
the Cilician city, Soli, which was after- 
ward called Pompeiopolis. Hardly was 
this accomplished, when the Manilian 
law entrusted, to Pompeius, the conduct 
of the second Mithridatic war. 

§ 138. For the king of Pontus, 
encouraged by the discord at Rome, had 

b. c. 7-t. taken up once more his 
former plans of conquest and of inde- 
pendence. He besieged the wealthy 
island city of Cyzicus, which was 
friendly to the Romans ; but was so 
thoroughly defeated by Lucullus, that 
he hastened back to Pontus. Crassus 
pursued him and conquered Pontus, 
whereupon Mithridates sought protec- 

b. c. 72. tion and help from his 

son-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia. 
The latter led into the field, near his 
splendid capital Tigranocerta, an enor- 
mous army, among which, the steel-clad 
riders with their lances, were regarded 

as invincible. Lucullus, on the contrary, commanded a force so small that the king 
spoke of it as too large for an embassy, and too small for an army. Nevertheless 

b. c. 6o. Tigranes was defeated, and Lucullus was about to subjugate the whole 

kingdom and to carry the Roman eagles into Parthia, when the 

legions, discontented because of many hardships, broke into mutiny. 

Lucullus thereupon returned to his riches and his pleasure-gardens, 

B.c.G7. while Pompey left Italy to take command of the 

b. c. ««. rebellious army. He conquered Mithridates, in spite 

of the re-enforcement that the latter had gathered, in a nocturnal 

battle on the Euphrates. He then reduced the Armenian king to 

Tmn* T f & S AN " ES, i sub J ectior1 ' and compelled the war-like tribes of the Caucasus to 

acknowledge the supremacy of Rome; and finally proceeded to 

n.i-.ot. Syria, and brought to an end the dominion of the Seleucids. Mithri- 
dates, bereft of nearly all his lands, attacked by his own son Pharnaces, abandoned 




A SUPPER AT LUCULLUS'. 




198 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




CICERO. 



by his soldiers, and deserted and betrayed by his oppressed subjects, took poison and 

perished with his wives and daughters ; not however, before a sentinel, taking pity 
b. c. 63. upon the writhing prince, had helped the poison with his sword. A 

laurel-crowned messenger brought the news of the death 
of his greatest enenry to the Roman commander in his 
camp at Jericho. Pompeius organized his conquests into 
three provinces, gave some of the more distant lands over 
to the authority of tributary kings, and then returned to 
jb. c. ««. Rome, where he celebrated his victory 
with a two days' triumph, having filled the treasury of 
the commonwealth with enormous riches. 

§ 139. During the absence of Pompeius, his friend 
and adherent, Tullius Cicero, had won for himself the 
name of " Father of his Country." Cicero, the child 
of unaristocratic parents, had so distinguished himself 
by his talents, his energy, and irreproachable life, as to be 
elected consul. In Athens and Rhodes he had devoted 

himself to Greek learning, especially to eloquence and philosophy, with such zeal 

and success, that he could be compared as a statesman and orator to Demosthenes. 

Although vain and weak, he possessed civic virtue, patriotism, and a strong feeling of 

justice. During his consulate, a conspiracy was 
b. c. 63. formed by Catiline, a man of aristo- 
cratic birth, but stained by a vicious life, and loaded 

down with debt. He and his fellow-conspirators 

intended to murder the consuls, set fire to Rome, 

overthrow 7 the constitution, and, in the consequent 

confusion to get control of the city, by the help of 

the soldiers of Sylla, and the mob, and then to estab- 
lish a military dictatorship. But the vigilant Cicero 

brought to naught their wicked undertaking. In 

his four orations against Cataline, he unmasked the 
jb. c. an. bold traitor in the Senate, and forced 

him to fly to Etruria, where he and his soldiers were 

defeated by the consular armies. The courage of 

the traitors was worthy of a better cause. Five of 

his fellow-conspirators died a violent death in prison. 

4. The Times of Caius Julius Caesar. 

§ 140. — The First Triumvirate. Sylla's suc- 
cess spurred ambitious men to imitation ; each 
sought to be the first, and to get possession of the 
commonwealth. Pompey possessed an almost royal 
authority, and was resting upon his laurels, while 
his great rival, Caius Julius Csesar, gradually acquired strength. Caesar was at once 
orator and writer, statesman and soldier. His liberality made him popular, and his 
ambition spurred him on to great achievements. In order to overcome the party of 




ROMAN DAGGERS. 



ROME. 



199 




s.c.eo. old Republicans, led by Portius Cato, the younger, Caesar made an 
alliance with Pompeius and Crassus. This was called the triumvirate, and the three 
men pledged to each other mutual help, and with the support of the popular party, 
ruled the commonwealth, without regard to the wishes of the senate. They procured 

the confirmation of the arrangements made b) r Pompeius, in 
Asia, cunningly removed Cato from Rome, by entrusting 
him with an honorable mission, and instigated the Tribune, 
b. c. ss. Clodius, to provoke the banishment of 
Cicero, because he had executed the companions of Cataline 
without legal authority. Caesar then obtained the govern- 
orship of Gaul, where he conducted a long war, and, not to 
«. c. se. be disturbed in his enterprises, he renewed 
the triumvirate for two years longer. Pompeius received 
Spain as his province, governed it, however, by subordinates, 
I exercising at Rome a dictatorial power. Crassus, the richest 
man in Rome, greedily chose the distant Syria, with its 
b. c. S3. treasures, but was conquered in the desert 
of Mesopotamia, by Parthian horsemen, and after the death 
of his son, Publius, and the greater part of his troops, was 
V... : M overtaken as a fugitive and killed. The exulting victors 

^fc^— ^ — gloated over his corpse, and stuffed his pallid mouth with 

gold. The Roman standards fell into the hands of the 
enemj'. Of the splendid army that had crossed the Euphrates, the half remained on the 
battle-field, and 10,000 prisoners were carried into the far East, and sold as slaves. 
Only a small remnant was rescued by the legate, Cassius, who conducted them with 
difficulty to Syria. 



§ 141.— Cesar's Gal- 
lic Wabs (B. C. 58-50). 
Gaul (now France), and 
Helvetia (now Switzer- 
land), were anciently inhab- 
itated by the Celts. These 
were divided into small 
states and tribes, which 
were governed by a nobility 
and a priesthood of Druids. 
Gaul had already become 
a Roman province, when 
the Helvetians, crowded 
by the Germans, determ- 
ined to leave their bar- 
ren mountain country, and to seek new homes in southwest Gaul, on the river 
Garonne, and the slopes of the Pj'renees. To prevent this, Caesar marched to 
Gaul. He conquered the Helvetians at Bribacte (near Autun), and compelled 
them to return to their wasted homes and villages. Novia Donum (now Nyon), 
on the shore of Lake Geneva, became a Roman boundary fort. Caesar turned then 




CESAR CROSSING THE RHINE. 



200 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



toward Germany, conquered the German chieftain, Ariovistus, who had been called 
b.c.ss. by the Sequani to help them against the JEdui, and had settled 
in East Gaul with his rough warriors, where he oppressed both peoples with his 
arbitrary rule. Caesar defeated him in the valley of the Rhine, and compelled him, 
with the remnant of his 
army, to recross the 
river. Ariovistus, soon 
after this defeat, died 
of his wounds. Caesar 
b. c. SS-S3. then sub- 
dued the Belgians, the 
Nervii, and other Gallic 
tribes, crossed the Rhine 
twice, in order to ter- 
rify the inhabitants 
of the German forest, 
and to restrain them 
from hostile incursions 
into Gaul. Caesar's 
Commentaries upon the 
Gallic War, are the 
records of this expedi- 
tion. But the Roman 
General had no thought 
of permanent conquest 
in Germany, or in Brit- 
ain, on the coast of which 
b. c. .-,.-,..-, i, lie land- 
ed twice. He wished to 
show, only, that the 
arm of Rome reached 
across the Rhine and 
the Channel. After 
a few fights with the 
Celtic inhabitants of 
Britain, he sailed back, 
to complete the subjuga- 
tion of the Gallic tribes ; 
for their unsteady and 
vacillating nature led 
them to constant change. 
They rebelled the mo- 

B.c.59. ment Caesar left them. Not until he had put down the last uprising 
in Alesia, was he able to convert the land that bordered pn the Rhine into a Roman 
province. Vercingetorix, their last leader, was led in triumph through the streets 
of Rome, and beheaded at the foot of the capitol. The religion of the Druids, 




VERCINGETORIX SURRENDERS TO C^SAR. 




DRUID PRIEST OFFERING HUMAN SACRIFICE IN THE SACRED GROTTO. '(A. de. Neuville.) 

(pp. 201.) 



202 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



with its gloomy human sacrifice, gave place to the Pagan gods of the Greek and the 
Roman. 

§142. The Second Civil War. (B.C. 49-48.) Meanwhile party strife in Rome had 
degenerated into robbery and murder. Powerful leaders fought in the streets, and at the 
places of election, against each other, with armed adherents ; and the insolent Clodius was 

b. c. 59-so. murdered by Milo, a friend of Cicero, on the Appian Way. Bribery was 
so shameless that, without it, nothing could be accomplished. The Senate and the 
old Republicans adhered to Pompeius, and offered him the consulate. He used this 
great power to the disadvantage of Caesar, of whose renown he was envious. At his 
instigation, the Senate ordered Csesar, at the close of the Gallic War, to lay down his 




CAESAR CROSSING THE RUBICON. 



command, and to dischai'ge his troops. Curio and Antonius, two tribunes of the peo- 
ple, who proposed this decree, and demanded that Pompeius also should surrender his 
b. c. 4,0. authority, were driven from the city. They fled to Csesar's camp, and 
urged him to come forward as the protector of the violated rights of the people. After 
some hesitation Cassar crossed the Rubicon, the boundary river of his province, and 
marched against Rome. The die was cast ; Pompeius. terrified from his apathy and 
careless confidence, did not venture to await him in the capital. He hastened with his 
few troops, and a great train of Senators and Aristocrats, to Brundusium ; and when the 
victor approached this city, he hurried across the sea to Epirus. Csesar did not pursue 
him, but returned to Rome. He took possession of the state treasure, and then pro- 



ROME. 



203 



ceeded to Spain. An indecisive battle was fought at Ilerda, between the Pyrenees and 
the Ebro, but, by his subsequent movements, Caesar so crowded his adversary, that 
Pompey was forced to an agreement, in consequence of which, his officers were dis- 
charged, and his common 



Pi^pM^^ 



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soldiers transferred to the 
victor. Caesar, on his way 
home, besieged and con- 
quered the city of Massilia, 
which had closed her doors 
against him ; and after 
punishing the citizens, 
marched to Rome, where 
he was proclaimed dictator, 
b. c. its. and elected 
consul for the following 
year. He then crossed the 
Ionian Sea to attack Pom- 
peius in person. The de- 
cisive battle of Pharsalia 
soon took place, in which 
Caesar's veterans, although 
opposed by double their 
numbers, won a brilliant 
victory. With a few faith- 
ful comrades, Pompeius 
fled to Egypt, where he 
was murdered. Ptolemy, 
hoping to win Caesar's 
favor, ordered him to be 
killed, as he landed in 
Pelusium. His body was 
cast unburied on the shore. 
§143. Caesar followed 
Pompeius into Egypt. He 
shed tears of sympathy, 
when he heard of the fate 
of his great antagonist, and 
refused to reward the in- 
stigator of the murder ; 
for when he was chosen 
arbitrator in the quarrel 
between Ptolemy and his 
beautiful sister Cleopatra, 

he decided in favor of the latter. This brought him into war with the King and 
the Egyptian people, — a war that detained him nine months in Alexandria, and 
brought him into great danger. When the citadel, in which he defended him- 



204 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



self with wonderful skill, with a part of its great library, burst into flames, he 
withdrew to the neighboring island Pharos. But not until re-enforcements reached 
jb. c. 4t. him, and Ptolemy had been drowned in the Nile, could he invest Cleo- 
patra with the government of Egypt, and march out to fresh victories. The battle 

which he fought and won from Phar- 
naces. the son of Mithridates, is famous 
from the letter in which he immortal- 
ized it, " I came, I saw, I conquered," 
(veni, vidi, vici). After a short stay 
in Rome, he sailed for Africa, where 
the friends of the republican constitu- 
b. c. 46. tion, and the adherents 
of Pompeius had assembled a great 
army. In the bloody battle of Thapsus, 
Caesar annihilated the hopes of the Re- 
publicans ; thousands covered the' field 




BALLISTA. 



( Time of Ceesar.) 

of battle ; many of the survivors committed suicide, among them the noble Cato, who 
in death remained true to the principles that he had maintained through life. A four 
days triumph greeted the victor on his return to Rome. He soon left the city, how- 
ever, for Spain, in order to attack his last enemies, who had gathered around the sons 

jb. c. 4a. of Pompeius. In the terrible 
battle of Munda, where both sides fought 
with the courage of desperation, and where 
Caesar's fortunes and life were in the great- 
est danger, he succeeded finally in destroy- 
ing the last remnants of the Pompeian and 
Republican parties. One of Pompey's sons 
was killed in his flight ; the survivor became 
a pirate, and died ten years later, at the hand 
of a murderer. 

§ 144. Caesar now returned to Rome, 
as lord and master of the commonwealth. He 
was greeted as the " Father of his Country," 
and chosen dictator for life. The soldiers 
and the people he sought to win by his lib- 
erality, and the Aristocrats, by offices. He 
furthered commerce and agriculture ; beauti- 
fied the city with temples, theatres, and 
parks; protected the provinces against the 
oppression of officials ; reformed the calendar, 
and established many good and useful institutions. But his evident desire for the title 
and the dignity of a monarch, his increasing haughtiness, his contempt of the Senate 
and of republican forms, brought about a conspiracy. His favorite and flatterer, Marc 
Antony, offered the " Imperator " at a banquet, the kingly crown, and in spite of the 
affected displeasure with which Ceesar refused it, his inward satisfaction and the pur- 
pose of his party were easily recognized. At the head of the conspiracy stood Marcus 




JULIUS CAESAR. 




o 






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206 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




THE YOUNG OCI IVIUS. 

of their number 



Junius Brutus, Caesar's friend, and the stern Republican Caius Cassius. Caesar, disre- 
b. c.44. garding all warnings, convened a session of the Senate on the Ides of 

March, in the Hall of Pompeius: he fell, pierced with 
three and twenty daggers, and with the cry, "Et tu 
Brute ! " at the base of Pompey's statue, yet not before 
he could wrap himself in his toga, in order to fall with 
decency and dignity. 

5. The Last Years of the Republic. 

§ 145. It was soon manifest that the idea of freedom 
survived only in the minds of a few patriots, but was 
extinguished in the hearts of the people. The momentary 
enthusiasm for the newly conquered liberty, soon turned 
into hatred and abuse of the murderers of Caesar, when 
Marc Antonj', at his funeral, discoursed eloquently of 
his services and of his genius, paraded a number of real 
or pretended legacies from the dead hero's testament, and 
ordered presents to be distributed to the poor. The sen- 
ate, on the other hand, supported the conspirators, and 
committed the administration of the provinces to certain 
When Antony undertook to get possession of one of these provinces 
by force, Cicero delivered his Phillipics against him, and induced the senate to declare 
him an enemy of the republic. Antony was de- 
feated in battle at Mutina, and fled to the gover- 
nor of Cisalpine Gaul (Lepidus). The senate 
now openly favored the Republicans. This brought 
upon them the opposition of Octavius Caesar who, 
as heir of the great name, had the old soldiers on 
his side. Caesar Octavianus was the grandson of 
the sister of Julius, and was afterward known as 
Caesar Augustus. He raised the standard of re- 
venge and formed, with Antony and Lepidus, a 
b. c. 43. second triumvirate. New pro- 
scription lists were published, in which appeared 
the names of many famous Senators and Knights. 
A reign of terror now began. Kinship, friend- 
ship, filial piet3 r , disappeared. A m ong the victims 
of this thirst for blood was Cicero ; his head and 
his right hand were planted upon the rostrum. 

§ 146. The rulers of Italy, having satisfied 
their vengeance, marched against the Republicans 
b.c. 42. who had gathered about Brutus 
and Cassius, and established their camp in Mace- 
donia. At Philippi a decisive battle was fought, in which Cassius was compelled 
to yield to Antony, while the legions of Octavius were driven back by Brutus. 
Cassius, deceived by false reports, threw himself upon his sword, and the triumvirate, 




MARC ANTONY. 



ROME. 



207 



renewing the battle twenty days later, defeated Brutus ; and " the Last of the 
Romans," fell likewise by his own hand. His wife, Porcia, the daughter of Cato, 
took her own life, as did many of the friends of liberty. Philippi became the 
sepulcher of the republic. The struggle was now not for freedom, but for dominion. 
The victors divided up the empire, so that Antony obtained the East, and Octavian the 
West. The weak Lepidus was given, at first, the province of Africa ; of this he was 
deprived in a short time. 

§ 147. While the dissolute Antony was enjoying the incense of Greece, and the 
delights of Asia, while he was leading a life of luxury, at the court of Cleopatra in 
Alexandria, the cunning Octavian, and the leader of his fleet, Agrippa, were winning 




DEATH OF BRUTUS. (H. Vogel.) 

over the Roman people, by their expenditures and plays. They rewarded also their 
b. c. 41-40. soldiers with lands, and kept army and navy in practice. The attempt 
of Fulvia, the wife of Antony, to hinder these distributions of land, resulted in the 
battle of Perusia, in which her party was defeated, and the old Etruscan city utterly 
destroyed. Antony quarreled frequently with Octavian, and was frequently reconciled 
to his former friend. But when he wasted Roman blood and stained Roman honor in 
a futile march against the Parthians, when he married Cleopatra, the foreign queen, 
and gave Roman provinces to her sons for their kingdoms, the senate, under the 
guidance of Octavian, deprived Antony of all his dignities, and declared war 
against Cleopatra. East and West attacked each other, but the sea fight at Actium, 



208 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



-b. c. 3i. in spite of Egyptian superiority, was decided in Octavian's favor. 
Antony and Cleopatra fled, as the victor approached the gate of Alexandria. Antony 
threw himself upon his own sword, and Cleopatra, when she perceived that her charms 




an audience at agrippa's. (L. Alma Tadema.) 



were powerless over Octavian, and learned that he meant to take her as a captive to 
b. c. 30. Rome, poisoned herself with scorpions. Egypt became the first prov- 
ince of imperial Rome. 




ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. AT THE BATTLE OP ACTIUM. (H. Vogel.) 

14 {pp. 209.) 



210 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
IV. IMPERIAL ROME. 




The Times op Caesar Octavianus Augustus. 
§148. 

HE civil wars had carried off the able and patriotic men ; the sur- 
viving crowd demanded only bread and circuses. It was there- 
fore not difficult for the astute Octavian, who was called by sen- 
ate and people Caesar Augustus, to transform the Roman republic 
Augustus, into a monarchy. Yet not t» excite the prejudices 
jb. c. 3© to t* a. d. of the Romans, he did not call himself King or Lord, 
. but preserved republican names and forms, and called himself Caesar. 

Nevertheless he gradually obtained from the senate and the people, the control of all 

the offices and powers of the State. As commander-in-chief of 

the army (imperator) he determined peace and war ; as prince 

Qprincepsi) he was president of the senate and state council, 

chief of the legislature and of the judiciary ; as tribune, with 

authority to choose his colleagues, he was the representative 

of the people. Accordingly, the popular assemblies became 

less frequent and less powerful. As censor and pontifex 

maximus private morals, religion and worship were under his 

control. As consul and pro-consul, with the right to appoint a 

substitute and of nominating colleagues, he conducted the ad- 
ministration of Rome and of the provinces. He was adroit 

and gentle, moderate yet persistent, a master of dissimulation, 

thoroughly acquainted with the weaknesses of men, and hence 

he reached his goal more safely than his great-uncle Caesar. 

The Roman empire, during his reign, reached its greatest extent 

and its highest degree of culture. It stretched from the 

Atlantic to the Euphrates, from the Danube and the Rhine to 

the Atlas mountains, and the waterfalls of the Nile. Art and 

literature so flourished, that the period of Augustus is known 

as the Golden Age. Splendid highways, provided with mile- 
stones, connected the twenty-five provinces with Rome, and facilitated intercourse. 

Magnificent aqueducts and canals attested the daring energy of the Roman people. 

The city was adorned with temples, theaters, and baths and so changed that Augustus 

could say, "I found it brick and left it marble." The 
Pantheon, which Agrippa dedicated to all the gods, 
is still a beautiful ornament of Rome. Augustus and 
his friends, Maecenas, Pollio, and others, furthered art 
and literature, and patronized poets and scholars. The 
first public library was built upon the Palatine hill. 

The citizens, no longer occupied with war and with politics, dedicated their leisure to 

reading and writing, passed from deed to speech, and from action to thought. Culture 

spread rapidly among all classes. 

§ 149. Roman Liteeatuee. — The chief poets of the Augustine age were Virgil, 




ROMAN STANDARDS. 




ROMAN DENARIUS OR " PENNY. 



ROME. 



211 



Horace, and Ovid. Virgil composed the ^Eneid, an epic poem with patriotic substance 

virgii, and inspiration, modelled after the Iliad of Homer. He composed also 

■\i»a..d. pastoral poems in the spirit of Theocritus, and a didactic poem upon 

farming, in which the old Roman love of country life found hearty expression. Horace, 

to whom his patron Maecenas presented a small estate in the Sabine country, published 

Horace., odes, satires, and humorous epistles, in which he set forth his cheerful 

•j- a. c. s. views of life, with grace and wit. He lived contentedly a modest, 

independent life, which he preferred to the splendor of the great world. 

Ovid, the composer of mythological tales, was banished by Augustus, to the mount- 




roman aqueduct. (Campagna, Rome.) 

ovia, ains near the Black Sea. There he wrote his Tristia or poetic 

f it a., n. complaints. 

Lucretius Cams was the most gifted of the older poets, and won eternal renown, 
by his poem on " The Nature of Things " in which he has represented poetically the 
-views of Epicurus. Among the younger poets are to be mentioned. Catullus, Tibullus, 
and Propertius. Phaedrus, author of the well-known fables, was aThracian slave, to 
saihiBt, whom Augustus gave his freedom. Among the historians, the most 

n. c. bo. famous was Sallust, who, in Ills- " War of Jugurtha " and his " Con- 
spiracy of Cataline," sketched a faithful but a terrible picture of that degenerate time. 



212 



THE ANCIENT HISTORY. 



z,uu, Titus Livius wrote, in one hundred and forty-two books, of which 

B.c.5»toiiA.n. thirty-five are extant, a complete history of Rome, in which he cared 




i j lan of rome. {Time of Augustus.) 

more for vivid and powerful representation, than for critical accurac3 r . From Cornelius 
Nepos, we possess a biography of Pomponius Atticus ; while the biographies of distin- 
guished men that are attributed to him, were written 
by a subsequent author. The Romans imitated the 
Greeks in art and literature, but remained far behind 
them. 

Of the lyrical inspiration which the Greeks pos- 
sessed, we find no trace among the Roman writers. 
Greek authors not unfrequently chose for a subject 
the history of Rome ; thus Polybius, the contemporary 
of Livy, wrote a history of the Punic Wars, and 
Dionysins, of Halicarnassus, composed a Roman Arch- 
Eeology. For the geography of the Ancients, Strabo's 
description of the earth, gives us copious and valuable 
information. 



2. The Fight of the Germans for Liberty. 

§ 150. Drusus, the valiant stepson of Augustus* 
was the first Roman to make conquests on the right 
bank of the Rhine. In many successful campaigns, he 
fought against the Suevi, between the Rhine and the 
Elbe, the Sicambri, the Brocteri, the Cheruski, and 




VIRGIL. 



( Capitoline Museum, 
Borne.) 



ROME. 



213 



others, and sought to secure the land for Rome by fortresses and entrenchments. Return, 
ing-honie, he was thrown from his horse and fatally injured. His brother, Tiber- 
is. «-. »f»« i. ». ius, completed the conquest of West Germany, more by skilful 
negotiation with the discordant Germans, than by force of arms. The country, 
between the Rhine and the Weser, was henceforth governed by a Roman officer; and 
foreign customs, lan- 
guage and laws 
threatened to destroy 
the German territory. 
German warriors 
fought in the Roman 
ranks, and wore 
proudly Roman dec- 
orations. But the 
rashness and daring 
of the Roman gover- 
nor, Quintilius Varus, 
aroused among the 
German tribes their 
slumbering sense of 
freedom. Led by the 
bold prince of the 
Cheruski, Hermann, 
(Arminius) who had 
served in the Roman 
army, several tribes 
united to shake off the 
foreign yoke. The 
careless governor was 
warned in vain by 
Segest, whose daugh- 
ter, Thusnelda, had 
been carried off by 
Hermann, and mar- 
ried against her fath- 
er's will. Varus, with 
three legions and 
many auxiliaries, was 
decoyed into the 
Teutoburger forest, 
where he was so com- 




AUGtiSTtis. (Statue in Vatican.) 



»a.d. pletely defeated by Hermann's army, that the woods were covered far 

and wide with the corpses of the Romans. Their eagles were captured, and Varus 
killed himself in despair. The Germans took fearful revenge upon their foes, and 
slaughtered many of their prisoners at the altars of their gods. Many a Roman, from 
an aristocratic family, grew old, as the herdsman or servant of a German peasant. 



214 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




OLD ROMAN SCHOOL. 



Augustus, at the news, cried in desperation "Varus, give me back my legions ! " and 
thought afterward not of conquest, but of guarding only the Rhine frontiers. 

§ 151. Augustus died in his seventy-sixth year, at Nola, in Lower Italy. In the 
14 ad. same year, Germanicus, the son of Drusus, crossed the Rhine, once 

more ravaged the land 
ihh^ of the Chatti (Hesse), 
buried the bleaching 
bones of the Romans in 
the Teutoburger forest, 
and carried off into cap- 
tivity Hermann's brave- 
minded wife, Thusnelda, 
whom her angry father 
had surrended to the 
foe. But although the 
Roman general, who 
was accompanied by his 
noble wife Agrippina, 
the grand-daughter of 
Augustus, defeated the 
allied Germans in two battles, and although Germany was hard pressed also from the 
sea-coast, nevertheless the Roman dominion acquired neither strength nor duration on 
the right bank of the Rhine. Their boats were broken by storms, and their armies 
perished from fatigue, and from the sword of 
the Germans. And when at last, Germa- 
wA.it. nicus was recalled by his 
envious uncle Tiberius, who succeeded 
Augustus as emperor, the Germans were no 
longer troubled by the Roman lust for con- 
quest. The allies of Hermann thereupon 
attacked the Marcomanni. These were led 
by Marbode, and gave the Romans oppor- 
tunity to harass Germany from the south. 
Marbode was driven from the land, and took 
refuge with the Romans, who maintained 
him for eighteen years in Ravenna. Her- 
mann was murdered by his jealous friends. 
His deeds are still celebrated in song, and in 
our time a colossal statue, in memory of 
him, was erected at Detmold. Thusnelda 
died a Roman prisoner. Her son, born to 
her in captivity, was brought up as a° gladia- 
tor at Ravenna. The daughter of Germani- 
cus, the younger Agrippina, laid the foundation for the prosperity of Cologne. 
(Colonia Agrippina.) 

§ 152. Tacitus on the Manners and Institutions of the Germans. — About a 




HERMANN. 



216 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



hundred years after Augustus, the historian, Tacitus, composed the " Germania " 
a description of the German territory and its inhabitants : of their customs, in- 
stitutions, and modes of life. The same writer, in his annals and histories, had writ- 
ten the story of the early empire ; and in those works displayed a profound knowl- 
edge of human nature, great courage, and art. He wrote the " Germania," prob- 
ably, to contrast the natural life of the barbarian, with the refinement and corruption 
of the civilized Roman. It is a golden little book, to which Germans and Englishmen 




THE BATTLE IN THE TEUTOBURGER FOREST. 



owe the first detailed knowledge of their forefathers. From Tacitus, we learn that 
Germany was inhabited by a large number of independent tribes, sometimes acting 
with, at other times warring upon each other ; that these frequently changed their 
habitations, and were governed partly by tribal chiefs, and partly by republican forms. 
Besides the tribes dwelling between the Rhine and the Elbe, there were the Lombards 
west of the Elbe, the Marcomanni on the Danube and in Bohemia, the Vandals 
between the Oder and the Vistula, the Suevi and the Burgundians in Silesia, the 




German funeral sacrifice. (W. Lindenschmidt.) {PP- 217.) 



218 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




GERMAN WEILER OR HOME. 



Goths, the Saxons, the Angles, and the Frisians, with many others. The chief occu- 
pations of the Germans were hunting and war. Cities and castles they never built : 
their barns and huts were scattered about in the midst of their estates, for they hated 

a quiet life within doors. 
Important matters were 
treated of in public assem- 
blies of the people, where 
all the free-holders of a 
given district assembled 
under arms. These assem- 
blies decided peace and 
war, appointed command- 
ers, governors, and priests, 
received the young men 
into the company of 
braves, and established 
laws to guide the adminis- 
tration of justice. Certain 
distinguished chiefs gathered about them voluntary bands, who accompanied them to 
the field, and had a share in the booty. These comradeships, based upon mutual 
fidelity, constituted the closest bonds between man and man. The Germans were of 
lofty stature, strong and brave and hand- 
some. They combined purity of morals 
with hospitality ; fidelity, and eloquence, 
with a reverence for women and for mar- 
riage. Their chief vices were drunken- 
ness and gambling. Good morals produce 
good laws ; they loved poetry and song, 
and handed down their poems orally. 
Alliteration and assonance, rather than 
rhyme and quantity, distinguished their 
verse. But they possessed the art of 
writing (runes) at an early period. As 
they marched to battle, they sung their 
war songs, partly to encourage themselves, 
partly to frighten their enemies. Bards, 
as they are called, were common among 
the Celts, but not among the Germans. 
The latter worshipped their gods, not in 
temples, but in gloomy forests and under 
sacred trees. Wodan or Odin, the arche- 
type of heroic energy, was their supreme 
God and all-father. The twelve Asen sup- 
ported him in the government of the world. Wodan's wife was Freia, who presided 
over all marriages (Friday — Freia's day). Her sons Thor, the Thunderer (Thursday — 
Thor's day), Tiu, the God of War (Tuesday — Tiu's day), and Balder, the God of 







THOR. 



ROME. 



219 




light, were also worshipped. Death on the battle-field, was the most honorable to the 

Germans. The fallen heroes expected 

a happy life in Valhalla, while those 

who died a bloodless death, lived a 

shadowy life in Hela's realm. Human 

sacrifices were quite frequent among 

them. Criminals, captives, and slaves 

were offered to the gods. 

3. The Emperors of the Julian 
House. 
§ 153. The life of Augustus 
was darkened by domestic sorrow. 
The sons of his daughter Julia died in 
their youth, and Julia herself, by her 
immoral life, compelled her father to 
banish her from Rome. This brought 
the empire into the hands of Tiberius, 
the adopted stepson of Augustus. 
The new emperor was sagacious but emperor tiberius. {Enlarged from a coin.) 

misanthropic, and reached the throne by the intrigues of his mother Livia, the third wife 

of Octavianus. Like Augustus, Tiberius 
did not disturb the traditional forms of 
state, and spared the prejudices of the 
Romans ; but we learn from the history of 
Tacitus, that his original mildness soon 
Tiberius, yielded to his despotic in- 
14-3? a. d. clinations, especially when 
his cunning and vicious favorite, Sejanus, 
helped him to found a military tyranny. 
He suggested the formation of the Prseto- 
rian guards into a single body. In this 
way the troops, who had hitherto scattered 
in detachments, could be used to oppress 
the people. The popular assemblies ceased 
to convene, and the cowardly senate degen- 
erated into a tool of the monarch. The 
terrible treason-courts were an instrument 
for the destruction of any important citizen, 
especially as men were punished, not sim- 
ply for their deeds, but for their speeches 
and for expressions of republican senti- 
ments. Spies undermined fidelity and 
loyalty among the people, and destroyed 
died suddenly in the East, it was believed 

of poison, and his wife Agrippina, and the other members of his family were, in a few 




PR^TORIAN GUARDS. 



the last spark of freedom. Germanicus 



220 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




roman denarius. ( Time of 
Tiberius.) 



years, the victims of Sejanus. The empire was visited also by fire and earthquake, 
which destroyed many of the most beautiful and wealthy cities of Asia Minor. A 

crowded amphitheater in Fidenae fell to the ground. 
The last years of his life Tiberius spent in the island of 
Capri, in Lower Italy. He distrusted, feared, and de- 
spised the world, and permitted Sejanus to commit all 
manner of crime, even to the destruction of his own son 
Drusus. When the favorite finally sued for the hand of 
:u a. i>. the widow of Drusus, and manifestly in- 
tended to depose Tiberius himself, the senate was commanded to put him to death. 
Tiberius, bowed down with age and illness, started for Rome, but in lower Italy he 
became unconscious; and some of his 
companions hailed his great-nephew 
Caligula as emperor. Tiberius, how- 
3VA.. it. ever, revived, whereup- 

on the frightened friends of Caligula 
smothered him to death with pillows. 
Tiberius was in his seventy-eighth year. 
§ 154. His successor, Caligula, 
was the unworthy son of the noble Ger- 
manicus, and the high-minded Agrippina 

Caligula, 




37-4.1 A.. It. 



CLAUDIUS. 
Claudius. 
41-S4 A. B. 



COIN OF CALIGULA. 

He was a bloodthirsty tyrant, who delighted 
to sign death-warrants, a see them executed; a mad spendthrift, who 
projected the absurdest buildings ; a haughty braggart, who celebrated 

triumphs over Germans 
and Britons whom he 
had hardly seen, and 
decreed himself divine 
honors; aglutton, whose 
table swallowed up 
enormous sums. Cer- 
tain noble Romans, tired 
of executions, confisca- 
tions, and outrage, 
formed a conspiracy, in 
consequence of which, 
two captains of the 
guards murdered the 
crazy tyrant in the 
imperial palace. The 
Praetorians then 
dragged his uncle, the 
feeble Claudius, from 
agrippina the younger. livia. his hiding place, and set 

tiberius. (Onyx Gem.) him trembling on the 
throne. He soon became the plaything of courtiers and of women. 
His favorites, especially the freed men Narcissus and Pallas, obtained 




ROME. 



221 



the most important offices, and great riches at the expense of the people, while his wife 
Messalina abandoned herself to wanton lust. The emperor finally decreed her execu- 
tion, and then married his wicked niece, the younger 
Agrippina, who soon hurried the weak old man out of the 
world, in order to place her son, Claudius Nero, on the 
throne. 

§ 155. Nero, at the beginning of his reign, showed 
great gentleness. He wished that he had never learned 
A-e»-o, to write, that he might not sign a death 

.»j-«.s .1. ». warrant. But in a little while his mild- 
ness turned to cruelty. He persecuted and executed and 






COIN OP LAODICEA. 

confiscated even among his own adherents and relatives. His step-brother, Britani- 

cus, died of poison at the imperial table ; his mother he tried to drown, and when she 

escaped, he delivered her to the hands of assassins ; his virtuous wife Octavia, 

daughter of Claudius, was banished to a 

lon'ely island, where she died a violent death. 

The poet Lucan, the author of the epic 

Pharsalia, and the philosopher Seneca, the 

teacher of Nero, were driven to destruction. 

Urged on by courtiers and courtesans. Nero 

committed incredible crimes and follies. 

Plays and processions, in which he himself 

took part as singer and musician, luxurious 

banquets and wild expenditures of every 

sort, consumed the revenues of the state. 

A great conflagration at Rome was said to 

have been kindled, bj r the despot, so that he 

might sing " The Burning of Troy " from 

the roof of his palace. And then, to divert 

the popular hatred from himself, he charged 

the crime upon the Christians, who suffered 

consequently the most terrible persecution. 

The rebuilding of the city, and Nero's Roman lictor, emperor and noble. 

golden house on the Palatine, so increased taxation, that an insurrection followed ; 

and when the Spanish legions, under Galba, approached the capital, Nero fled to his 




222 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



villa, and had himself put to death 
by a freedman. In him expired the 
house of Augustus. 

§ 156. The aged Galba was too 
miserly to satisfy the greed of the 
Praetorians. T.hey proclaimed Otho 
oaiba, emperor, and mur- 

otno, dered Galba and his 

vitelline, appointed successor. 
as- nn ,1. ip. At the same time 
Vitellius marched, with his legions, 
from the Rhine to Italy, and con- 
quered the armies of his adversary. 
Otho, and many of his adherents, 
died by their own hand. Vitellius 
was a glutton of vulgar mind, who 
spent his short reign in riotous ban- 
quets and violent oppression. His 
conduct embittered the Syrian and 
Egyptian legions, which finally pro- 
claimed, as emperor, their brave com- 
mander, Flavins Vespasian. The 
legions were joined by the troops in Mces'ia and Dnlmatia. As Vespasian's army ap- 
proached the gates of Rome, a brief civil war occurred, in which the temple of the 




TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS. 




THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME. 



ROME. 



223 



capital was destroyed. But Vitellius was killed by a mob of brutal soldiers, who cast 
«».-!. b. his mutilated body into the Tiber. The hardened people, in the midst 




ROMAN SOLDIERS ATTACKING A CITY. 

of these cruelties, pursued their wonted pleasures, and abandoned themselves to the 
silliest superstition. 




DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 

4. The Flavians and the Antonines. 

§ 157. Vespasian is the first of the good emperors. He restored the discipline 



224 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




COIN OF VESPASIAN. 



Vespasian, of the arm}' and of the Praetorian guards, abolished the treason- 
eo-70 a a. courts, improved the administration of justice, and filled the state 
treasury by economy and sagacity. He built the temple of peace, and the Colos- 
seum, whose ruins still excite the admira- 
tion of the traveler, brought back the 
Batavians of the lower Rhine to their 
obedience, and enlarged the borders of the 
empire, by the conquests of Judea and of | 
Britain. 

§ 158. The oppressions of the Roman 
officers who governed Judea, especially the 
cruelty and greed of Gessius Florus, drove 

Jerusalem the people finally to rebellion. They fought with the courage of des- 
nestroyea, peration, but were conquered by the Roman legions and forced into 
voA.n. Jerusalem, which was besieged at first by Vespasian, and then after- 
ward by his son Titus. The 
crowded city was so wasted by 
pestilence and starvation, that 
thousands plunged into the 
grave. Titus offered pardon in 
vain ; rage and fanatacism urged 
the Jews to a desperate strug- 
gle. They defended their tem- 
ple, until the magnificent build- 
ing broke into flames, and death 
in every form raged among the 
vanquished. The victory of 
Titus was followed by the com- 
plete destruction of Jerusalem. 
Among the prisoners that fol- 
lowed the victorious chariot of 
the Roman, was the Jewish his- 
torian Josephus. The triumphal 
arch of Titus still standing in 
Rome, shows pictures of the 
Jewish sacred vessels, that were 
carried to the city. The Jews who were left at home, suffered terribly from Roman 
rule. But sixty years after the destruction of Jerusalem, Hadrian established a pagan 
colony on its sacred soil, which was called Alia Capitolina ; and erected on the 
heights, where the temple of Jehovah had been built by 
Solomon, a temple to Jupiter. The exasperated Jews, 
led by the fanatical Simon, " son of the star," took arms [|ffpj^T'/T| ^ 

133-135 a. d. again to prevent this insult. In a mur- 
derous war of three years, in which half a million inhab- 

,,.,., ii,! Jewish coin. (Head of Titus.) 

itants were slaughtered, they were conquered by the 

Romans. The survivors wandered out in throngs. The land resembled a desert, and 




head of titus. (From a coin.) 





ROMAN SOLDIERS FIRING THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM 



(pp. 225) 



226 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




HADRIAN. 



the Jewish commonwealth came to an end. Since then the Jews lite scattered over 

the whole earth, faithful to their customs, their religion, and their superstition ; 

but wholl}^ separate from other peoples. Subsequently, the 
exiles were allowed, once a year, on payment of a certain 
sum, to weep over the ruins of their sacred city. 

§ 159. During the reign of Vespasian, Agricola, the 
father-in-law of Tacitus, conquered Britain as far as the 
Scotch highlands, and introduced Roman institutions, cus- 
toms, and speech. Britain remained subject to the Romans 
400 years. The religion of the Druids yielded gradually to 
Roman paganism, and the foreign civilization struck root in 
the land. But the warlike strength of the people was weak- 
ened by this contact with the Romans, so that the Britains 
were unable to resist the rough Picts and Scots, from whom 
the wall, erected by Hadrian, was not suffici pv, t to protect 
them. 

§ 160. The plain but powerful Vespasian was succeeded 
by his son Titus. The faults and sins of his youth were 
laid aside by the new emperor, and he earned f 'imself 
the splendid name " Love and Delight of the Human Race." 
7» a., b. During his reign, Herculaneum and Pompeii 
were destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius. Pliny, the 
elder, lost his life in this eruption, as we learn from a letter 

of his nephew to the historian Tacitus. The excavations made at these buried cities, 

especially at Pompeii, have been of immense importance to our knowledge of antiquity, 

and to the art of our own times. 

§ 161. This noble prince was 

followed, unfortunately, by his cruel 

son, Domitian, a morose and gloomy 

tyrant, who found pleasure only in 

fights of wild-beasts and of gladia- 
tors. Finally, at the instigation of 

his wife, the beautiful, brilliant, but 

immoral Domitia, he was murdered 

by the companions of his lusts and 

cruelties. Nerva, an aged Senator, 

xei-o, now ascended the 

»n uo.i.n. throne. He adopted 

the energetic Roman soldier Trajan, 

who was born in Spain, and appointed 

him his successor. Trajan earned for 

himself, by his domestic government, 

the surname of " The Best," and by 

Trajan, his warlike deeds, the fame of the greatest of emperors. He estab- 
os-iiT/A. n. lished justice, facilitated commerce by the building of highways 

and harbors, (Civitavecchia) adorned Rome with public buildings, temples, and 




COINS OF HADRIAN. 



ROME. 



227 



a new forum, where the senate and the people erected, to his honor, the still 
existing column of Trajan. At the same time he conquered the war-like Dacians 
on the Danube, founded the province of Dacia, and settled it with Roman colonists. 
In the East he made war upon the Parthians, conquered Babylon and other cities, 
and transformed Armenia and Mesopotamia into Roman provinces. The country, 
from the sources of the Danube to the Black forest, was given to Gallic and German 
colonists, and protected against hostile invasions by a pale and trenches. It was 
called Titheland, because the inhabitants gave a tenth part of the corn, fruit, and cat- 




MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN. 

tie that they raised, to the Roman government; and the ruins of several cities and the 
excavated antiquities, show that they shared in Roman culture. The most important 
cities in Titheland were Constance on the lake, Baden-Baden (Aquas Aureliae), at the 
foot hills of the Black Forest, and Ladenburg on the Neckar. 

Trajan honored culture, and loved the society of intellectual men like the historian 
Tacitus. Pliny, the younger, was honored by him with a consulate, and appointed 
governor of Bithynia. The latter, in a solemn panegyric, described for posterity 




(pp. 228.) 



DESTRUCTION OF 




pompeii. (H. Le Bovx.) 



(pp. 229.) 



230 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



the excellencies and the achievements of his imperial friend. The correspondence 
between Pliny and Trajan, give valuable notices of the care with which the emperor 
managed the adminstration of the provinces. 

§ 162. Trajan's relative and successor, Hadrian, paid more attention to the defence, 
than to the extension of the imperial borders, and found more pleasure in art, and 
literature than in war. He was a sagacious and cultivated statesman, eager to increase 
the royal power, but vain and easily flattered. His love of knowledge and of art, led 
natulan, him to undertake long journeys at first to the East, where he spent 
miss a. d. much time in Gi'eece, Asia, and Egypt, and then to the West, to visit 
Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the regions of the Rhine. Among the writers, artists, and 

orators of his court, the most import- 
ant was the Greek Plutarch, the 
author of the contrasted biographies 
of Greek and Roman generals and 
statesmen. These are especially cal- 
culated to excite admiration for the 
heroic deeds, and the lofty purposes 
of antiquity. The ruins of his villa 
at Tiber, his colossal monument, the 
mound of Hadrian in Rome, and 
numerous remains of buildings and 
of statues, bear witness to Hadrian's 
love for art. His favorite Antinous, 
who was drowned in the Nile, he 
commemorated in many statues and 
monuments. 

§ 163. Hadrian's adopted son, 
Antoninus Pius, was an ornament to 
f the throne. He avoided war, because 
Antoninus r-ius, he would "rather 
iss-ieiA..n. preserve one citizen 
than kill a thousand foes."' He 
watched over the adminstration of 
justice, founded schools, and relieved 
poverty, so that his reign was the 
golden age of the empire. His suc- 
cessor, Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher, was as distinguished in war as in peace. 
He protected the Eastern frontiers against the Parthians, drove the German tribes 
Morai* Aureiitts, of the league of the Marcomanni back across the Danube, and 
tot iso a. i>. defeated the Quadi in their own land. When, sometime afterward, 
they broke across the frontiers once more, he undertook a second campaign against 
them, and died at Vienna, before it terminated. . He was a simple, strong man, who re- 
mained faithful, even on the throne, to the severe morality of the Stoics. His wife 
Faustina, the unworthy daughter of the pious Antoninus, and his adopted brother 
and co-regent Lucius Varus, were, by their vices, in striking contrast with the Emperor. 
He furthered culture and useful institutions : his noble maxims and purposes are re- 




MARCUS AURELIUS. 



ROME. 



231 



corded in his meditations, which he composed in the Greek language, and dedicated to 
himself. Monuments and statues preserved to posterity the memory of the wise and 
good prince. His bronze equestrian statue, and the Antoninus column, still adorn the 
city of Rome. 

§ 164. The Roman empire rejoiced at this time in the highest civilization, 
morally corrupt as the people had become. Arts and sciences flourished in the courts 
of the emperors, and in 
the palaces of the rich, 
and among all classes. 
Commerce and industry 
prospered, and the dwell- 
ing houses in the popu- 
lous cities bore witness 
of refinement and opu- 
lence. In Rome and in 
the more important 
cities of the provinces, 
schools were estab- 
lished. The ruins of 
buildings, highways, 
and bridges, which we 
find in Italy and in many 
provincial cities, the 
statues, sarcophagi, and 
altars, with their carv- 
ings and inscriptions, 
and the porcelain and 
bronze vases of artistic 
form, which are found 
buried in the earth, all 
give proof of the artistic 
feeling and the culture 
of the imperial age. But 
morality, nobility of 
soul, and strength of 
character, were no 
longer imposing, and 
freedom was an un- 
known good. The peo- 
ple, no longer hardened 
by war and agriculture, 
became weak and fond 
.of luxury. They re- 
joiced in the barbarous fights of wild beasts and gladiators in the amphitheater, and 
abandoned themselves to the pleasures of the baths, with which the emperors provided 
the capital, in order to draw away the citizens from serious things. Perseus lashed 




MARCUS AURELIUS LIBERATES THE CHIEF OF MARCOMANNI. 

{From Arch in Cajntol, Home.) 



232 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



the degenerate race with the scourge of his satire, and sought to restore the old energy, 

morality, and simplicity. The brilliant Juvenal unveiled, in his faithful and realistic 

perseno, pictures, the deeps of crime and wickedness, to which his contempor- 

34,-astA. n. aries had fallen. And the Greek Lucian in his witty writings, mocked 

all existing philoso- 
phy, religion, andiife, 
hoping thereby to 
destroy the old and 
to make room for 
something newer and 
nobler. But all these 
wrote in vain ; a 
higher power alone 
could save the decay- 
ing world. This 
power had already 
appeared, but the 
blinded Romans rec- 
ognized it not, be- 
cause it came not in 
the glory of dominion 
but in the garb of 
humility. Jurispru- 
dence also reached great perfection in this period. The intricacy of 
public and of private life, and the lack of fidelity and honesty among 
the people, compelled the working out of legal rights in all their 




Roman chariot race. (A. Wagner.) 



The jurists of this age, Gaius, Papinian, Ulpian, and 



Juvenal, 
loo A. JO. 
Iiiician, 

f goo a. d. relations. 
Paul us, are the 
classics of Roman 
legal lore. 

5. Rome Under 
Military Rule. 
§165. Commodus, 
the son and successor 
of Marcus Aurelius, 
was a furious ruffian, 
of great size and 
strength, whose only 
pleasure was in fights 

Comtnotlus, Wittl 

1SO-192 A. D. Wild 

animals and with 
gladiators, who went 
himself into the bull fight in the Colosseum. {A.Wagner.) 

arena, who oppressed the people in every way, until he was finally murdered by 




234 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




a naumachia, or mock sea fight. (A. Wagner.) 



pertinaoc, by those about him. Pertinax, a really able ruler, soon died a violent 

103 a. n. death. After his murder, the Praetorian guard became so insolent that 

septimitis severus, they sold the imperial throne to the highest bidder. Septimius Severus 

103-211 a., it. was the first to restrain the violence of the soldiers by his implacable 

severity, and to re- 
. store the authority of 
the monarch. He 
was a rough warrior, 
who overcame his two 
rivals for the throne, 
and extended the em- 
pire by conquests in 
the East, where he 
deprived the Par- 
tisans of Mesopota- 
mia. He protected 
the Britons, by a new 
line of intrenchments 
and fortifications, 
against the Picts and 
Scots, but he robbed 
the senate of its re- 
maining power, and put his whole confidence in his army. He thus became 
the founder of military rule. To commemorate his deeds in Mesopotamia, 
he erected the triumphal arch, which is still to be seen at the entrance of the 
Forum. 

§ 166. Septimius 
Severus died at York 
(Eboracum), in Bri- 
tain. His cruel son, 
Caracalla, true to his 
father's teachings, 
favored only the 
soldiers, treating all 
other men with con- 
tempt. He murdered 
his brother Geta, who, 
by his father's will, 
was to share the 
throne with him ; he 
put to death his 
teacher, the great 
jurist Papinian, be- 

Curacalla, 




GLADIATORIAL COMBAT. 



(A. Wagner.) 

cause the latter refused to justify the murder. In order to increase 
2H-211' a. m». the taxes, and to obtain great sums of money to defray his great ex- 
penditures, he gave the right of citizenship to all the freedmen in the Roman empire. 



ROME. 



235 



The colossal ruins of the " Antonine baths " with their arches, halls, and chambers, are 
still standing in the south of Rome ; — a speaking witness to this great extravagance. 
Heuogahoius, He was finally murdered. His successor Heliogabalus, a priest of the 
218-222 .*. d. Syrian sun-gbd, was a weak and cruel profligate, who introduced the 
service of Baal into Rome, and thereby destroyed the last remnant of old Roman 
morality. The " God of Emesa," a black conical stone set with precious jewels, re- 
ceived a sanctuary on the Palatine hill, and was worshiped by Syrian women in 
sensual dances, while the Roman senate, arrayed in Asiatic costume, performed the 
temple service. The wanton weakling was finally killed by the Prsetorians, who 




circus maximus, eome. ( G. Rehlender.) 

Aiexantier severus, gave the throne to his cousin, Alexander Severus. The latter was a 
222-23S a..b. man of pure morals, who listened to his intelligent mother Mammsea, 
a woman favorably inclined to Christianity. But Alexander proved too weak for his 
difficult circumstances ; before his eyes the Prsetorians murdered their prefect, the 
great jurist Ulpian, over whose severity they were greatly embittered. Artaxerxes, 
on the Eastern frontier, overthrew the Parthians, and established the new Persian 
kingdom of the Sassanides. These now invaded the Roman provinces. They re- 
vived the old Persian worship of the sun, and of fire, and sought to awaken in their 
people patriotic feeling and national ideals. 



236 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



§ 167. The murder of the Emperor and of his mother, by rebellious soldiers at 
235 a. n, Mayence, brought the empire into such confusion, that twelve emperors 




ROMAN BALLISTA. 

were made and unmade in twenty years. Philip Arabs who, like Alexander Severus, 
244-24» .-t. n. was a friend of the Christians, sought to make his reign memorable by 

a great festival, in honor of the thousandth 
anniversary of the founding of the city. 
24»-25i a. n. His successor Decius, a 
stern senator, and a man of old Roman 
morality and religion, persecuted the 
Christians, but was killed by the Goths, a 
German race, who had marched to the 
lower Danube, and were making incursions 
by land and water into the Roman empire. 
After his death, the dissolution of the em- 
pire seemed so near, that the historians of 
ctaiuemis, that time speak of the 
253-2es a. a. period during which Gal- 
lienus reigned in Rome, as the time of the 
thirty tyrants. The East was invaded by 
the new Persians, and the northern front- 
iers were threatened by the German tribes. 
2GS-270 a. d. Claudius II. a skillful em- 
peror, conquered the Goths in Pannonia, 
but perished from the plague. 

§ 168. Aurelianus now became the 

restorer of the empire. He conquered the 

27o-27s a. x>. disobedient generals, marched against the kingdom of Palmyra which 

had been founded by Odanathus, in a Syrian oasis, and governed, after his death, by 




GERMAN STANDARD BEARER AND ROMAN GENERAL. 






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REVOLT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARDS 



. (H. Leutemann.) (pp. 937. ) 



238 



THE AXCIENT WORLD. 



the beautiful and heroic queen Zenobia. 




HUMAN WARRIORS. 



The " City of Palms " beautif liI for art, and 
noted for its science and its commerce, 
was destroyed, and Zenobia led captive to 
Rome. Her teacher and counselor, the 
philosopher Longinus, died a violent death. 
The ruins of Palmyra still attract the 
interest of travelers. In the North, 
Aurelian restored the Danubian frontiers, 
but gave the province Dacia to his enemies, 
and transplanted the inhabitants to the 
right bank of the river. And to protect 
the capital from a sudden attack, he sur- 
rounded Rome with a circular wall. 

§ 169. Aurelian was murdered by 

his soldiers. Tacitus, his successor, was 

killed in a campaign against the Goths. 

Tacitus, Probus then came to the 

ars-sje a d. throne. He extended and 

completed the frontier wall, from the 

_. prohits, Bavarian Danube to the 

27e-g82 a., jo. Taunus. The traces of 

this wall are yet visible, and are called 

by the people "The Devil's Wall." He 




ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. (Rome.) 



ROME. 



239 



planted vineyards along the Rhine and in -Hungary, and improved the military ser- 

cai-us, vice. But he too, was murdered by his soldiers ; and his successor, 

3S3-2S3 a. n. Cams, in a campaign against the Persians, was killed either hy a stroke 

Diocletian, of lightning or an assassin's knife. Diocletian, the wise and skillful 

gst-aos a. ». Dalmatian, who by his bravery and intelligence had climbed from 

slavery to the command of the army, now ascended the throne. 

§ 170. He abolished gradually all republican forms, and took away from the 
senate all political power. He then divided the empire, with a view to its better de- 
fence. He assumed for himself 



•the title of Augustas, or chief em- 
peror, and ruled, in person, the 
East together with Thracia. His 
lieutenant, Galerius, with the title 
" Csesar," governed the Illyrian 
provinces. Maximianus received 
also the title Augustus, and the 
government of Italy, Africa, and 
the Islands, while his son-in-law 
Constantius (Chlorus, the Pale), 
governed as " Caesar " the Western 
provinces, Spain, Gaul, and Britain. 

Diocletian ruled the empire 
for twenty years, and restored it to 
strength and prosperity. But he 
was misled into a bloody persecu- 
tion of the Christians, and thus 
stained the later years of his 
memorable and valuable life. The 
sword of persecution still raged 
among the disciples of the cruci- 
fied Saviour, as Diocletian abdi- 

3os.-i.j9. cated the throne, 
in order to pass the last years of 
hi§ life at his country house in 
Dalmatia, in peaceful leisure, and 
to forget the confusion of the 
world, in the decoration of his 
palaces and of his gardens. But 

313 a. n. the storms that broke over the empire found their way to his retreat. 
His wife and daughter were murdered in the East, and he himself seems to have 
shortened his own life, in order to escape shameful outrage. 

§ 171. A time of confusion and of civil war followed his abdication, and 
not until Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus, took upon him the government 
of the West, was this confusion ended. His mother Helena had won him over to 
Christianity, and, under the banner of the cross, he defeated the cruel Maxentius not far 

acM.B. from the Milvian bridge, and when his adversary was drowned in the 




CONSTANTINE IN BATTLE. (A de Neuville.) 



240 



THE AXCIENT WORLD. 



Tiber, he marched into Rome. From here he governed the West, while his brother-in- 
law, Licinius, governed the East. But his ambition soon occasioned a new war, in 
which Licinius lost the kingdom and his life. Thus Constantine became the sole ruler 

325.-1. j». of the Roman empire. He immediately issued the decree of Milan, in 
which he protected the confessors of Christianity from further persecution. Never- 
theless, he caused throngs of captives to be thrown to the wild beasts, and put to death 
his wife Fausta, his noble son Crispus, and other relatives. 

Conclusion. If we cast a glance back over antiquity, we easily perceive that our 
intellectual life and our culture struck root there. The East gave us our religious 
ideas ; Greece gave us immutable models and rules for art ; and Rome, by her jurispru- 
dence, established human society in national, municipal, and private life, with such care 
and intelligence, that the overwhelming authority of Roman law is still perceptible in 
all the governments of the civilized world. 




MEDAL OF CONSTANTINE. 




saracenic arms. (Muse <P artillerie , Paris.) 
( pp. 242. ) 




A. THE MIGRATION OF RACES 

AND 

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MONOTHEISM. 

I. THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY OVER PAGANISM. 



1. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH OF THE FIRST CENTURIES. 



§ 17; 




HE Romans were very tolerant of the religions 
of other peoples ; they accepted not only the 
pantheon of the Greeks, but also the religious 
life of the Orient, of Chaldsea, Persia, Egypt 
and Syria. But as Christianity admitted of 
no alliance with paganism, as the Christians 
avoided anxiously all participation in the 
. pagan festivals and pagan ceremonies, as they 
refused to serve in the army or to accept 
office under the state, the hatred of the peo- 
ple and the mistrust of rulers led to bitter 
persecutions of the believers in the gospel, 
who were to be found in all lands and in all 
ranks of society. 

Ten persecutions are recorded from the days of Nero, when Peter and Paul are 
said to have been put to death, clown to the first decade of the fourth century when 
Diocletian and Valerius drove the confessors of the Crucified Saviour by torture and 
axe to the sacrificial altar and burned their churches and their holy scriptures. Even 
Marcus Aurelius, the noblest of the Emperors, thought it necessary to break by 
force the obstinacy of these supposed fanatics ; and the short reign of Decius is mem- 
orable for one of the most violent of all these persecutions. But the cheerful readi- 

(243) 



- Z£fitiz< m - 



244 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



ness with which these martyrs bore pain and death increased the number of believers 
so that " the blood of the martyrs " was rightly called " the seed of the church." 
The persecuted hid themselves in subterranean galleries (Catacombs) among the 
graves of their beloved, in caves also and mountain gorges. Their afflictions intensi- 

^ fied their faith in God ; the number 

SI 



of apostates who delivered their bi- 
bles to be burnt or offered incense 
to the statues of the emperors was 
small indeed, compared with the 
stout-hearted confessors who held 
fast in life and in death to their bap- 
tismal oath, to fight manfully for 
God and Christ. The poor and op- 
pressed, the weary and heavy-laden 
seized joyfully the message of salva- 
tion, which gave to the believer 
human rights, brotherly love and 
consolation in this life, took away 
also the sting of death, and de- 
stroyed the victory of hell. During 
the years of persecution Christianity, 
through its indwelling truth and fav- 
orable external circumstances, spread 
in all directions, so that in the third 
century, long before Constantine 
placed it under the protection and 
the favor of the State, it had crossed 
the frontiers of the Roman empire. 

2. Constantine the Great (325 
— 337) and Julian the Apos- 
tate (361—363). 

§ 173. Constantine, when he 
became sole ruler, removed the im- 
perial residence to Byzantium which 
from that time has been called Constantinople. This beautifully situated city he 
fortified with walls and towers and adorned magnificently with palaces and churches, 
with amphitheatres and works of art. He thereupon abolished the few remnants of 
the ancient constitution, surrounded himself with a brilliant court of chamberlains, 
ministers, court-officials and court servants and introduced a most oppressive sj'stem 
of taxation. 

For the better management of the great empire be divided it into four prefectures 
— the Orient which included Thrace and Egypt,- lllyricum which included Greece, 
Italy which included Northern Africa, and the Occident (Gaul, Spain, Britain). 

Each of these was divided into dioceses, and these latter into provinces. The last 
years of his life Constantine devoted chiefly to religious and ecclesiastical affairs; but 
he poslponed the baptism that was to cleanse him from all sin until a short time before 




ROMAN CATACOMBS. 




THE WIDOWS OF THE MARTYRS IN THE CATACOMBS. 



(pp. 245.) 



246 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




BYZANT1N1AN DEACON, BISHOP AND LEVITE. 



his death. He' introduced the observance of Sunday and issued edicts concerning it ; 
he founded many churches and endowed them with real estate from the public prop- 
erty ; he gave the clergy freedom from taxation and other privileges ; he conceded 
to the Bishops courts of their own ; per- 
mitted legacies to be made to the church 
and finally prohibited Pagan sacrifices and 
festivals. The Christian Church began 
now to take new shape. The presbyters 
and bishops had been chosen hitherto by 
the church community and the principle 
of fraternal equality had prevailed among 
all christians. But now the priesthood 
was separated from the people (clergy and 
laity), and a hierarchy was created in which 
the bishops of the principal cities, as met- 
ropolitans, presided over the other bishops, 
while the latter named the priests of their 
Sees and issued for them regulations. At 
the same time the church service, which at, 
first consisted only of song, prayer, scrip-! 
ture-reading and love feast, was made more 
imposing by means of music and the other 
arts. 
§ 174. Aeianism. Augustine. The Church Fathers. 

Christian doctrine, also, did not long retain its original simplicity and purity 
after many meu made it the subject of investigation and reflection. The relation of Christ 
to God especially occupied their thoughts and they sought to fathom the mystery of his 
divine and human nature. In the time of Constantine violent conflicts arose between 
the Alexandrian preacher Arius and Alexander, his bishop. The former maintained that 
Christ, the son of God, was less than God, the Father, and depended upon him, while 
the latter, supported by his deacon Athanasius, affirmed that God the Son was of the 
same essence with God, the Father. 

The first general council, which Constantine convened at Nicea, declared the 
view of Athanasius to be the doctrine of the Catholic Church and this in the course 
of time was elaborated into the dogma of the Trinity. 

But the German races, Goths, Vandals, Lombards, who had received their Chris- 
tianity from Arian missionaries continued to be Arians for centuries, and Avere on that 
account denounced and persecuted by the Catholic Church as heretics. A middle 
party, which taught that the Son was begotten of the Father from all eternity, but was 
of like essence only and subordinate to him, maintained its influence in the East for 
many years under the name of semi-Arians. Streams of blood were made to flow 
for the sake of these propositions so inscrutable to the human mind. 

A no less important conflict arose in the fifth Century touching inherited sin and 
election by grace. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, maintained that 
human nature, through Adam's fall, had become unable to perform of its self any 
good thing, and that the ability to live rightly could be imparted only by the grace of 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 



247 



God. A small part of the human race was predestinated to salvation, while all others 
were abandoned to destruction. This stern teaching was opposed by Pelagius, a 
British Monk residing in Africa, who asserted that man may, by the power of his own 
will, do that which is good and be saved. After years of quarreling, a middle doctrine 
was favored, which aimed to satisfy both the laws of the church and the demands of a 
free moral intelligence. 

The Christian writers of the first centuries were called the Church Fathers. 
Their works, are all the more important, because the traditional or inherited doctrine of 
the Catholic Church rests upon them. The nearer they are to the age of the Apostles, 
the greater is their authority, since it is assumed that the disciples of Jesus made 
many oral statements to their contemporaries, which are not to be found in the Apostolic 
writings and are perhaps discoverable in the Apostolic Fathers, the immediate suc- 
cessors of the Apostles. They wrote some in Greek, others in Latin. Among the 

Greek fathers, the most eminent are the 
Alexandrian writers Clement and Origen, 
the champion of orthodoxy Athanasius, the 
founder of Church History Eusebius, and 
the eloquent preacher John Chrysostom 
(Gold-mouth) of Constantinople ; among 
the Latins, Tertullian, Augustine and Jer- 
coin struck by the sons of constantine ome. The latter translated the Bible, and 
the great. his version known as the Vulgate is the au- 

thorized Bible of the Roman Catholic Church. 

§ 175. Constantine had three vicious sons ; these, according to their father's will, 
divided the empire between them. But in the year 337 after many deeds of violence, 
and bloody struggles the empire fell to Constantius alone. 





ALEMANNI CROSSING THE RHINE. (A. de Neuville.) 

As he was himself busy in Asia he sent his cousin Julian to Gaul to protect the 

constantius frontiers from the Germans. In the old tithe-lands (§161) on the 

337-301. Upper Rhine and near the sources of the Danube, the warlike Ale- 



248 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




manni had won for themselves homes, which extended from Lake Constance to the 
river Lahn near Coblentz. Full of warlike energy, they tried to subjugate the lands 
33? beyond the Rhine and made incursions into Roman Gaul. Julian de- 

feated the Alemanni at Strasburg, crossed the river twice, drove back the Franks from 
the Netherlands, and revived the ancient mili- 
tary glory of Rome. But the emperor recalled 
the best part of bis troops to send them against 
the Persians. Julian remonstrated in vain. 
The legions, angry at their recall, rose in mutiny 
and, in his favorite city Paris, proclaimed their 
commander emperor. Julian was preparing* 
himself for civil war when the death of Con- 
stantius at Tarsus gave him the throne without^ 

36o a bloody struggle. Unopposed 

he took possession of the imperial castle at 
Constantinople as the ruler of the mighty em- 
pire. He sent away at once all superfluous 
court-creatures, clothed himself in the greatest 
simplicity, lived frugally and abolished all use- 
less pomp and parade. He established justice, i 
restored the discipline of the army, and revived ' 
its martial virtue. But although he brought 
fresh vigor to the degenerate people, his zeal to 
re-establish paganism greatly impaired the success of his efforts. 

The severity of the Christian teachers of his youth had developed in Julian a repug- 
nance to the gospel while his vivid imagination, together with his love for Plato's phi- 
losophy (§§ 65, 72) and for the literature and poetry of the ancient world had made 
him an enthusiastic admirer of Paganism. Hence he was called, by the Christian writ- 
ers, "Julian the Apostate." And yet he was too just and too sagacious to pursue the 
Christians with bloody persecution. He was satisfied to banish Christians from his 
presence and from the offices and schools of the state, to controvert their opinions in 
his writings, and to restore the pagan worship with its festivals and sacrifices. To the 
God of the Sun he himself sacrificed, sometimes, a hecatomb of steers with solemn cer- 
emonies. Nevertheless, his endeavor to raise from the dead the corpse of paganism 
and to revive the customs and institutions of a vanished time, was a foolish enterprise. 
His last words were full of tragic meaning. He had undertaken a bold campaign 
against the New-Persians and urged his victorious army beyond the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, but enticed by the enemy into pathless mountain regions, had been compelled 
to retreat. A deadly arrow struck him, destroying his life and his creations. " Thou 
hast conquered, Galilean " was his dying confession. 

jovum Jovian, the effeminate, was His successor. He surrendered at once 

363-364. the conquests of Julian and restored to Christianity her lost dominion. 

vaiens 36rf-3»s. After his death the empire was divided, the Arian Valens ruling the 

raient in inn east, while his brother, the rude warlike Valentinian I governed the 

364-375. west. 



INHABITANTS OF GERMANY DURING THE 
3RD AND 4TH CENTURIES. 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 



249 



§176. 



II. THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 

1. THEODOSIUS THE GREAT (379-395). 



1 


m 


IPHSf 

m 

Asaralli 

IBl 
Pill 






HILE Valens was ruling the east there came from the steppes of 
central Asia a savage, ugly, well-mounted, nomad race, the Huns. 
They overthrew the Alani, subjugated the East-Goths, whose aged 
King Hermanric took his own life, and then attacked the West- 
Goths. These were Christians, having received the gospel from 
the Arian bishop Ulfilas, and therefore Valens gave them permis- 
sion to cross the Danube, with their wives and children, and to occupy new homes. 
Bribing the Roman officials, the West Goths retained their arms contrary to the'agree- 
ment with the emperor, 
and when the cruelt}'- 
and greed of the im- 
perial governor brought 
them to the edge of 
starvation, they u n - 
sheathed the sword 
once more, stormed the 
city of Marcianopel, and 
marched plundering and 
devastating through the 
land. Valens bore down 
upon them promptly 
with his legions, but was 
defeated in the terrible 
battle of Adrianople, and 
lost his life in a burning hut to which he had fled for refuge. The victors, with ex- 
ultant fury, now ravaged the defenceless land as far as the Julian Alps, and threatened 
o >at inn even the frontiers of Italy. In this crisis Gratian, the son of Val- 
3M-3S3. entinian, chose the intrepid soldier Theodosius, then living in exile 
upon his estate in Spain, to be the ruler of the West. Theodosius soon brought the 
war- with the Goths to an end. A part of the enemy he settled in the 
lands south of the Danube, the rest he took as mercenaries into the 
as3. Roman army. Soon after this Gratian, the chase-loving pupil of the 

poet Ausonius, was murdered in an uprising. Theodosius thereupon, having defeated 
vaieHtitiian the leader of the rebellion, Maximus, the governor of Gaul, in open 
3S3-.102. battle, made Valentinian the younger, whose beautiful sister he had 
married, the ruler of the West. 

But nine years later Valentinian was the sacrifice of a conspiracy, of which Arbo- 
gast the Gaul was the leader. Theodosius took the field against Arbogast and his 
anti-emperor Eugenius and defeated them at Aquileja. Arbogast took his own life 
and Eugenius was murdered just as he flung himself in the dust at the feet of the 
Emperor. 




theodosius. (Gold Medal.) 



Tltcodosiits 



399-395. 



-V- 







~v» 






90s 




( pp. 250. J 



the huns. (A. de Nevville.) 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 251 

Theodosius now united East and West, for the last time, under one scepter. He 
was a powerful but passionate prince ; in Thessalonica, for example, he put to death 
7000 citizens to revenge the murder of the governor lrj' an angry mob. For this he 
was made to do penance by the fearless bishop Ambrose of Milan, and performed it 
willingly. This submission of the Emperor Theodosius was an acknowledgment of 
the intellectual and moral power of Christianity, which was able to punish and to re- 
strain the misuse of imperial power. " Thus the church became the protector of pop- 
ular liberty and saints assumed the parts of tribunes of the people." 

Theodosius was a zealous champion of Catholic Christianity. ' He prohibited and 
persecuted A nanism, forbade sacrifices and predictions and permitted the pagan tem- 
ples to be plundered and destroyed. The sacred fire of the Vestals now expired, the 
Oracles and Sibyls were struck dumb ; the pagan Gods perished before the belief on the 
crucified Saviour. Only among the dwellers in remote country districts and mountain 
regions did the pagan faith and sacrificial service continue for any time, either openly 
or secretly, and it was soon despised by the cultivated as the religion of boors, 
(Pagani). 

At his death Theodosius bequeathed the East with Illyria to his son Arcadius, 

Arcaaius a youth of eighteen, dependent upon his counsellor Rufinus of Gaul. 

305-40S. To Honorius, a boy of eleven only, he gave the West, but placed him 

Monavius in charge of the sagacious statesman and skillful soldier, Stilicho. 

3»5-*aa The Empire remained, from this time on, divided. The ruler of the 
West resided at Ravenna. 

2. West Goths, Burgtjndtans, Vandals. 

§ 171. Envy and jealousy of Stilicho drove the treacherous Rufinus to entice the 
daring Alaric, king of the West Goths, to attack the provinces of the Western empire. 
Ravaging and murdering bands devastated Thessaly, Middle-Greece and the Peloponne- 
sus, trampling to ruin the 
remnants of Greek culture 
until they were surrounded 
by the armies of Stilicho in 
Elis and forced to retreat. 
Shortly after this Alaric, 
• -ton. who had 

been appointed meanwhile 
by the East-Roman court, 
the commander and gov- 
ernor of Illyria, invaded 
Upper Italy, devastated 
the banks of the Po, but 
suffered such losses in 

v. Ai i -^l ci-v i INROAD OF BARBARIANS. 

two battles with Stilicho 

that he was compelled to return to Illyria and to wait for better days. Hardly 

403. had he disappeared, when mighty throngs of heathen Germans, Van- 

dals, Burgundians and Suevi under Duke Radagais broke into Italy, destroying cities and 

<too villages, and filling the land with pillage and murder. For these too 




252 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Stilicho's skill and bravery proved destructive. Their leader fell ; thousands perished 
by the sword, by famine and by disease ; others accepted Roman pay. The pieces of 
the army fell upon Gaul where the Burgundians, after repeated plunderings, settled 
along the Rhine and founded the Kingdom of Burgundy, which extended from the 
Mediterranean to the Vosges mountains. The Vandals and Suevi crossed the Pyrenees 
and conquered for themselves homes in Spain. The Suevi settled permanently in the 
Northwest but the Vandals, two centuries later, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and set- 
tled in Northern Africa. 




fkKluXvHtjt^u. :^=. ~ 






STIL1CHO PARLEYING WITH THE GOTHS. 



§ 178. In his extremity, Stilicho had formed an alliance with Alaric, and prom- 
ised him a yearly contribution of money. His enemies, especially the treacherous 
4os. Olympius, accused him therefore of high treason, and brought about 

his execution in Ravenna. He sought protection at the sacred altars, but being 




(pp. 253 ) 



THE VANDALS IN ROME. (H. Vogel.) 



254 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




enticed away by treacherous promises, he was cut to pieces by a gang of murderers. 
Alaric thereupon was appealed to by the adherents of Stilicho. Enraged at the loss 
of his friend and of his monej-, he marched into Italy, 
besieged Rome, and compelled the frightened inhabitants 
to purchase mercy with gold, silver, and costly garments. 
410. But when the court of Ravenna rejected 

his offers of peace, the Gothic chief appeared repeatedly 
before the walls of the city of Rome, finally took it by 
storm, and gave it over to his army for a three clays' 
plunder. Not long afterward, Alaric died in Lower Italy ; 
his coffin and his treasures are said to have been buried in 
the ground, under the waters of the river Busento. His 
brother-in-law, Athaulf (Adolph), made a treaty with coin op fifth century, show- 
Honorius, by which he became the husband of the beau- ING head of paul. 

■its. tiful Placidia, the sister of the Emperor. He then led the West Goths 

into South Gaul, and founded the West Gothic kingdom that originally extended from 

the Garonne to the Ebro, and had Tolosa (Toulouse) for its 
capital. But some years later, the Vandals having crossed 
over to Africa, the West Goths conquered all Spain. The 
Franks, however, compelled them to give up the district 
between the Pyrenees and the Garonne. Adolph was mur- 
dered while marching against Barcelona. WalKa succeeded 
415. him ; Placidia, treated unworthily by the ene- 

mies of her husband, returned to Ravenna, and was married 
a second time. 

§ 179. Placidia's son, Valentinian III, succeeded his 
father Honorius. iEtius, a skillful soldier and able states- 
vaientinian in. man, was his counselor. Bonifacius, the 
42S-4SS. governor of North Africa, being an enemy 
of JEtius, and fearing his wrath, rebelled against the empire 
and called upon the Vandals, under their brave and cunning king Genseric, to come 
over from Spain to his as- 
sistance. He soon repent- 
ed his folly, and opposed 
them with his soldiers 
when they came. But the 
Vandals conquered him, 
and took possession of 
43o. North Af- 

rica, where they estab- 
lished the Vandal king- 
dom, with Carthage as its 
capital. They then cou- 
quered Sicily and the the huns at aquileja. 

Balearic Islands, and spread terror through the islands and along the coasts, by 
-*3©. their piracy. Hippo (now Bona) was besieged, and St. Augustine, 




ATT1LA, THE HUN. 




THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 



255 



bishop of that citj r , died during the siege. Bonifacius was finally reconciled to the 
432. court of Ravenna, but soon afterward was killed in a fight against 

iEtius. The Vandal kingdom of North Africa lasted for one hundred years, in spite 
of frequent battles between the Arian Vandals and the Catholic Romans. Genseric 
died in 477. 

3. Attila, King of the Huns. 

§ 180. About the middle of the fifth century, Attila, " The Scourge of God," left 
his wooden capital, on the river Theiss, in Hungary, in order to conquer the West 
Roman Empire. More than half a million rude warriors, partly Huns, partly subject 
or allied Germans, marched across Austria and Bavaria, to the valley of the Rhine. 
They destroyed the royal family of Burgundy at Worms, ravaged the Roman cities 
and then marched plundering and murdering into Gaul. JEtius, with an army of 

4si. Romans, Burgundians, West Goths and Franks, met them at Chalons 

on the river Marne, and defeated them with terrible slaughter. One hundred and 
sixty thousand corpses covered the battle-field. The king of the West Goths was 
among the slain and the legend that the spirits of the defeated fought in the air above 
the survivors, attests the terrible fury of the battle. Attila defended himself against 

4sa. his raging enemies, but withdrew to Pannonia, and in the following 

year again invaded Upper Italy. Aquileja was destroyed; Milan, Padua, and Verona 

besieged, and the fertile ^^^V^^SS^^^^^M^^'i^'H^PMi 

valley of the Po utterly 
wasted. The inhabitants 
of Aquileja sought safety 
in the rock and sand is- 
lands of the lagoons, and 
laid the foundations of 
Venice. Attila was about 
to enter Rome, but yielded 
to the entreaties of Bishop 
Leo I., who induced him 
to make peace with Val- 
entinian, and to leave 

Italy. The gratitude for storming and sacking a ro.man town. 

this unexpected rescue was so great, that the withdrawal of the ravager of Italy 
was ascribed to the appearance of the apostle Peter, who stood with drawn sword at 
the side of his successor. Attila died suddenly in his Pannonian camp, either from a 
4S3. hemorrhage, or at the hands of his Burgundian bride, with whom he 

had celebrated his wedding the night before. His death arrested the development of 
the kingdom of the Huns. The East Goths and the Longobards, after desperate 
struggles, conquered their independence, while the ruins of the kingdom of Attila, and 
of his army, were lost in the steppes of Southern Russia. 




4. Destruction of the West Roman Empire. 

§ 181. The Roman dominion now hurried to its end. Valentinian killed with 
454. his own hand the brave ^Etius, the last support of the kingdom, 



256 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



because he feared the greatness of the man and resented his independence. But he 

4S5. soon lost his own life at the hands of Petronius Maximus, whose wife 

he had seduced. While reviewing his troops on the Field of Mars in Rome, he was 




CAPTIVE ROMAN MAIDEN SERVING BARBARIANS. (A. Be NeUVllle.) 

murdered by two conspirators, before the eyes of the people. Petronius having seized 
the throne, sought the hand of the imperial widow, Eudoxia. But she spurned the 
murderer of her husband, and determined to call in the Vandals to accomplish her 

revenge. Genseric landed in Austria, con- 
quered Rome, and permitted- his soldiers to 
plunder the city for two weeks. Loaded 
with booty and captives, among them the 
empress and her two daughters, the Van- 
dals returned to the coast of Africa, and 
carried on their piratical trade with greater 
boldness than ever. After some timeRici- 
mer, the commander-in-chief of the foreign 
mercenary troops in Rome, a brave, astute, 
but blood-stained man, acquired such influ- 
ence, that he ruled the kingdom until his 
death. He did not assume the imperial title, 
4G5-4J2. but set up and removed em- 
perors at will. They were all instruments 
in his hands, even Anthemius, a relative 
of the Bj-zantine court, under whom East 
and West united in a campaigu against 
the Vandals. The campaign failed, either through the treason, or the folly of its 
commander Basiliscns; and the fleet was lost by fire. Three years after the death 
47s. of Ricimer by the plague, Orestes, his ambitious general, placed the 

empty crown upon the head of his son Romulus Augustulus. The German soldiers of 




ROMAN EMPEROR AND COURTIERS. 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 257 

the empire now demanded one-third of the soil of Italy. When this was refused them, 
jms. their leader Odoacer, put Orestes to death, took for himself the title of 

king of Italy, and made an end of the West Roman Empire. To the harmless Romu- 
lus Augustulus, he gave an estate in Lower Italy and a pension. Ten years later Chlo- 
4s«. dowig, king of the Franks, conquered the Roman governor in Gaul. 




ROMTTLTJS AUGUSTULUS AND ODOACER. (B. MSrling.) 

These two events laid the foundations for new conditions in Europe ; conditions based 
upon Christianity and German character. 

§ 182. Theodoric the East Goth. — Odoacer had been ruling for twelve years, 

when Theodoric, king of the East Goths, marched from the Danube into Italy, at the 

instance of the Emperor at Constantinople. Two hundred thousand warriors, with 

their wives, children, and possessions, followed him in long trains. Their numbers 

17 



25S THE MIDDLE AGE. 

*s». were too -great for Odoacer to resist. He entrenched himself behind 

the walls of Ravenna, but after a brave defence, which lasted for three days, he sur- 

403. rendered upon honorable terms. But a short time afterward, he was 

slain by the Goths, at a riotous banquet. Theodoric established his kingdom at 
Ravenna, and ruled with wisdom and justice, from the southern capes of Italy to the 
Danube. He respected ancient laws and institutions ; he protected commerce, agri- 
culture, and industry ; reserved the conduct of war for himself and the Goths, and 
gave his soldiers a third part of the land. He appointed counts, from among his offi- 
cers, to administer justice in disputes between the two peoples, and with sagacious 
tolerance maintained religious peace. Learning and culture shared in this protection, 
and cultivated Romans, like the historian, Cassiodorus, were appointed to important 
offices. In foreign countries, the renown of Theodoric was so great, that kings 
brought their differences to his judgment seat. Not until shortly before his death was 
he tempted to cruelty. Boethius and his father-in-law, Symmachus, were executed by 
him, because he suspected them of having urged the Emperor at Constantinople to 
drive the Goths out of Italy. Boethius composed in prison his famous " Consolations 

sue. of Philosophy." This cruelty provoked the irrreconcilable hatred of 

the Catholic Romans. The ashes of the "accursed heretic" were cast out of the 
colossal sepulcher, in Ravenna, and scattered to the four winds. Nevertheless, this 
"Dietrich of Berne," so celebrated in song and story, lives on in history, the lofty 
figure of a great and pacific German prince. 

6. Chlodowig (Clovis) King of the Franks and the Merovings. 

§ 183. The Franks lived anciently on the lower Rhine : they were a German 
tribe, a powerful people, who fought with spear and battle ax ; bold, cunning, ener- 
getic. At one time they united several German tribes on the shores of the Rhine into 
a powerful league, known as the league of the Franks. Their oldest kings were 
Pharamund and Merovseus. When the cunning and courageous Chlodowig became 
their ruler, he led them forth to battle and to conquest. He overcame the Roman 
cuiofioicia governor, Syagrius, at Soissons, took possession of the land between 
(ciovta) the Seine and the Loire, then attacked the Alemanni, who inhabited 
^si-sit. both sides of the Rhine. He defeated the latter in a bloody battle, 
and subjugated the territory between the Moselle and the Lahn. In the heat of the 
fight, Chlodowig had vowed that if the battle, then wavering in the balance, was determ- 
496. ined in his favor, he would accept the faith of his Christian wife, 

Chlotilda of Burgundy. So in the same } r ear, he, with three thousand nobles of his 
train, were baptized in the cathedral at Rheims. But his savage heart was not made 
boo. gentler by his baptism. He conquered the discordant Burgundians, 

bo?, overcame the West Goths, extended the kingdom of the Franks as far 

as the Rhone and the Garonne, and then sought, by the murder of all the Frankish 
chiefs, to secure for himself and his descendants the government of the entire king- 
dom. His zeal for the extension of the Catholic doctrine among the Arian Germans, 
was so great, that he was praised by the clergy as the "most Christian " king, and a 
second Coustantine. Chlodowig and his successors are known in history as the Mero- 
vings or Merwings, a name derived from the ancient chieftain Merovaus. 

§ 184. The vices of the father descended to his four sons, who divided up the 




DEATH OF BRUNEHILD. ( F. Keller.) 



(pp. 259. ) 



260 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



sn. kingdom after his death, so that the oldest received Austrasia with its- 

capital, Metz; and the three younger, Neustria and Burgundy. Under Chlotar I. and 
Chlotar II. the whole kingdom was united. But the story of the Merovings makes a 
ass-el.?. horrible picture of human wickedness. Fratricide and murder, bloody 




MURDER OF THE MEROVINGS BY CLOVIS. ( Vierfje.) 

civil wars, and outbreaks of unbridled passions fill up their annals. Bishop Gregory, 
of Tours, has written the story in the simple style of the books of Judges and of 
Kings. The wicked deeds of the two queens, Brunhilde and Fredegonde, are espe- 
cially infamous. At last the descendants of Chlodowig became so impotent that they 
are known irr history as the helpless kings. The steward of the royal estate (Major 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 261 

Domus) gradually acquired authority and power. The only transaction of the feeble 
Merovings was their annual visit to the assemblies of the people, where they appeared 
upon a wagon drawn by four oxen. At first, each of the three kingdoms had its own 
6s* Major Domus, but Pipin of Heristal was able to unite the dignities 

of Neustria, Burgundy, and Austrasia into one great office, and to make it hereditary 
in his own house. Pippin's descendants, known as " Dukes of the Franks," thus 
acquired the royal power, while the Merovings retained only the royal name. The 
Franks devoted themselves entirely to war. As a consequence, Roman culture soon, 
predominated, even in Frankish Gaul ; the language, the customs, and the legal insti- 
tutions of the Romans, continued to exist, and the blonde-haired kings of the Franks 
occupied the place of the Roman emperor. 

7. The Anglo Saxons. 

§ 185. Britain was abandoned by the Roman armies about the middle of the 
fifth century. The inhabitants, too weak to resist the attacks of the savage Picts and 
Scots, sought help from the Angles and the Saxons on the lower Elbe. These bold 
free-booters, well-known for their courage and their swift moving boats, followed the 

449. call, and crossed the British Islands, under their two leaders Hengist 

and Horsa. But no sooner had they driven the Picts and Scots back to Caledonia, 
than they turned upon the natives, and conquered, after a terrible war, the land to 
which they gave their own name Angle-land, or England. Heathen barbarism, and 
German customs drove out the Christian Roman culture, language, and law. The old 
Roman cities disappeared, and Britain returned to primitive conditions, in which the 
war and the chase, agriculture and pastoral life alone remained. The Britains were 
mostly killed by the sword. A few escaped to the opposite coast of Gaul, which is 
now called Brittany. Only in the mountains of Wales and Cornwall, did the Celtic 
inhabitants retain their independence and their national peculiarities. The rest of 
England came into the possession of the Anglo Saxons, who established in it seven 
small kingdoms. These remained separated from each other until the ninth century, 

sn7. when Egbert, of Wessex, united the seven kingdoms of the Hep- 

tarchy, and called himself King of England. Heathenism yielded to Christianity in 
the seventh century, when the Benedictine monk, Augustine, with his missionaries, 

boo. arrived in Kent. The King and his nobles were baptized, and the 

arch-bishopric of Canturbury established. The legends of King Arthur and his round- 
table belong to this period of struggle, between the Christian Britains and the heathen 
Anglo-Saxons. 

8. The Byzantine Empire and the Lombards. 

§ 186. The Court of Constantinople blazed in oriental splendor, and abounded 
in women and favorites, who made and unmade emperors by their intrigues and their 
crimes. An insolent body-guard like the Praetorians, and an excitable population, 
made the government very difficult. The people found pleasure only in religious 
disputes, and in the rough diversions of the Hippodrome. They were di- 
vided into the " Blues " and the " Greens," names taken from the colors of the 
charioteers of the Hippodrome. These parties hated each other mortally, yet exer- 



262 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




BYZANTINE MEDAL. 



cised upon the empire and the government, upon the faith and the church, a powerful 

Justinian influence. Such were the circumstances when Justinian, a man of 

Bzt-ses. humble origin, ascended the throne. He put down the " Greens," who 

had stirred up a rebellion against him, and who were especially hated by the Empress 

Theodora (the daughter of a doorkeeper in the circus), for a personal insult she had 

532. received at their hands. Belisarius, his general, was active in their 
suppression, and the Hippodrome was closed indefinitely. The Justinian code, or 

corpus juris, of which the Pandects are the essential 

parts, was compiled by his minister Tribonian. He 

[obtained also, through guile, silk-worms from China, 

'and introduced the culture of silk into Europe. He 

built the church of St. Sophia, in Constantinople, 

fortified the empire by castles along the Danube, 

and persecuted Pagans and Allans. His favorite 

maxim was " One will, one ±aw, and one faith." 

§ 187. Vandals and Goths were Arians, and, as both these kingdoms were in a 
shattered state, Justinian determined to make war upon them, and hy conquering* 
their lands, to restore his empire to the extent that it had possessed in the time of 
Constantine. Belisarius, the greatest general of his time, subdued the Vandals in a 

533. few months, for these were divided by religious quarrels, and their 
last king, Gelimer, was taken prisoner to Constantinople. The land was handed 
over to an East Roman governor. The 
Arian faith was rooted out, the .young Van- 
dals were drafted into the imperial army, 
and the stolen treasures carried away to 
Constantinople. About this same time, 
Amalasunta, the noble daughter of Theodoric, 
was murdered by the Gothic prince, Theoda- 
tus, whom she had called to a share in the 

536. government. Justinian de- 

termined to revenge her, and sent Belisarius 
to Italy. He conquered Rome, and de- 
fended it, with military skill and heroic 
courage, a whole year against Vitiges, 
whom the Goths had made king in place 
of Theodatus. Astonished at the bravery 
of Belisarius, the Goths offered him the 

53». throne, and surrendered to 

him their capital, Ravenna. He took it in 
the name of the Emperor,- but did not es- 
cape the envy and the slander of the court 

s4.o. favorites. He was recalled in the midst of his victories, and sent to 

the East to fight the Persians. The Goths thereupon rebelled, lifted the brave Totila 

5*4. upon his shield, and greeted him as King. Totila soon re-conquered all 

Italy. Belisarius was then sent back, but so poorly provided with troops and money, 

S4s. that he could accomplish little. He crept along the coast without 




BTZANTINIAN WARRIOR AND MAJOR DOMUS. 



264 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



venturing a decisive battle. Justinian recalled him in anger and drove him into dis- 
grace. A later legend tells how, as a blind old man, he begged a miserable sub? ce. 
553. His successor was Narses, a supple courtier, but at the ..^ me, a 

5sa. hero like Belisarius. At Tagina, Totila, received a mortal wound, and 

the bravest of his warriors were left on the battle-field. The remnant of the army 
553. now chose Tejas for their king, but after many bloody battles, he too 

fell at the head of his braves, and only a small company escaped across the Alps. 

§ 188. Narses, as imperial governor of Ravenna, now ruled the conquered land. 
But after Justinian's death, Narses was removed, not, however, before he had called 
the Lombards into Italy. They came with satisfaction ; for they loved to wander, 
and they were acquainted with the charms of Italy. They marched under the 

56s. leadership of Alboin, to the 

regions of the Po, which received from them 
the present name of Lombardy. They be- 
seiged and captured Pavia, and made it the 
capital of their kingdom. Alboin fell a victim 
to the vengeance of his wife, the beautiful 
Rosamunde. He had slain her father, Kuni- 
mund, king of the Gepidse, and made a drinking 
B73. cup of his skull ; and at a riot- 

ous feast he compelled the daughter to drink 
from it. Rosamunde was so embittered by this 
outrage, that she caused his death. The rough 
Lombards treated the natives with violence, 
and robbed them of their possessions. But the 
fertile fields soon showed the signs of German 
skill and energy. The Roman organization of 
cities, which had fallen into decay, was renewed 
b}' the German Lombards. A powerful nobility 
of dukes and counts stood at the head of the 
war-like nation, and the kings were chosen in 
the assemblies of the people, or, as they were 
called, in the "fields of May." The Lom- 
bards shared with the old Roman population their culture, especially as the Romans 
accepted from their conquerors the Arian faith. This Lombard kingdom lasted for 
two centuries, but finally fell to the Franks. 

§ 189. The glory of Justinian's empire soon disappeared. The throne of Con- 
stantinople was stained with blood and crime. Emperor succeeded emperor. Blinded 
eyes, mutilated ears and noses belonged to the daily events of this God-forsaken court. 
And yet Constantinople remained the seat of culture and learning, notwithstanding this 

x,eo the, vileness and moral wretchedness. Church affairs still continued to excite 

isauriun. great interest in the imperial city. Statues and relics in the churches 
threatened to produce a new idolatry, and Leo, the Isaurian, issued an edict, requiring all 

■}is-t/<h. statues and pictures to be taken from the churches. This created a storm, 
which shook the empire for a century. Two parties, image-worshippers and image- 




BYZANT1NIAN EMPEROR AND PAGE . 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 



2G5 



constantime breakers, made war upon each other. Leo's energetic son, Constantine, 
coi>ioi>»mws, nick-named by his enemies, Copronymus (the dung-heap), followed his 

741-775. father's example. He covened a council, which condemned the worship 
of images as an "invention of the devil," and punished the incorrigible with death and 

ieo. iv. exile. Leo, the Fourth, belonged also to these image-breaking emper- 

775-7SO. ors. But after his sudden death, his widow, Irene, called another church 
i,-e>ie son. council, which repealed the former action, and restored the images 
to the churches. But this ambitious and passionate woman put out the eyes of her 
own son, and then drove him into poverty. She carried on the government for five 
years with energy and audacity. It is said that Karl the Great, was arranging a mar- 
riage with her, in order to unite the East and the West, when she was driven from the 
throne by a conspiracy. She died at Lesbos, in poverty and wretchedness. Leo, the 

S13.SS0. Armenian, and his descendants made another attempt to remove the 
images from the churches. This, however, 
was not so violent, and was brought to an 
end by the empress. Basilius, the Mace- 
se7. donian, began a new 

dynasty, that ruled for two centuries, and 
brought new strength to the empire. The 
decrees against images were not recognized 
in the West, yet a church council, con- 
vened by Karl the Great, at Frankfort, con- 
demned the abuse of images in the church. 

9. The Slavs. 

§189. b. The Slavs were called Wends 
by the Germans. They are one of the 
great families of Europe ; the Germans, 
Bomans, and Celts being the other three. 
They lived for centuries on the wooded 
heights of the Carpathian mountains, 
whence they were driven by Asiatic hordes 
into other lands, to seek new homes. Some 
migrated northward, and settled in the 
plains and steppes, where the Scythians and Sarmatians had for ages pastured their 
Hocks and herds. Others moved to the South and West, and occupied the lands va- 
cated in the great migrations of the fifth century. Bussians and Boles, the Wends of 
Moravia and Bohemia (Czechs), and those of Silesia, are of Slavonic origin. The 
Slavs in modern Germany are for the most part merged with the Teutons, whose 
ancestors settled in Bomerania and Frussia. 

Other tribes occupied the lands between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea, Dal- 
matia, Bosnia, Croatia ; and Macedonia, Greece, and the Beloponnesus were invaded by 
them. In language, customs, and origin they were closely related, but divided into 
countless separate groups. Their religion was a worship of idols, connected with 
human sacrifices. It was based upon the reverence for beneficent, and their dread of 
the maleficent powers of nature. Swantowit was the chief God of the West Slavs. 







BYZANTIN1AN EMTRESS AND PRINCESS. 



266 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



His temple was at Arkona, on the island of Riigen, in the Baltic. Thither went all 
the Wends of the Oder and the Elbe, to worship his four-headed image. Perun, the 
god of thunder and lightning, was the supreme god of the East Slavs. Czernabog, the 

wicked head of the black deities and 
spirits of the under world, was another 
to whom they sacrificed. The Slavs 
are lively and excitable, possessing, 
also, many domestic virtues and amia- 
ble social qualities. They soon forget 
in songs and dances, the cares and 
burdens of life ; but when excited, 
easily exceed the limits of modera- 
tion. In former centuries, they were 
%Jj^ counted bloodthirsty, vindictive, and 
^Ss faithless. Proud of their nationality, 
fe$ yet they easily adopted foreign man- 
ners and characteristics. The pas- 
sion for culture, and for ideal exis- 
tence, they did not share with the 
Roman and the German races. The 
Roman lands occupied by the Slavs 
were. turned into waste places, while 
those conquered by the Germans 
blossomed into beauty and fertility. 
Oppressed by the Germans and 
treated as slaves, they have returned hatred for contempt. Devoted to pastoral and 
agricultural life, they are notable in war, chiefly for their cavalry. In their morals they 
incline to the Orient, and woman is by no means regarded as she is among the Germans 
of the West. 




mohammed. (Ideal.) 



III. MOHAMMED AND THE ARABS. 



§190. 

RABIA FELIX (Happy Arabia), is the southwest district of 

Arabia. It is fruitful in coffee, frankincense and costly spices. 

Here used to live a people capable of great culture, and powerful 

in their haughty independence. They worshipped nature and the 

stars ; a black stone in the Kaaba at Mecca was their national 

holy of holies. The Koreishites were the guardians of the Kaaba, 

and to it came throngs of pilgrims every year, who made it famous 

for its fairs and festivals and poetical contests. The Arabs had grown rich through 

commerce and caravans and the breeding of horses. They delighted in poems and leg- 

juohnmmed ends. It was among these Arabs that Mohammed was born in the year 

sj/.caa. 571. He came of an honored priestly family among the Koreishites. 

He grew up a merchant, and made many journeys in the caravan trade. In his 




THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 



267 



travels and at Mecca, the meeting-place of the Semitic races, he found opportunity to 
observe the morals and the inner life of men. He thus became convinced that the 
religion of the Christians and Jews was greatly superior to that of the Arabs. His 
marriage with the rich widow, Kadijah, made him independent; he withdrew from the 

bustle of life, and began to ponder 
how he could redeem his people 
from their low estate. The wait- 
ing of the Jews for a Messiah, the 
promise of Jesus to send a com- 
forter, so wrought upon his mind, 
that he came to feel and to pro- 
claim, " I am he of whom the world 
has need." His epileptic seizures 
favored his belief, that he had in- 
tercourse with angels, and visions 
from on high. 

§ 191. Mohammed was just 
forty years old when he began to 
cry : " There is but one God, and 
Mohammed is his Prophet." But 
except his wife Ayesha, his father- 
in-law Abu Bekr,his uncle Ali, and 
a few other relatives and friends, 
he found none to believe in his mis- 
A threatened outbreak com- 




o sion 



pelled him, indeed, to flee from 
Mecca to Medina (Hidschrah, 
jmij/ is, 022. Hegira. The* first 
year of the Mohammedan Calen- 
dar). At Medina he found adher- 
ents, with whom he made excur- 
sions, and through whom he finally 
conquered from the Koreishites, 
the liberty of returning to Mecca. 
His revelations (from the angel 
Gabriel) were ecstatic utterances, 
frequently adapted to existing cir- 
cumstances. These were collected, 
two years after his death, into the 
Koran, which is divided into Suras. 
This is the law and the gospel of 
the Moslems. Mecca recognized 
Mohammed as a prophet, and his 
doctrine, Islam, soon spread over all 
Arabia. In it he combined fun- 
damental doctrines of Judaism and 



268 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




SIGNATURE OF 
MED. 



MOHAM- 



Ohristianity, with many maxims sanctified by long usage, and peculiarly grateful to 
the Oriental mind. 

Ablutions, prayers, fasts, pilgrimages to Mecca, and the giving of alms, he ur- 
gently inculcated. He retained the rite of circumcision, prohibited strong drink and 
pork, and permitted polygamy. A chief commandment was to propagate Islam, and to 
compel its acceptance, if need be, by fire and sword. Human life and human fate 
are determined from eternity; death and misfortune reach no 
one, save by the pre-existing will of God. " To battle ! " 
therefore cried the prophet's disciples " Paradise is full of pleas- 
ure for us ; there, waited on by black-eyed virgins, we shall 
o3tf. gaze upon the face of God." In the eleventh 

of the Hegira, Mohammed died. Mecca, where he was born, 
and Medina, where he is buried, remain to this hour the 
sacred resorts of thronging pilgrims. The Prophet united 
seriousness and dignity iu conduct and bearing, with a cheerful 
and engaging nature, and a handsome person. He was gentle 
simple and domestic in his habits, but rather too susceptible to 
the love of women. 

§ 192. Ali, husband of Mohammed's only daughter Fatime, hoped to be his 
successor (Caliph). But Avhile he was weeping over the Prophet's corpse, Abu 

A.bu BeKr, Bekr, the father of Mohammed's artful 

632-034 wife, managed to make himself the 

I Caliph. The simple, energetic Omar followed him. The 

enthusiastic Arabs carried their new doctrine beyond 

the bounds of Arabia, Moslems (Musselmen, Saracens) 

conquered Palestine and Syria, entering as victors 

034-044. Jerusalem, Antioch and Damascus. Khalid "The Sword of God," 
and the cunning Amru, led the hosts. Persia yielded after a series of bloody battles. 
The last king Jezdegerd fled, like Darius before Alexander, with the holy fire into 
the mountains. There he fell by the hand of an assassin. Eastward now the Arabs 
aso. marched, carrying Islam into India. The worship of the Sun died 

out before it, and it became the prevailing religion 
of the East. The new cities Basra, Cufa, and 
Bagdad became the centres of commerce, and the 
seats of luxury and splendor. Amru marched from 
Syria to Egypt, conquered Alexandria (destroying 
the great library), and reduced Memphis to ashes. 
Cairo arose from the camp of the Moslem general, 
and the gospels were pushed aside by the Koran. 

§ 193. Omar was stabbed by a Persian slave. 

«.i.i-«.-,«. ger of the Koran, obtained the caliphate. Twelve years later, he be- 
came the victim of a conspiracy, and Ali at last ascended the chair that belonged to him. 
But the family of the murdered Othman, the Ommiads, opposed him, provoking a civil 
oei. war, in which Ali perished and all his house. The Ommiads obtained 

the caliphate, and transferred the seat of power to Damascus. They conquered 
Cyprus, Rhodes, and Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople. Greek fire saved the 





COIN OP RHODES. 




COIN OF CYPRUS. 



Othman, the collector and arran- 




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EH 



270 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



ees-«7s. imperial city. This was prepared in the holds of ships, and forced in 

streams through copper pipes, upon the hostile vessels. 

§ 194. The north coast of Africa was conquered at the same time, but only after 
a long war, in which Christian culture and Christian religion were 
annihilated. Kairwan in the territory of Tunis, a spot sur- 
rounded by smiling meadows, became the flourishing capital of the 
Saracen kingdom, and the centre of the caravan trade. North 
Africa, once the seat of Roman "civilization, now disappeared from 
the circle of cultivated nations. Bedouin tribes founded their 
robber commonwealths upon the ruins of the ancient splendor. 
Sicily, likewise fell into the hands of the Arabs, and became the 
centre of piratical excursions to the coasts of Italy. 

§ 195. In the beginning of the eight century, the West Goth 
Roderigo, robbed king Witidza of the Spanish throne. The 
sons of the banished king, and other discontented Spaniards 

thereupon called the Moslems into Africa. Tarik, the Arab general, crossed the 




CHARLES MARTEL. 




CHARLES MARTEL IN THE BATTLE OF POITIERS. (Pliiddemann.) 



straits, laid the foundations of Gibraltar (Gebel al Tarik), and conquered the "West 
hi. Goths. In the battle of Xerxes, the flower of the West Gothic soldiers 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 



271 



covered the battle-field, and King Roderigo was drowned in his flight. The Arabs 
(Moors) conquered all Spain as far as Asturias, into the hills of which the West Goths 
withdrew. The Saracens crossed the Pyrenees, conquered South France as far as the 

Rhone, and threatened the kingdom and 
Christianity with destruction. But Charles 
Martel (The Hammer), the natural son of 
the Major Domus, Pipin of Heristal, over- 
t/32. came them in a seven days' 

battle at Tours and Poitiers. The Arabs 
returned to Spain, and Charles Martel was 
the savior of Western Christendom. 

§ 196. Eighteen years after this vic- 
tory, the Ommiads were driven from the 
throne by the Abbasides, who destroyed 
75©. their rivals by a terrible mas- 

sacre. Abderrahman, however, escaped the 
destruction of his family, and after many 
dangers and adventures reached Spain 
7ss. where he founded theCaliph- 

ate of Cordova. The Abbasides chose the 
splendid Bagdad for their capital. Harun al 
Raschid, the contemporary of Karl the Great, 
7S6-SOO. ruled this city with such re- 




THE CID CAMPEADOR ON HIS HORSE 
" BABIEGA." 




Ai 

... . jjtotott&'-^M 



Wm 






■M^^M 



%nai 




THE ALHAMBRA OF GRANADA. 



nown, that his name has become immortal in the Arabian nights. But the culture, 
the splendor, and the luxurious life of Bagdad destroyed the war-like energy of the 



272 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Saracens, so that the later Caliphs became the playthings of their Turkish body-guards. 
The commander of the guard (Emir al Omra) soon usurped all temporal power, and 
left to the successors of the prophet only the dignity of a spiritual prince. 

§ 197. Spain flourished wonderfully under the Ommiads. Populous cities sprang 
up : industry and agriculture prospered ; mines were opened ; rich villages, fertile 
farms, splendid palaces with their gardens and fountains, like Alcazar in Cordova, and 
Alhambra in Granada, proved the prosperity of the land. Arts and sciences were also 
patronized, but when the Ommiad dynasty disappeared, Spain was split up into many 

ios3. small states, which were finally overcome by the Christians in the 

North. These dwellers in Asturias 
extended their territory by suc- 
cessful wars, so that finally three 
kingdoms were established, Castile, 
Aragon, and Portugal. These were 
independent of each other, but 
carried on perpetual war with the 
Arabs of the South. These strug- 
gles produced in the Christian 
Spaniards fanaticism, pride, and a 
passion for war. The deeds of the 
god-inspired champions, especially 

1099. of the great Cid 

Campeador, were handed down in 
song, and kept alive the courage 
and the chivalry of the Spanish 
nobility. But civic freedom also 
flourished in the Spanish cities. 
1212. The victory of 

Tolosa in the Sierra M or en a, [ 
broke forever the power of the 
Moors. A generation later, Cor- 
dova and Granada recognized Fer- 

M±s. dinand of Castile 

as their sovereign, and the Moors 
do longer ruled anywhere in Spain. 

§ 198. In all the lands inhabited by the Arabs, arts and sciences flourished. 
Mosques, palaces, and gardens were found in all their cities. Industry and commerce 
made them wealthy, but also made them weak. Architecture, decorative sculpture and 
painting (Arabesques), music, song, and poetry were patronized and richly rewarded. 
The system of notation, introduced in the eleventh century by the Italian Guido, of 
Avicenna fio37. Arezzo, was borrowed probably from the Spanish Arabs. High schools 
were established in Damascus, Bagdad, Cairo, Cordova and Salerno, where grammar 
and philosophy, natural science and medicine, mathematics and astronomy, were 
taught. The Arabs erected observatories, and recorded their observations in astrono- 
mical tables. They introduced Arabic numerals and were the most famous physicians 
of the middle ages. They translated the writings of the Greeks, especially those of 




ARISTOTLE. (Palazzo Spado, Rome.) 




THE CID WITH DONNA XIMENA ORDERS THE BURNING OF A CADI. (A. de Neuville.) 

18 (pp.r^y 



274 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Aristotle, whose magnificent system became the foundation and substructure of the 
investigations and systems of the Mohammedan philosophers, Avicenna and Averroes 
Averroes f nos, andthe Jewish-Arab philosopher, Maimonides. They were exceedingly 
iwniMionirtcsfiaoj. fond of lyric and narrative poetry. The Arabian Antara, Mutinabbi, 
Miitaimhhi f»«5. and others were at one time celebrated names, and the Persian poets 
Firausi fio3o. Firclusi (author of the famous epic Shahname), Saadi and Hafiz are 
saadi f/39/. known to all European peoples in. translations. Firdusi's epic tells 
Hafiz -\i3sa. the story of the kings and heroes of Iran, and the later Persian his- 
tory down to the overthrow of the Sassanids. It is in two parts. The first tells the 
story of the chief hero Rustem, the second is a rhymed chronicle, and treats especially 
of the deeds of Alexander. 





CJLOVIS, 



CHILDEBERT. 




CLOTILDA, 




B. THE MIDDLE AGE. 



§198. 




I. THE ERA OF THE KARLINGS. 



1. PIPIN" THE LITTLE (752-768). 
GREAT (768-814). 



KARL THE 



HE Austrasian dukes, Pipin of Heristal and Karl 
Martel (§§ 184, 194), had through martial deeds 
H won the confidence of the nation, and through 
their zeal for the spread of Christianity, the 
favor of the clergy. People and priests combined to 
place Pipin upon the Frankish throne. For when Ma- 
jordomus or Steward of the Palace, Pipin the son of 
W Karl Martel confined the last of the Merovings in a 
cloister and had himself proclaimed King by a national as- 
sembly. The choice of the nation was confirmed by the 
Pope of Rome, who sought to secure in the King of the 
Franks, a support against the Lombards in Upper Italy and against the image-break- 
ing Emperors (Iconoclasts) of Constantinople, under whose sovereignty the eternal city 
stood. In return for his solemn coronation, first at the hands of the Bishops of the 
Kingdom, and afterwards of Pope Stephen III. who consecrated him King " by the 
grace of God," in the cathedral of St. Denis, Pipin freed the Roman see from the 
domination of the Byzantine emperors, and promised the Pope, in a personal interview, 
to cede to him a part of the Adriatic coast south of Ravenna. This " donation of 
Pipin " which was afterward drawn up in the "deed of Kiersy " and deposited in the 
papal archives is the basis of the temporal power of the Pope. Yet the pontificate did 
not come, until later,into permanent possession of this great addition to the so-called 
Palrimonium Petri,the beginnings of which existed already in the days of Gregory the 
Great. 

To this period belongs Boniface (properly Winfred) one of those active mission- 
aries from England who, under the protection of the Karlings, proclaimed the doctrine 

(275) 



276 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



of the Crucified Redeemer to the rude inhabitants of Germany. He preached in Hesse r 
where he founded the Abbey of Fulda, and among theThuringians, Franks and Bavarians, 
establishing everywhere bishoprics and schools, so that for his energy and zeal he was 




st. boniface in Germany. (Peter Janssen) 



RJBrev&amour H.M. 



called the " Apostle of the Germans." After his appointment as archbishop of Mayence, 
he went among the heathen Frisians by whom he was put to death. He and his com- 
panions were attacked during worship by a hostile mob ; he made no resistance and 
was cut down holding the gospels above his head. The sees and schools established 
by him were closely connected with the papal chair, and as the Karling rulers favored 
this connection, the Pope of Rome came to be regarded throughout the whole Frank - 
ish empire, at the close of the eighth century, as the Head of the Church. As a 
consequence, the earlier independent foundations were gradually incorporated into the 
Roman Catholic church. 

§ 199. Pipin " the Little " or " the Short," as he came to be called, ruled for sixteen 
yes years ; under his energetic administration the kingdom of the Franks 

extended far into South and Middle Germany, and at his death he divided it between 
his two sons Karl and Karlmann. When, three years afterward, the latter died the es- 
wa tates of the realm declared Karl sole sovereign of the Franks. The 

widow and sons of Karlmann fled across the Alps and found protection with Desider- 
ius the Lombard king in Pavia. Desiderius was angry at Karl who was his son-in-law 
as he had recently driven away his wife. 

Karl waged many wars ; nevertheless lie furthered Christian civilization and civil 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



277 




karl the great. (Albrecht Dilrer.) 



•order. In order to protect his frontiers, and at the same time to extend Christianity, 
he fought the League of the Saxons thirty-one years. This league consisted of several 
heathen tribes along the Weser and the Elbe. They lived without cities, in free com- 




3. 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



279 



munities, under their counts and nobles, and they were fighting for their dearest posses- 
sions, liberty and the religion of their forefathers. Karl conquered the Eresburgin the 

i«. south of the Teutoburger forest, destroyed the Irminsaul, the giant tree 

which according to the belief of the people supported the universe, and compelled the 
Saxons to make peace. This accomplished he obeyed the call of Pope Hadrian against 

774. Desiderius, the Lombard king, who had invaded the Roman territory, and 

tried to compel the Pope to consecrate the two sons of Karlmann kings of the Franks. 

Karl collected his forces at Geneva, crossed the Alps at St. Bernard, stormed the 

passes and conquered Pavia. Desiderius was imprisoned in a Frankish cloister ; and 

soon after his son Adalgis was conquered at Verona. Karl had himself crowned king 

77-i. of the Lombards at Milan, united Upper Italy with the kingdom of 

the Franks and confirmed to the Pope the " donation of Pipin." 




BATTLE IN THE VALLEY OP RONCESVAIXES. (H. Vogel.) 

§ 200. During Karl's absence the Saxons had driven away the Frankish garrisons 
I7J-IJJ. and restored the old frontiers. Once more the king appeared in 

their land. His following proved too strong for the Saxon tribes, who entered the 
field in separate bands. Karl conquered them anew, fortified the Weser with castles 
and, in Paderborn, compelled the chiefs of the Saxons to surrender. One only refused 
to sign the treaty of submission, Duke Witukind who took refuge with the Danes. 

The two following years Karl fought against the Moors in Spain ; conquered Pam- 

777. peluna and Saragossa and annexed all the country as far as the Ebro, 

including Barcelona, to the Frankish kingdom. But returning from Spain, the rear- 



280 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



guard of Karl's army, under Roland, suffered a terrible defeat in the valley of Ronces- 
valles, in which the bravest heroes of the Franks were slain. This fight of Roland was 
a favorite theme of medieval poets. (Roland's song, § 249). . 

The absence of the king in Spain encouraged the Saxons to rebel again. They dev- 
tso. astated Thuringia and Hesse with fire and sword, compelled the monks 

of Fiilda to fly and swept like a flood to the Rhine. Karl hurried promptly to the rescue 
and overthrew them again. He then introduced the Frankish system of districts and ju- 
diciary and placed only Franks or friendly Saxon nobles in authority. But when he 
attempted to use the Saxons against the Slavs in the East, they fell upon their com- 
rades, the Franks, at Suntal (between Hanover and Hameln) and cut them to pieces. 
This demanded revenge. The Frankish officers devastated the homes of the Saxons and 
5S3. slaughtered 4500 Saxon prisoners to atone for the massacre. The war be- 

came only more savage. But it was finally determined against the Saxons at the battle 
tss. of the Haase. Dukes Witukind and Albion took the oath of fealty and 

were baptized. The people followed their example. A number of new bishoprics were 
established around Cologne and Mayence, for the maintainance and spread of Christian- 
ity among the Saxons. But a few years after, a long dreaded free military service, and 
the demand of the church for a tenth of the harvest, provoked another rebellion, which 
led to the expulsion of 10,000 Saxon families and the planting of Frankish settlements 
in their land. This broke their resistance forever. The Mark Brandenburg was 
created by Karl the Great as a means of defence and a base of operations against the 
Slavs east of the river Elbe. 

§ 201. Thassillo, Duke of Bavaria, and his Lombard wife also attempted to conquer 
independence, but were defeated, captured, and shut up by Karl in a cloister. The 
savage Avars of Pannonia also provoked him ; he drove them back and took from 
them the best of their territory. 

Karl the Great was now 
master of all _ lands from the 
Ebro in Spain and the Apen- 
nines in Italy to the Eider in 
North Germany, and from the 
Atlantic Ocean to the Elbe and 
the Raab. To him, at Pader- 
born, came the exiled Pope Leo 
III, seeking protection and help. 
Karl betook himself to Rome at 
once and restored Leo to the 
papal throne. In a solemn trial, 
over which the King presided, 
the Pope was acquitted of the 
charges made against him , in 
the church of St. Peter Karl 
was crowned by the Pope Em- 
Becentbe,- soo. peroe of Rome. This made Western Christianity into a politico- 
ecclesiastical unity, " a divine empire on the earth," of which the Pope was the spiritual 
and the emperor, the temporal head; "the two swords" were to stand together 




MANUSCRIPT AND SIGNATURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 



282 ' , THE MIDDLE AGE. 

mutually recognizing and supporting each other, yet independent and self-subsistent. 
This led to the complete separation of the Western and Eastern churches, (the Roman . 
Catholic and the Greek Catholic). 

§ 202. The internal administration of Karl was no less successful than his military. 
He improved every branch of government. He set aside the dukes of the tribes, 
divided the whole kingdom into counties, appointing a count for each, and royal 
inspectors to hear the appeals of those dissatisfied with the decisions of the counts. * 
He appointed stewards to manage the crown lands, and to collect their revenues. Laws 
and ordinances, called capitularies, were determined upon by the Emperor, with the 
advice of the Bishops and the nobility, and confirmed in assemblies of the people, in 
which all freemen had a voice. He favored agriculture and the education of the 
people, had copies made of the works of Latin writers, and began a collection of old Ger- 
man heroic ballads. Scholars like the monk Alcuin and the chronicler Eginhard 
rejoiced in his favor and support. To the clergy he decreed a tenth of all revenues, 
and gave them besides many presents; he introduced the Roman church music, and 
sent missionaries to the heathen that the gospel might be preached, and churches and 
monasteries created. Aachen (Aix la Chapelle) was his favorite residence, next to 
this, Ingelheim on the Rhine. Frankfort on the Main was built orginally about a 
si*. castle of the Frankish king. He died in 814, and his body lies in the 

church of the Virgin Mary at Aachen, a church in Old-Roman style, built for him by 
Eginhard. His renown was so great among his contemporaries, that even Haroim 
al Raschid (§ 195) sent him costly presents from the distant East. His handsome, 
majestic form, and his powerful frame still moves in legend and in song a monumental 
imperial figure of Mediaeval Christendom, the first great example of the organizing' 
genius of the Teutonic races. 

2. Dissolution of the Frankish Empire. 

§ 203. Karl's son, Ludwig the Pious, belonged rather to the cloister, than the 
si4-s4o. court or the army. A premature division of his states among his 
three sons Lothar, Pipin and Ludwig brought much sorrow to himself and great con- 
fusion to the nation. For when he sought to change it in favor of a fourth son, the 
two elder sons rebelled against him. Luclwig abandoned by his vassals on the " Field 
of Lies," at Strasburg, and betrayed by his sons, was imprisoned by Lothar in a 
cloister. He was reinstated by his son Ludwig, but after Pipin's death this same son 
took arms against him to redress another unjust division. Dying broken hearted, he 
s-to. left his sons to quarrel with each other. The civil war that followed 

so wasted the kingdom, that the bishops and nobles compelled the brothers to sign the 
s*3. treaty of Verdun. By this compact Lothar obtained Italy, Burgundy, 

and Lorraine (Lothar-ingen) with the imperial title; Karl the Bald received West 
Frankia (France) ; and Luclwig the German, the lands on the right bank of the Rhine, 
with Speyer, Worms, and Mayence. 

The tribes in the East now began to form a nation and were called " Deutsche " 
to distinguish them from the Latin races of the West and the South. The treaty of 
Verdun marks the birth hour of the German and the French nation. The unity of the 

* "If a couut fails to do justice, let the inspectors take possession of his house and live at his expense 
until he does." So runs a law of Karl the Great, 779. 




ARMS AND ARMOR OF THE MIDDLE AGE. 



1. Neck Helmet. 

2. Shoulder and Arm Shield. 

3. 4, Knee Armor. 

5. Kettle Drum. 

6. Long Bow. 

7. Cross " 

8. Arbalest. 

9. 10. 11. Arrows. 

12. Herald's Trumpet. 

13. Signal Horn. 



li Helmet. 

15. Neck Armor. 

16. 17, Helmets. 
18, 19, Sabres. 

20. Shield of 13th Century. 

21. ■' '■ mil 

22. " " 11th " 

23. Helmet of 12th " 

24. Double-handed Long 
Sword. 



25, 26. 27. Battle Lances. 

28. Tournament Armor. 

29. Blunt Practice Lance. 

30. Light Service Lance. 

31. Blunt Practice " 

32. Light Service 



37. Costume of Knights of 13th 

century. 
3S. Dagger. 

39. Stylett. 

40. Martel de Fer. 

41. Francisques. 



33. Double-handed Kris Swont42. Lochaber Axe. 

34, 35. Ecus, or Shield 11th and43. Stylett. 
12th Centuries. 44. Dagger. 

36. Braconniere. 45. Crow's Foot. 



(283) 



284 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




|^»*:hwIwIniu'i»i»'' II|; " 



Frankish empire was dissolved ; in future, the peoples of Germanic and Romanic 

speech would move to their development along widely separated paths. 

§ 204. A time of great confusion followed the treaty of Verdun. Arabs in the 

South, Slavs in the East, Normans in the 

North and West made havoc in Europe. 

The Karling rulers, too weak to save their 

dominions, were forced to concede to the 

counts of the different marks hereditary 

authority. Thus it happened that all 

power came into the hands of the nobility. 
Karl the Fat, who came unexpectedly 

into possession of the imperial crown, and 
S76-887. the entire inheritance of 

Karl the Great, was too weak to resist the 

daring Normans and therefore made with 

them a disgraceful peace. 

His nephew Arnulf, of Bavaria, re- 
belled against him and the embittered Ger- 
man nobles flocked to Arnulf s standard. 

After the death of the emperor, France and 

Italy fell into anarchy, but Arnulf ruled 

Germany with a strong hand. He defeated king karl the bald. 

sot. the Normans, and with the help of the Magyars destroyed the mighty 

kingdom of Moravia. These Magyars or Hungarians took possession of the lowlands 

of the Danube, and became for Germany a 
more terrible scourge than either Avar or 
Slav had ever been. Arnulf died in the 
prime of his manhood, after a glorious expedi- 
tion into Italy, leaving an infant son Ludwig 
to occupy his throne. The Magyars now in- 
vaded the land and forced the payment of a 
yearly tribute. 

This continued until the Dukes of Ba- 
varia, Swabia, Saxony and other German 
Princes elected Conrad of Franconia as their 
King. For the Karling line had died out 
ooo-on. with Ludwig the child. Ger- 
many was now an elective monarch}', yet the 
ruling line was seldom departed from, until 
it failed of an heir. 

§ 205. The Karlings ruled in France 

longer than elsewhere, but without energy and 

sos-oao. without influence. Under 

Charles the Simple the dukes and counts 

made themselves quite independent of the crown, and the mightiest of them Hugh of 

Paris, imprisoned the feeble king for a long time. On the other hand, Charles freed his 




fkankish king and queen. (10th Century.) 



THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 



285 



Kingdom from the piracies of the Normans, by giving to Rollo the province now called 
Normandy, on condition that he and his followers would be baptized and recognize the 
King of France as their liege lord. The Normans soon adopted the language, the man- 
ners, and the life of the French. They restored the ruined cities and increased the cul- 
ture and prosperity of the land by agriculture, laws, and an established justice. Charles 
the Simple was followed by two more Karling Kings, Louis D'Outre-Mer and his son 

930-954. Lothar. But their power was at last so limited that they possessed 
l.otiiar only the city of Laon and vicinity ; all the rest was in the hands of 

os^-ase. the defiant nobles. 

Louis V. son of Lothar died childless, whereupon Hugh Capet son and heir of 

9SG-9S7. Count Hugh of Paris assumed the royal title, and when Charles of 
Lorraine asserted his claim as rightful heir, he was conquered and confined for life in a 
dungeon. 



II. NORMANS AND DANES. 



206. 




HE Scandinavians are a Teutonic people. They share with the Ger- 
mans the love of freedom and of activity, the migratory impulse, and 
have the same language, religion, and customs. Their Viking ex- 
peditions carried them in all directions, and they confided life and 
property boldly to their boats on the stormy sea. As Normans 
they ravaged the coast of the Baltic and the North Seas, sailed 
with their little ships mto the mouths of rivers, and returned to 
their homes laden with spoils. As Danes, they terrified the English and forced from 
them a heavy tribute. The Norwegians dis- 
covered and peopled the distant Iceland, and 
founded on the island a flourishing com- 
munity, with the religion and language, and 
the laws and institutions of the mother 
country. Certain Norman Vaeviger were 
ses. called to the dominion of the 

lands on the Gulfs of Finland and Both- 
nia, by the Slavic inhabitants. Ruric, prince 
of the Russians, established himself in Nov- 
gorod, and became the father of a race , 
that ruled Russia, till the end of the six- 
teenth century ; although his posterity 
adopted the manners and the language of the 
natives. Greenland was discovered and col- 
onized by the Icelanders, and even America 
is said to have been known to the Normans, 
and feats of arms. Agriculture, and the raising of cattle, they turned over to their 
slaves. Fidelity was their chief virtue, and the love of poetry the only tenderness of 
these rude men. Their singers (Skalds) celebrated, in epics and other poems, the 
mighty deeds of their forefathers. The Edda (Wisdom) is the most famous collection 




NORMAN SHIP. 



These Normans loved the chase, war, 



286 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 



of these heroic songs, and exists in two forms. Ansgar, Bishop of Hamburg, preached 
Christianity with great zeal among the Scandinavians, as early as the ninth century. 
But the worship of Odin did not yield to the new faith for more than two centuries. 

§ 207. England, under the weak successors of Egbert, suffered especially from the 

Danes. They plundered the sea-coasts and the river shores, and destroyed the Chris- 

Aifrea the Great, tian churches and cloisters. Even Alfred the Great was driven by 

811-001. them from his throne, although after long wandering he succeeded, by 
cunning, bravery, and vigilance, in putting a stop to their incursions. Several com- 
panies of Danes, who had been converted to Christianity, settled in Northumberland. 
And Alfred devoted his strength to the cultivation of his people. Like Karl the 
Great, he divided the country into 
communities and districts, and ap- 
pointed counts and aldermen to 
be administrators of justice. He 
founded churches and schools ; he 
collected the Anglo-Saxon heroic 
poems, and translated the writing of 
Boethius. In all important matters 
he counseled with the Witenagemot, 
an assembly of nobles. Himself a 
model of upright life, Alfred ac- 
customed his people to intelligent 
and regular activity. But under his 
successors the Danes of Northumber- 
iooa. land were massacred 

by the Anglo-Saxon population. 
Thereupon Sweyn " The Lucky," 
king of Denmark and Norway, 
renewed the expeditions of plunder ^eM 
with such success, that his son, Can- 
ute the Great, united the Eng- 

canute, lish crown with the 
ioia-io3s. Danish and Nor- 
wegian. He was a wise and just ALFRED THE GREAT IN HIS STUDY - ( A de Neuville.) 
ruler. He made a commercial treaty with the German emperor, Conrad II, and 
proved his reverence for the holy father in Rome by a pilgrimage. After the 
death of Canute and of his sons, Edward the Confessor, a scion of the old 
Etuvara the royal family, ascended the throne. Edward had spent much 

confessor, time with his relatives in Normandy, and acquired a love for 

Kni-Kxni. Norman habits. He favored therefore the foreigner at the expense 
of the natives, and at his death appointed Duke William of Normandy to be his 
successor. The nation rebeled and chose Harold king. But at the battle of 
iooe. Hastings (or Senlae), in which Harold and the flower of the Anglo- 

Saxon nobility lost their lives, William the Conqueror became Lord of England. 
The Norman Duke having been accepted by the people, introduced many new condi- 
tions. He enriched his Norman knights with the estates of the conquered Angio- 




^ 



^^ 



288 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Saxons, gave the principal church offices to his friends, made the French language the 
language of the realm, and established Norman law. A single battle thus sufficed to 
change the character of England. The living and powerful English nationality of 
to-day is a blending of different people, different laws, different manners and customs, 
different poetry, and different language. 

§ 208. Robert Guiscard (the Cunning) was a Norman nobleman of handsome 
■Robert Gttiscard form and enterprising mind. He conquered, by his bravery and shrewd - 

ioso-ioss. ness, the largest part of Lower Italy. He called himself King of 
Apulia and Calabria ; recognized the Pope 
as his liege-lord, and saved Gregory VII from 
the revenge of Henry IV. His brief career 
powerfully influenced the history of the 
Papacy, and the subsequent history of 
Western Europe. Boemund, his heroic son, 
extended his dominions by new conquests, 
while Robert's brother, Roger, took Sicily, 
with its two cities, Palermo and Messina, 
from the Arabs. The stories of the blessed ' 
coasts of Salerno, of the eternal spring of 
the South, with its sweet fruits and its treas- 
ures, attracted many energetic Normans 
to the charming region, Robert's house 

nogei- ii. died out. His nephew Roger 

1130-H54. II. united Sicily with Lower 
Italy, received the kingly dignity from 
the Pope, and founded the kingdom of 
Naples and Sicily, into which he introduced 
the feudal system, and the judicial prac- 
tice of France. This kingdom became exceedingly prosperous; it had a good consti- 
tution, justice was carefully administered, there were fine schools at Salerno and 
Amalfi, agriculture, commerce, and industry were fostered. Nevertheless the courage, 
the energy, and the customs of the Normans were gradually undermined. These 
beautiful lands remained for fifty-six years in the hands of Roger, and his successors, 
and then passed to the Hohenstaufens. 




NORMAN LADIES AND NOBLEMAN. 

(11th Century.) 



III. 



§ 209 



THE ASCENDENCY OF THE GERMAN ROMAN EMPIRE. 
1. The Saxon Dynasty. (919—1024.) 




ERMANY had become, through the violence of its nobles and the 
invasions of the Hungarians, a land of chaos and of barbarism- 
Conrad the Salic king, the first freely chosen monarch, tried 
earnestly and with great severity, to bring about a better state of 
things. The disobedient Counts, Erchanger and Berchthold, who 
had changed their count-ship into dukedoms, and tried to escape 
from Conrad's royal authority, were swiftly beheaded. Their mortal enemy Salomo, 




EDITH FINDING THE BODY OF HAROLD AFTER THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. (A. de NeUVllle.) 

19 . (pp. 289.) 



290 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



the rich and sagacious bishop of Constance, wrought their ruin at the meeting of the 
diet. Conrad I. was a manly prince of imposing stature, generous and cheerful. But 
in his terrible wrestle with the opposing forces of his time, his noble nature was under- 
mined, and his strength prematurely broken. When he perceived that his children 
were neither intelligent nor successful, and that his land was in danger from the pow- 
Hemy me Fonier, erful Duke of Saxony, with whom he had carried on war for many 
919.930. years, he urged the elevation of his former antagonist, Henry the 
Fowler, of Saxony, to the throne. This energetic prince increased his kingdom 

toward the North and the West and 
the East. In the North he estab- 
lished Schleswig, in the West he recon- 
quered Lorraine, and in the East he 
founded the Markneissen, to keep off the 
Slavs. At the same time he did his ut- 
most to Germanize the Wends in the 
Eastern lands, and to win them for Chris- 
tianity and civilization. The Magyars, 
who every year broke over the land 
trampling down the corn-fields, with the 
hoofs of their horses, were induced to 
sell him a nine years' truce. This Henry 
purchased of them, determining at the 
same time to improve his army, and to 
build strong castles along the frontier. 
Henry thus became the founder of the 
Bourgeoisie (that is, the Castle people), 
and earned for himself the name of the 
builder of cities. When the nine years 
had expired, he refused the Magyars any 
further tribute, and when they attacked 
»33. him, he defeated them 

with great loss, at the battle of Merseburg. 
Henry sought also to unite the German 
lands under one authority, without de- 
stroying the characteristic life of the 
different tribes and states. 

§ 210. Otto the First (or the Great) 
followed the path of his father. He sought 
to maintain the unity of the kingdom, and to appease all tribal hatred 
He gave dukedoms and bishoprics to relatives and friends with this 
But only after desperate fights with his two brothers, did he come into 
peaceful possession of his throne. His one brother, Tankmar, was 
slain at the altar of the church, where he sought protection. Otto was a man of 
majestic stature ; his gaze betokened power and authority, and he would brook no resist- 
ance. And yet he met the humble and the oppressed with generosity and justice. 
He watched vigilantly to see that every one received his rights, and that the judges 




STATUE OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR AT FALAIS, 

prance. (A. de. Neuville.) 

Otto I. 
93G-973. 

end in view. 

93S-9-H. 




BAPTISM OF ST. STEPHEN BY POPE SYLVESTER II. (BenCZUT Gyuld.) 

(pp. 291.) 



292 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



did no man violence. He protected his kingdom against the Slavs and the Danes, 
sought to extend culture and humanity by spreading Christianity, and to exterminate 
the gloomy idolatry still prevailing, with its bloody sacrifices. He was greatly assisted 
by his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, and Duke of Lorraine, who established 
schools for Christian education and for moral training in the whole kingdom, and 
when the Magyars tormented Germany with new invasions, Otto, with his imperial 
banner, on which was blazoned the archangel Michael, won such a victory near Aitgs- 
855. burg, that only a few of the vast number escaped, and their invasions 

came to an end. Nearly all Germany followed the king, and supported him in this- 

decisive contest. Christianity, which at the 
close of the tenth century entered Hungary, 
during the reign of King Stephen the Saint, 
brought to the Magyars gentler customs, and 
more love of peace. Otto's coronation as- 
emperor, was an event of great consequence 
»62. for Germany; the imperial 

dignity henceforth belonged to the Holy 
Roman Empire of the German Nation. His 
marriage with Adelheid, the beautiful and 
pious queen of Burgundy and Upper Italy,- 
strengthened Otto's claim to the rich penin- 
sula. He conquered the country from Be- 
rengar, who had sought the destruction of 
Adelheid, and was crowned in Milan king 
of Lombardy. He then marched to Rome, 
where he was crowned emperor, and compelled 
the Romans to swear that they would "never 
choose or consecrate a pope without his or 
his successor's will and knowledge." This 
protectorate future popes refused to ac- 
knowledge. The union of Germany and Italy brought culture and historic greatness, 
but was also the source of " unutterable woe " to the German people. 

§ 211. Otto the Second reigned ten years : he fought with the unruly nobles in 
otto ii. Germany and Italy, with Lothar, king of the West Franks, who 
073-0S3. sought to rob him of Lorraine, and with the Greeks and Saracens in 
Lower Italy, where he claimed possessions as the doAvery of his wife Theophania. 
Naples, Salerno, and Tarentum were already in his power, when Otto was overwhelmed 
by the Saracen armies at Basantello. Otto himself with a company of his nobles, 
osii. fell into the hands of the enemy, from whom he escaped only by his 

skill in swimming. He was preparing for a new campaign, when aviolent fever car- 
os3. ried him to his grave. His infant son Otto III. was saved by the sen- 

sible and faithful archbishop of Mayence. When Duke Henry of Bavaria attempted 
otto in, to usurp the throne, the archbishop protected the lad until he was 
»s3-ioo-i. able to protect himself. The young king was far superior to his con- 
temporaries in culture and in knowledge, and- was called the "Wonder of the 
World;" yet he lacked the energy to rule a warlike people. He spent a great. 




ROMAN PONTIFF AND GERMAN EMPEROR. 



294 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

part of his short life in Rome. Here he was crowned emperor, and played with plans 

o»o. of world dominion. He undertook a pilgrimage to the grave of Karl 

the Great, expecting to get strength and inspiration from the relics of that powerful 

1000. emperor, and then made a barefoot pilgrimage to the grave of Adel- 

bert, the missionary. As the year 1000 approached, in which the world was expected 
to come to an end, Otto increased his penance and his prayers. He iu tended to make 
" Golden Rome " the capital of his kingdom, but death removed him from his plans : 

iooa. he died unmarried, and his kingdom passed to Henry II. of Bavaria. 

§ 212. Henry had great trouble with the Germans, Italians, and Slavs, but he 

Men,-!, ii. met his enemies with energy and success, and both protected and 

1002-iom enlarged his kingdom. Rudolph of Burgundy, his mother's brother, 

promised him the land of Burgundy. His love for church and clergy led him to build 

the cathedral, and to establish the bishopric of Bamberg, which procured for him and 

too?. his wife, Kunigunde, the title of saint. To give greater significance 

to this foundation, the king invited Pope Benedict VIII. to cross the Alps and to ded- 

101*. icate the cathedral, and he then placed the bishopric under the espe- 

1020. cial protection of His Holiness. In spite of his coronation at St. Peter's 

by the Pope, as emperor, and of his attachment to the clergy, Henry II. ruled in ec- 
clesiastical affairs with a strong will, and exercised his protectorate over Rome with 
solemn earnestness. German interest rather than Italian filled his heart, but the 

1024. tumults that followed his death blighted the culture which the Ottos 

and the foreign empresses had introduced into Magdeburg, Halle, and Bremen. Ger- 
bert, a man instructed in the wisdom of Arabia and of Greece, introduced mathematics 
into Germany and the beginnings of architecture, sculpture, and industrial art. Al- 
though he was regarded by his contemporaries as a magician, he was greatly helped 
by Bishop Bernward. Latin poems bore witness of some intellectual life, and the 
schools of the Saxon monarclis preserved the germs of culture. The civilization and 
refinement which was favored by the Ottos, was also, farthered by the discovery of the 
silver mines of the Harz Mountains. For the increase of 'money helped commerce 
and industry and culture. 

2. The Salic Franconiah Emperors (1024-1125.) 

§ 213. Conrad II., Duke of Franconia, was a man of powerful will and of great 

comma 11. bravery, more anxious to extend his kingdom and his renown than to 

ltni-io.to. govern in peace. He received the iron crown of the Lombards and 

the imperial crown at Rome, and annexed the Burgundian kingdom, on Lake Geneva, 

the Rhone, and the Jura Mountains. This brought him into conflict with Burgundian 

nobles and bishops who regarded themselves as independent princes, and refused him 

obedience ; and also with his stepson Ernst of Schwabia, who had stronger claims to 

Burgundy. Ernst, with his friend Welf, and his faithful servant Werner of Ki- 

1030. burg, raised the standard of revolt. But they were soon defeated. 

Schleswig was ceded to the Danish king Canute, and the river Eider established as the 

German frontier. Conrad's chief aim was to exalt the imperial power. To that end 

three means seemed to him especially adapted. First, the gradual abolition of ducal 

authority, and its transfer to the emperor : second, the conferring of powerful church 

offices upon members of the ruling dynasty ; and third, making benifices hereditary. 




preaching the first crusade. (A. de Neuville.) (pp.295.) 



296 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

He therefore transferred the ducal authority in Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia to 
his son, and sought opportunity to do the same with the other dukedoms. He ac- 

1037. quired great power over the church, and in his second expedition to 

Rome, he issued the famous edict, which made the benifices of Italy hereditary, like 
those in Germany. At the same time he determined the obligations and contribu- 
tions due from the ecclesiastical princes to the emperor. Conrad's son, Henry III. (The 
Henry m. Swarthy), was a man of great strength, under whom Germany reached 
io39-io5&. its greatest extent. Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary acknowledged 
the supremacy of this German-Roman emperor. To break the opposition of his 
nobles, he determined to found an absolute imperial hereditary monarchy, and 
either to unite the ducal dignity in the German lands with the Royal authority, or to 
make it entirely independent. A schism in the church enabled him to depose the 
three rival popes, and to give the holy chair to German bishops. He aimed to extend 
the imperial power over German princes, and over the head of the church at Rome. 
He subdued Duke Godfrey of Lorraine, and appointed popes and bishops and ab- 
bots as he deemed best. He proclaimed in Germany and throughout the empire, the 
peace of God, which had been introduced by the French clergy. According to this 
arrangement, from Thursday evening to Monday morning, all weapons were laid at 
rest; no revenge was to be taken, and no blows to be struck; — an arrangement quite 
necessary in that terrible time. Henry was absolutely free from the sin of simony, 
that is from the sin of selling church offices and dignities for money, or for v worldly 
advantages. He loved the church, and governed it for the good of Christendom. 

§ 214. Henry IV. was five years old when his father died. His pious mother Ag- 

Hem-y iv. neswasat first his guardian, but the ambitious Hanno, arch-bishop of Co- 

loso-noe. logne, kidnapped the young king, and took possession of the government. 

,ioes. The stern rule of this prelate displeased Henry ; he found more pleasure 

in the society of Adelbert, Arch-bishop of Bremen, who managed to get him away from 

Hanno s control. The young Henry surrounded himself with noblemen from Swabia 

and Franconia, and despised the council of his princes. To punish the Saxons, he took 

up his residence in Goslar; here he maintained a riotous court, oppressed the people, 

abused the nobility, and brought confusion into all the country. He treated his wife, 

Bertha of Savoy, whom he had married against his inclination, with great rudeness and 

loi-t. unkindness. The Saxon nobility at last took up arms under Otto of 

Nordheim. The castles were broken down, even Harzburg was destroyed, and the 

toss. King compelled to fly. But Henry's superior genius soon gave him 

the victory over the Saxons, whereupon the latter appealed to the Pope. 

§ 215. The papal chair was at this 'time occupied by Gregory VII., a man of 
Gregory vii. great strength of will and character, who was determined to restore 
! 1013.108S. the clergy to their former morality and piety, to make the church 
independent of secular authority, and to lift the papacy above the empire and every 
princely power. Gregory VII., when only Arch-deacon Hildebrand, had induced his 
predecessor to withdraw the choice of a pope, from the Roman people, and to confer it 
upon a college of cardinals. When he became pope, he set about the purification of 
the church; he issued severe edicts against simony; deposed and banished the bishops 
who had reached their places hy purchase or bribery ; forbade lay investiture (appoint- 
ment to ecclesiastical offices by secular princes). He then made celibacy binding upon 







battle of doryljeum. (Gustave Bore.') 



(pp 297.) 



298 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



every member of the Hierarchy, from the highest to the lowest. The appeal of the 
Saxons therefore was a welcome opportunity to the daring Pope, for it enabled him to 
proclaim that the pope, as the Vicar of Christ, was superior to all temporal princes : 
that emperors, kings, and dukes, were vassals of his holiness. He cited Henry IV. to 
io?e. trial. The King, instead of appearing, called an assembly of his clergy 

to depose the Pope, and announced to Gregory their resolves in a scornful epistle 
addressed to " Hildebrand not a pope but a false monk." Gregory thereupon excom- 
municated the king and his adherents, and deposed him from his throne. Henry's 

difficulties with the Saxons, 
and with his virtuous wife, 
from whom he wished to be 
divorced, were producing gen- 
eral discontent. He saw him- 
self deserted by his people, 
and the princes assembled in 
Tribur announced to him his 
dethronement, if he was not 
released from the papal curse 
before a year expired. 
Henry thereupon hastened, 
accompanied by his faithful 
wife and a single servant, 
across the Alps in the dead of 
1017. winter. The 

Pope was at Canossa, the cas- 
tle of the Countess Mathilda 
of Tuscany, when Henry ar- 
rived, but would not admit 
the emperor to his presence, 
until he put on a penitent's 
garb, and waited meekly in 
the castle yard for a short 
time, on three successive days. 
After this humiliation, the ex- 
communication was made 
void . 
§ 216. During Henry's absence, his enemies had elected Rudolph, of S wabia, king. 
A civil war ensued, in which Henry was victor, through his superior talent and the sup- 
ioso. port of his faithful cities. Rudolph soon lost his life and Henry was 

now able to undertake a war of revenge against Gregory, who had renewed the bann 
against him. Henry gave the command in Germany to his son-in-law Frederick of 
losi-iosa. Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and marched with his army across the 
Alps. A church council called by him at Padua deposed Gregory, and elected 
Clement III. to the papal chair. Henry then besieged Rome, and after a two years' 
struggle, on the shores of the Tiber, he entered the eternal city in triumph. Greg- 
ory defended himself bravely in the castle of St. Angelo, and was finally rescued 
by Robert Guiscard with his Normans and his Saracens. But the terrible ravages of 




GREGORY VII., HILDEBRAND THE GREAT. 



■nraHBi 




massacre AT antioch. (Gustave Dore.) 



[pp. 299.) 



300 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Robert's soldiers so embittered the Romans, that the Pope thought it best to retire to 
toss. Salerno, where he died the following j r ear. His last words were ■" I 

loved justice and hated unrighteousness, therefore I die an exile." But Henry's suf- 
ferings were not ended with the death of his mighty antagonist. The princes of Ger- 
iosi. many had chosen a new king, Hermann of Salm, and the successors of 

Gregory prepared for him many foes in Italy, and excommunicated him anew ; and to 
fill up the cup of his misery, his own sons rebelled against him. Conrad was driven 
forth and died in disgrace, but Henry who was already crowned, lifted also the sword 
against his father. The son took the father prisoner, compelled him at the Diet of 
Ingelheim to surrender his castles and his kingdom, and when the emperor escaped 
from prison, the war was carried on, until, bowed down with sorrow and misfortune ; 
uoe. Henry IV. died in Luettich. And even now the monarch was not at 

rest. His body lay for five years in an unconsecrated chapel at Speyer, before it was 

permitted to lie in the imperial vaults. Henry 
IV. was a gifted nature brave and generous, 
but uncontrolled in his passions and desires. 
And the spirit of the time was against him. 
§ 217. Henry V. continued his alliance 
with the Pope, so long as he fought against 
nenry v. his father, but hardly was he 
iioe-1125. in sole possession of his 
throne, before he reopened the quarrel about 
investiture. In the Church of St. Peter 
at Rome, he took Pope Pascal II. with all 
his cardinals prisoners, compelled him to 
crown him emperor, and to make conces- 
sions. When Pascal took these concessions 
mi. back, war conflicts and ne- 

gotiations followed. Pope and anti-pope 
mo. shattered empire and church. 

una. Henry was excommuni- 

cated. Finally a concordat was agreed upon 
at Worms, in which Pope Calixtus II. 
agreed that t»ishops and abbots should be 
freely chosen in the presence of a royal 
ambassador, but should be invested with their spiritual authority by the pope. The 
emperor however should invest them with their temporal possessions and rights, by the 
touch of his sceptre. The severity of Henry against rebellious princes, prevented 
these from placing his nearest relative Friederich of Hohenstaufen on the throne left 
iiuthar the vacant by his death. They chose Lothar the Saxon, the heir of Otto 
saxon, of Nordheim. But when the Hohenstaufen brothers refused fealt} r to 

1125-H37. the new king, Lothar united with Henry the Proud, of Bavaria. He 
married the daughter of this Welfish house, and thus increased the great possessions 
of this family, by the inherited estates of Nordheim, and the splendor of Bavaria, by 
annexing the Saxon dukedom. The Hohenstaufens were unable to resist this great 
superiority ; they were compelled, after a destructive civil war, to acknowledge Lothar 




KNIGHT AND SQUIRE DURING THE FIRST CRU- 
SADE. (11th Century.) 




crusaders surprised by the turks. (Gustave Bore.') (pp. 301.) 



302 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 





COIN 



113.1. as their overlord, and to accompany him on his second march to Italy. 

In his first march thither he had obtained the imperial crown, but with it very little 
glory. 

IV. THE SUPREMACY OF THE CHURCH IN THE TIME OF THE 

CRUSADES. 
1. The Ckusadbs. 

§218. 

ILGRIMAGES to Jerusalem and to the holy sepulcher, began to be 
customary as early as the fourth century. Penitents and seekers 
for salvation went to the church that had been built by the 
empress Helena, to offer prayer, or to the Jordan to wash awaj' 
their sins in its waters. As Christianity 
extended its sway, these pilgrimages 
became more frequent, and so long as 
the Arabs were in possession of Palestine, the pilgrims were 
unmolested. But when Syria and Palestine fell into the 
hands of the Seljuk Turks, both the natives and the way- 
farers were evilly treated. They must pay taxes, were fre- 
quently robbed, outraged, and even murdered. Peter of 
Amiens, a returning pilgrim, appealed to Pope Urban II., 
depicted to him the sufferings of the Christians of the East, 
and received permission to go through city and country to 
stir up the people to the great enterprise of freeing the Holy Land from the power 

of the infidels. A great excitement was pro- 
duced by the preaching of this eloquent monk, 
and when Pope Urban held the council at 
io»s. Clermont, in Southern France, 

to stir up the West against the East, the council 
was attended by a throng of bishops and nobles, 
and an immense crowd of people of all classes. 
The Pope closed his fiery exhortation with the 
cry, " Let every one deny himself and take up 
his cross that he may win Christ ! " " It is the 
will of God," shouted the multitude with one 
voice, and thousands kneeled down seeking 
admission into the company of holy warriors. 
They attached a red cross to the right shoulder, 
and were therefore called Crusaders. Absolu- 
iooo-ioo». tion from their sins, and eternal 
life in heaven, were promised to the warriors, 
and not a few earthly advantages besides. 
r; i;i ;!) , §219. But the excitement was so great, 

that the Crusaders were unwilling to await 
the preparations of the princes. So they marched out in early Spring, in a disor- 



SHOWING THE HOLY 
SEPULCHRE. 



"& 





fall OF acre. (Gustave Bore)- 



(pp. 30S.) 



304 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



dered and poorly armed mob, under the lead of Peter the Hermit, and of a French 
lose. knight, Walter the Penniless. They wended their way through Ger- 

many toward Constanti- 
nople. The war-like tribes 
on the lower Danube re- 
fused them passage and 
food; thereupon they at- 
tacked Belgrade, and filled 
the land with pillage and 
murder. The enraged in- 
habitants rose up against 
them, and slew them by 
the thousands. The sur- 
vivors, with their leaders, 
reached Constantinople, 
but all except a few perished 
in Asia Minor at the hands 
of the Turks. Walter fell 
in battle, surrounded by 
his brothers and his bravest 
companions. Another mob 
pluudered the Jews along 
the Rhine, in Strasburg, 
Worms, and Mayence, and 
marched then to a similar 
destruction, under the lead 
of the priest Gottschalk, 
and of the rude count 
Emiko von Leinigen. 

§ 220. A hundred 
thousand had already per- 
ished, when Godfrey of 
Bouillon, Duke of Lor- 
raine, with his brothers 
and a crowd of well- 
equipped knights, marched 
to Constantinople, and 
Hugo, the brother of the 
French king, and Tancred 
set out by sea for the holy 
Sepulcher. Alexius Com- 
nenus, the emperor, would 
not allow them to pass 
over into Asia, until they 
promised to restore to him the cities that formerly belonged to the Eastern 
empire. They passed over to Nicea, where in a great review, they numbered 





RICHARD I, CCEUR DE LION, ORDERS THE EXECUTION OF 2000 SARACENIC HOSTAGES. 

2q {A. de Neuville.) (pp. 305.) 



306 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




COIN ISSUED DURING THE 
CRUSADES. 



100,000 knights and 300,000 foot soldiers. Among their leaders was Robert of 
Normandy, son of William the Conqueror, Stephen of Blois, who had " as many 
castles as there were days in the year," and the rich and powerful Raymond, of 
Toulouse. The conquest of Nicea was their first great achievement. Thence they 
marched into the country of the Sultan and defeated the Turks, in the battle of Dory- 

xo»i. lseum. But famine soon attacked them, and 

the army separated into different groups. Baldwin, the 
brother of Godfrey, went off to the Euphrates, and founded 
the kingdom of Edessa. Finally the army appeared before 
Antioch. But the rich and well-fortified city held out for 
io»s. nine months, and then was only taken through 

treason. The Christians visited a terrible vengeance upon the 
conquered citizens, but were themselves surrounded within 
three days, by countless throngs of Turks. They were only 
saved by the " holy lance," which was found in the church of 
St. Peter at Antioch. This so inspired the Crusaders, that they 
broke through the gates of the city, and put their enemies to flight, and thus opened a 
way to Jerusalem. The priest who discovered the lance was compelled to pass through 
an ordeal of fire ; as he perished in the flames, the lance was no longer believed to 
be genuine. 

§ 221. At Whitsuntide, the army 
was within sight of Jersusalem. The 
Crusaders fell upon their knees, shed- 
ding tears of joy, and shouting the 
praises of God. But to conquer the 
city was a hard task, for the pilgrim 
army especially, as they had no instru- 
ments for a siege. The heat of the sun 
and the scarcity of water, was more 
terrible than the arrows of the enemy. 
Yet their enthusiasm overcame all hin- 
drances. After a siege of thirty daj^s, 
Jerusalem yielded to a two days storm, 
juiv is, io9o. under the cry " God 
wills it, God helps us." The fate of the 
vanquished was terrible. 10,000 Sara- 
cens were slaughtered ; the Jews were 
burned to death in their synagogues. 
Neither age nor sex were spared ; the 

FRENCH KNIGHT AND SQUIRE. , ° ... .i .,, . , 

streets were filled with corpses, with 
blood and with the limbs of the mutilated. And then, when their vengeance was ap- 
peased, they bared their heads, and approached the church of the Holy Sepulcher, with 
their songs to thank God that he had given them the victory. A king of Jerusalem was 
then chosen. The first choice was the brave and steady Godfrey, of Bouillon, but he re- 
fused to wear a royal diadem, where the Saviour had worn a crown of thorns. He called 
himself, therefore, the Protector of the Holy Sepulcher. The new kingdom of Jeru- 





DANDOLO ON THE WAY TO THE HOLY LAND. 



(pp. 307.) 



308 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



salem became a feudal monarchy. Godfrey defeated the Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon, 

August, 1000. but died in the following year, from the effects of the climate and of 

over-exertion. His brother Bald- 

1100. win inherited the 

kingdom, and did not refuse the 
royal title. 

§ 222. But the rocky coun- 
try, with its surrounding desert, 
was hard to defend against the 
Turks ; and the Crusaders were 
full of discord, disobedience and 
lust for adventure. Reinforce- 
ments failed them, and the situ- 
ation of the Christians soon be- 
came critical, especially when the Sultan of Mosul conquered and destroyed Edessa, 

11*0. and then attacked the Eastern frontiers. Saint Bernard, Abbot of 

Clairvaux, in Burgundy, now preached a second crusade. His authority was so great 




SEALS OF KINGS OF JERUSALEM. 




RICHARD, OOEUR DE LION. 




'^m 



M.wi'IWi 






Willi 



1 i 

lM^|j|KV,jP 
PIP 







CRUSADERS ENTERING CONSTANTINOPLE. (Gustave Dore.) 



(pp. 309.) 



310 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



2nd crusade, that Louis VII. of France, troubled in his conscience because he 
ii4,?-ii*». burned down a church to which his enemies had fled for protection, 
obeyed the call, and even King Conrad III. did not venture to oppose Bernard, when be 
had addressed him at Speyer, in a fiery exhortation. Conrad took 
the cross and marched with his splendid army over Constantinople 
ii4:7. into Asia Minor. But, by the treachery of the 

Greek guides, he was led into a waterless desert. Suddenly Turk- 
ish riders pressed in from all sides upon his ranks, and Conrad's 
army suffered such loss, that not a tenth part returned to Con- 
stantinople. The French army, which marched along the coast, 
fared no better. The pilgrims perished, either by the sword or 
from hunger and fatigue. Only a poor remnant of their armies 
114a. were led by the two kings to Jerusalem, where 

they accomplished nothing of importance. The situation of the 




SALADIN. 




DEATH OF FREDERICK BARBAROSSA IN THE CALTCADMUS. (M. Vogel.) 



Christian kingdom became daily more critical, especially after the brave Saladin took 
possession of Egypt, and united all the land from Cairo to Aleppo, under his sceptre. 
The kingdom of Jerusalem was now in distress. Saladin granted a truce ; but the 
truce being violated, the Sultan took the field. The battle of Tiberias went against 




the crusade of children. (Gustave Dore.) 



(pp. 311.) 



312 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




SEAL OS JOHN OF BRJENNE. 



3ytl Crusaile, 



11SO-119S. 



the Christians. Their God had forsaken them. King Guido and many of his nobles 
ust. were taken prisoners. Joppa, Sidon, and Jerusalem fell into the 

hands of the victor ; the crosses were torn down, the 
church vessels destroyed, but the inhabitants were 
treated kindly. The victory of Saladin was stained by 
no cruelty. 

§ 223. The news of this disaster produced a panic 
in the West, and led to the third crusade. From the 
capes of Italy to the mountains of Scandinavia the excite- 
ment spread, and armed troops enlisted for the Holy Land. All who 
remained at home, in France and England, were compelled to pay a 
crusade tax. The three mightiest monarchs of 
the West, Frederick Barbarossa, of Germany, 
Philip II. of France, and Richard Lien- Heart 
of England, took the cross. Frederick with 
his army marched by land through the Greek 
empire to Asia Minor. After a terrible experi- 
ence in the deserts and the wilderness, he de- 
1100. feated the Sultan of Iconium, 

in the vicinity of his capital. But as the aged 
hero was crossing a mountain stream, Selef, he 
was drowned in the 'waves. Many of his 
knights turned back ; others followed his second 
son, Friederich of Swabia, to join King Guido 
at Palestine, and to take part in the siege of 
Acre. The kings of France and England, who 
had taken the sea route across Sicily and stormed 
Messina, now arrived, and Acre was soon con- 
ii9i. quered. Richard Lion-Heart 

stained his renown by his pride and cruelty. After the fall of the city, the French 
king, who was always quarreling with his English comrade, returned home. Richard 
was now the commander of the undertaking, and his name was the terror of the East. 
Yet in spite of his strength and his intrepidity, he could not conquer Jerusalem. He 

twice pitched his tents within a day's march of the sacred 
city, but each time withdrew, having accomplished nothing. 
Quarrels between him and the French knights, discord 
among the Crusaders, and the strength of the enemy, pre- 
vented his success. Finally the coast from Tyre to Joppa, 
and the unhindered approach to the Holy Places, were con- 
ceded to the Christians, and Richard returned to England. 
As he passed through Austria, he was captured by Duke 
Leopold, and delivered to the greedy Emperor, Henry VI., 
who surrendered him only upon payment of a heavy ran- 
som. The discovery of the captive king, by the singer 
Blondel, is a well-known story, and in spite of his faults, Richard was a favorite 
theme of the Medieval poets. His youth had been passed in the warm south, and 




KNIGHTS TEMPLAR. 




SEAL USED BY WOMEN OF 
JERUSALEM. 




ST. LOUIS BEFORE DAMIETTA. ( GliStave Dori. ) 



(pp. 313.) 



314 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Song and poetry 





there where everybody sang and fought, he felt himself at home, 
were always his delight. 

§ 224. The fourth crusade came to a singular end. French and Italian knights, 
4th crusade, under the lead of the Count of Montferrat 
1Z03-1204.. and Baldwin of Flanders, assembled in 
Venice, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, to go to 
Jerusalem. Alexius, son of Isaac Angelus, who had been 
robbed of the imperial throne, met the Crusaders and besought 
them to reinstate his father in his rights. He promised them 
a great reward, the subjection of the Eastern Church to the 
Pope, and help in their enterprise against Jerusalem. They 
consented to his plans. Under the lead of Dandolo, the aged 
seal op the knights op st. ™°*- Do S e of Venice, they sailed to Constanti- 

john's hospital. nople, conquered the city, and placed Alexius and his father 

on the throne. But when they demanded their pay, the people rebelled ; Alexius was 
killed, Isaac frightened to death, and the leader of the rebellion lifted to the throne. 
The Franks now stormed Constantinople, plundered churches, 
palaces and dwellings, destroyed the treasures of antiquity, and 
filled the city with horrors. They hurled the new emperor from the 
top of a column, and then divided the empire. The Latin empire, 
with Constantinople, was given to Baldwin ; the coast lands and the 
islands of the iEgean sea were given to Venice; Count Montferrat 
received Macedonia and parts of ancient Greece ; Athens and 
other Greek cities came into the possession of French noblemen. 
A feudal monarchy was erected, as at Jerusalem, and the old popula- 
tion reduced to dependence. But the new Latin empire had neither foundation nor 

duration. With difficulty it held out half a 
century against its numerous foes. It fell 
met. then to Michael Palaeologus, a 

descendant of the old imperial family, which 
had established an independent dominion in 
Nicea. 

§ 225. Jerusalem, far from being helped, 
was weakened by this crusade. The separate 
groups, which from time to time came to the 
assistance of the distressed kingdom, were of 
little value, and the enthusiasm which drove 
throngs of children to take the cross, ended in 
a frightful waste of life. " Suffer the little 
children to come unto me for of such is the 
kingdom of heaven." This was so interpreted, 
that thousands of boys and girls left their 
homes for the Holy Sepulchre, only to perish 
1313. from hunger or fatigue, or to be 

sold as slaves by greedy merchants and pirates. Andreas II., of Hungary, the Dukes 
mis. of Austria and Bavaria, Count William, of Holland, and many German 



SEAL OF THE ORDER 
OP THE TEMPLE. 




KNIGHT OP ST. JOHN. 




death of st. louis. (A. de Neuville.) 



( P1 x 315.) 



316 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




LADIES OF THE ORDER OF ST. JOHN 



nobles and bishops led another company, and just as fruitlessly. Finally, Frederick 
II. undertook the fifth crusade, at a time when the Sultan of Egypt and the ruler of 
sth crusade, Damascus were making war upon each other. But Frederick was 
is2s. under the papal bann, and the 

Pope forbade Christian warriors taking part in 
his enterprise. Nevertheless, Frederick induced 
the Sultan to make a treaty, in which Jerusalem, 
Bethlehem, and Nazareth, with the whole coast 
from Joppa to Sidon, was ceded to the Chris- 
tians. This enraged the Pope ; he declared the 
peace a web of falsehood and treachery, and laid 
an interdict upon the city and the Holy Sepul- 
chre. Frederick II. placed the crown of Jeru- 
salem upon his own head, without the consecra- 
tion of the church. He was abandoned by the 
Christian knights and the clergy in Jerusalem, 
and obliged to leave the Holy Land. Fourteen 
years later, a wild Eastern people broke into 
m*±. Palestine, conquered Jerusalem, 

destroyed the Holy Sepulchre, and tore the 
bones of kings from their grave. At Gaza, the 
flower of the Christian chivalry, fell beneath their blows. Acre, and a few coast cities, 
were all that remained to the Christians. 

§ 226. The news of these disasters induced King Louis IX., St. Louis, of France, 

to take the cross. With many nobles, the 
134.S. French king sailed by Cypress 

to Egypt. The border city of Damietta fell 
once more into the hands of the Franks. But 
as they advanced up the Nile to the conquest 
of Cairo, the army was shut in betAveen the 
canals and the river, while the fleet was de- 
stroyed by Greek fire. The King's brother and 
his bravest knights were lost. Louis, with the 
remnant of his army, was taken prisoner, and 
escaped only by paying an enormous ransom, 
isso. and giving up the conquered 

city. But most of the pilgrim army never saw 
their homes again. What was spared by sword 
and pestilence, was destroyed by the cruelty 
of the Mohammedans. The pious King, after 
purchasing his freedom, proceeded to Acre, 
where he remained four years, during which 
he greatly strengthened its defences. Mean- 
while, Egypt came under the control of the warlike Mamelukes. The indomitable 
1270. Louis undertook another crusade sixteen years later, partly against 

the piratical Saracens, in Tunis, partly to compel them to pay tribute to his brother 




SUPERIOR OF THE ORDER OF GERMAN 
KNIGHTS AND BROTHER OF THE SWORD. 



318 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

Charles, of Naples and Sicily, partly in the hope of planting Christianity in North 
Africa. But pestilence carried him, and many of his army, to the grave. The French 
leaders concluded a peace with the Saracens, and returned home. An expedition of 
the English prince, Edward I., was equally unable to save the kingdom of Jerusalem. 
The Mamelukes conquered Antioch and Acre, and the French Christians, of their own 
accord, abandoned Syria. The consequences of the crusades were very important. 

§ 227. 1. Intellectual culture was advanced by them. The Europeans made 
the acquaintance of distant lands and peoples. They were brought into contact with 
the sciences and arts of other nations. Their notions of the world and of human 
affairs were extended and corrected. 

2. The crusades ennobled the knighthood. It gave them finer aims, and led to 
the foundation of the orders of chivalry, which served as models of knighthood, and 
which united in themselves all the virtues of nobility. These orders were founded in 
Palestine : The Order of the Hospital, the Order of the Temple, and the Order of the 
Teutonic Knights. They blended together the spirit of chivalry and of monasticism. 
They added to the three monastic vows chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth, 
namely, fight against the infidels and the protection of pilgrims. 

a. The Knights of St. John grew out of a brotherhood, founded by Italian mer- 
chants, in the Hospital of St. John, to nurse and protect pilgrims. There were of these 
Hospitallers three classes : Saving brothers, who nursed sick pilgrims ; priests, to per- 
form divine worship, and knights to fight the infidel and to f>rotect pilgrims. After 
the loss of Palestine, they removed to the island of Rhodes. This they defended 

1522. heroically against the Turks, but being compelled to surrender it, 

received the island of Malta from Charles V. 

b. The Knights Templar were established by French knights, to defend the Holy 
Sepulchre against the infidel. Donations and legacies made them enormously rich. 
After the loss of their possessions in the Holy Land, they settled in France, abandoned 
themselves to unbelief and superstition, and the order was abolished. 

c. The Order of German Knights was founded by Frederick of Swabia. Its 
activity in Palestine was small, its renown came from its achievments on the Baltic 
Sea. Called to protect the germs of Christian life upon the banks of the Vistula, these 
Teutonic Knights conquered, after bloody struggles, the whole country, for German 
life and morals and culture. Kulm, Thorn, Elbing, Konigsberg were founded by 
them. The forests were cleared, the lands were tilled, but the old freedom vanished. 
The knights of the order governed the lands, the peasants became serfs. 

The Assassins were a fanatical sect of Mohammedans, founded by the prophet 
Hassan. They lived in Parthia and in the mountain heights of Syria, and were 
remarkable for their absolute obedience to the "Old Man of the Mountains." What- 
ever deed was required of them, they executed it with cunning and boldness, and 
mocked at martyrdom. They had rich booty in this life, and expected to enjoy much 
beauty in the life to come. They were a terror alike to Christian and Saracen. 

§.228. 3. During the crusades many serfs obtained their freedom. This gave 
rise to a yeomanry in Europe. The cities, too, increased in power and importance ; 
commerce flourished, and industries developed rapidly. 

4. The crusades increased the power and the influence of the clergy, and the 
wealth of the church. For legacies and donations to monasteries and the clergy, 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



319 



became quite common, and many estates were purchased by them for a mere song. 
Moreover, religious zeal was intensified into fanaticism. This led to the persecution 
of the Waldenses and Albigenses, sects that preserved the apostolic simplicity in their 
religious life and worship. Provence and Languedoc were the homes of the Albigenses 
(from the city Alby). Here they lived under a beautiful sky ; prosperous citizens, 
with their free institutions, and daring poets who attacked the clergy with humor- 

moo. ous liberty. Innocent III. excited the Cistercian monks to preach a 

crusade against them, and their rich count, Raymond of Toulouse. Troops of savage 
warriors, led by fanatical monks brandishing the cross, invaded the once prosperous 
land, destroying the cities and castles, murdering guilty and innocent alike. Raymond 
withstood his enemies heroically ; but when Louis VIII. took up arms against him, the 

i2g». Count yielded, and gave up the larger part of his possessions. But the 

twenty years' war had converted the land into a desert, and silenced the troubadours 
for ever. 




SIEGE OF WEINSBERG. 



The peasant republic of Stedinger was attacked for the same reason, by Count 

man. Oldenburg, at the instigation of the Bishops of Bremen and Ratzeburg. 

The peasants fought desperately, but were overcome by numbers and by horsemen. 

Their lands were ruined, their herds destroyed, men, women and children slaughtered. 

§229. 
2. The Hohenstatjfens. (1138-1254.) 

The emperor Lothar died on his way back from Italy. His son-in-law, Henry the Proud, 
ii37. claimed the imperial throne, but the great power of the House of 

Guelph, which ruled over Bavaria and Saxony, and whose possessions extended from 
the Mediterranean to the Baltic, together with the unpopularity of the haughty Duke, 
led the German princesto elect Conrad of Hohenstaufen, at the diet of Coblentz. But 
Henry was in possession of the imperial insignia, and refused his allegiance. Conrad 
therefore declared him to have forfeited both his dukedoms, and placed him under the 



320 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Conrad III., 



1138-1152. 



imperial ban. This renewed the conflict between the Hohenstanfens 
and the Guelphs, and led to a destructive civil war. At the siege of 

Weinsberg, it is said the cry of Guelph and Ghibelline was heard for the first time. 

These cries were subsequently the names of parties. The castle was surrendered to 




BARBAEOSSA ASKING AID OF HENRY. 



ii4o. king Conrad, but the garrison is said to have been saved by the cun- 

ning and fidelity of the women. The war lasted till the death of Henry the Proud. 
This was followed by a truce, but a permanent peace was not established until his son, 



THE 3IIDDLE AGE. 321 

Henry the Lion, received back the two kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria, from Con- 
rad's successors. Austria however was separated from Bavaria, and raised to an in- 
dependent dukedom with great privileges. Conrad was a brave and pious man, but 
the war against the Guelphs, and the crusades undertaken by him hindered his use- 
fulness for Germany. Just as he was preparing to go to Rome to be crowned, his life 
was taken from him. He had guided the choice of the princes to his high-minded 
and powerful nephew of Swabia, who was counted the flower of knighthood, and whose 
splendid qualities the king had learned to know during the crusade. Frederick I. 
Fretirick gave to the empire peace and order within, and authority and safety 
jBaibaiossa, abroad. The dark-skinned Italians called him Barbarossa, on account 
itsg-iioo. of his blond hair and his reddish beard. But the blending of justice 
and severity in the imperial mind of this powerful man awakened, everywhere, rever- 
ence and obedience. 

§ 230. Frederick led six armies into Italy. The Lombard cities, especially 
Milan, had abolished the rights of counts and bishops in their community, and were 
about to establish small republics. Full of patriotism, and thirsting for liberty, they 
established a powerful militia, chose civil magistrates and judges, and sought to escape 
the imperial authority. When Frederick, according to ancient custom, held his review 

us*. near Placenza, and called upon the princes and cities of Upper Italy 

to do him reverence, Milan refused. Frederick was unable to punish Milan, but he 
sought to alarm it by the destruction of some smaller cities. He then received the 
Lombard crown at Pavia, and the imperial crown at Rome. The latter was his reward 

lias. for his surrender of Arnold of Brescia. This celebrated monk was a 

scholar of the famous Abelard. He wished to restore the church to apostolic simplicity ; 
he denounced the temporal possessions, and the luxury of the clergy, and declared the 
temporal power of the Pope to be contrary to Holy Writ. The Romans, excited by 
his sermons, renounced the authority of the popes and established a republican consti- 
tution. But Hadrian IV., who had risen from an English beggar boy to the papal 
chair, punished the disobedient city with ban and interdict. The Romans thereupon 
lost courage ; they abandoned Arnold to his fate, he tried to escape, but was captured 
and delivered to the Emperor, and then to the Pope, and was burned to death, at the 
chief gate of the city. The Romans, conquered by the German soldiers, were com- 
pelled to give up their new institutions, and to submit to the authority of the Pope. 

§ 231. When Frederick returned to Germany, the Milanese turned upon and 
destroyed the cities that were true to the Emperor. Frederick marched into Italy a 
second time. He called upon the jurists to determine his sovereign rights (regalia), 

ii5s. according to the Justinian code, and when Milan still refused to obey, 

he declared vengeance against the rebellious city. A violent war issued in the success 
of the Emperor. Milan was besieged for a ) r ear and a half, and compelled to sur- 

ii63. render. The banner wagon of the city was broke to pieces, and the 

citizens compelled to humble themselves before their conqueror. The walls and most 
of their houses were leveled to the ground, and the inhabitants compelled to settle in 
four sections, separated from each other. The other Lombard cities, frightened at the 
fate of Milan, consented to receive the imperial governors (Podesta). But Frederick 
was soon entangled in a violent quarrel with the imperious Pope Alexander III., for 
he had recognized Victor IV. as the legitimate head of the church ; Victor having 
21 



322 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



been chosen by some of the cardinals, and by the church council in Pavia. Alexan. 
der excommunicated the Emperor and the Anti-pope, and supported the Lombards, who 
were enraged at the oppression and extortion of the imperial governors. The Lombard 
league was formed, to which almost all the cities of Upper Italy adhered. Thereupon, 
Frederick marched to Rome, compelled Alexander to fly to France ; and as Victor IV. 
had died meanwhile, he procured the election of another anti-pope, Pascal III, But a 
nee. pestilence attacked his army, and carried off the flower of the Ger- 

man knighthood; among them his best friends, the Archbishop Rainald of Cologne, 
iio7. and Duke Frederick of Swabia. With a fragment of his army, the 

Emperor hastened to Pavia, whence he returned home, barely escaping captivity in his 
nes. flight. This apparent judgment of Heaven increased the courage and 

the strength of the Lombards. They built the fortified city of Alessandria, which 

bears the name of the Pope, drove out the 
imperial governors, and so completely or- 
ganized their defence, that Frederick was 
compelled, for a long time, to leave the 
Italians alone, especially as affairs in Ger- 
many required great attention. 

§ 232. But finally Frederick Barba- 
rossa marched with a great army once more 
across the Alps. But the siege of Alessan- 
iiij. dria lasted so long, that 

he feared to lose all the fruits of the cam- 
paign, and therefore determined to give bat- 
tle against the advice of his friends. Hemy 
the Lion, however, abandoned him in his ex- 
tremity; for this prince thought more of 
his own advancement, than of the plans of 
the emperor; and he was, moreover, angry 
with Frederick, because the latter had in- 
duced Duke Guelph to sell the Guelph estates 
to the house of Hohenstaufen. Although 
Frederick fell at his feet, at Lake Como, beseeching his assistance, Henry refused to be ap- 
ure. peased ; and the Germans were defeated in the battle of Legnano, where the 
Milanese "death legion " performed miracles of valor. The Emperor himself was miss- 
ing for some days, but so great was the regard for his greatness, that the Pope and 
ii77. the Lombard league willingly accepted the offered peace. At a meet- 

ing in Venice, Frederick and Alexander agreed to a six years' truce, and this finally led 
ii83. to the peace of Constance. By this time Alexander was ackowledged as 

the rightful head of the Church : Frederick was relieved from ex-communication, and 
the cities of the league were secured in their rights and franchises. The Emperor or 
his representative were to confirm the magistrates elected by the citizens, and to have 
the power of life and death; but civil justice and the administration of city affairs was 
left to the communes. The citizens were to take the oath of allegiance, and to pro- 
vide the imperial armies with the necessary supplies. Emperor and Pope gave each 
other the kiss of peace, in front of St. Marks' church in Venice. Thereupon the Ger- 




KNIGHT, DUKE AND KNIGHT TEMPLAR. 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



323 



ust. man ruler led the horse of the Vicar of Christ through the cheering 

throng. Representatives from the cities were admitted to an equal participation in an 
assembly of princes for the first time in this notable congress at Venice, and the 
cities of Upper Italy were soon renowned as free republics. Before Frederick left 
Italy, he accomplished the betrothal of his eldest son Henry with Constance, the 
heiress of the Norman kingdom, and Naples, and Sicily. 

§ 233. The news of Frederick's reconciliation with the Pope, struck Henry the 
Lion with terror. He had extended his dominion among the Slavs of Pomerania 
and Mecklenburg, and among the Frisians of the Baltic. He had attacked the peasant 
republic in Holstein, and acquired for himself a great kingdom. He had opened up new 
mines in the Harz, founded cities and bishoprics, and invited colonists from the Nether- 
lands. But his deed of violence against princes and prelates were so well-known, that 
the bronze lion which he had erected in front of his castle in Brunswick, was as much 
the emblem of his robbery, as of his strength. When Frederick returned, he heard 
complaints of Henry from all sides. This 
gave him the desired opportunity to summon 
Henry to judgment; and when Henry re- 
fused to appear, he was placed under ban and 
nso. deprived of his two dukedoms, 
Bavaria and Saxony. Bavaria was given 
to the Wittelsbachs. Saxony went to Ber- 
nard of Anhalt, and to the other princes and 
bishops; much of it to Cologne. But the 
" Lion " could not be tamed without a dev- 
astating war. For a long time he with- 
es o 

stood all his foes ; he destroyed Halberstadt, 
and carried off the Bishop ; he took Count 
Ludwig of Thuringia, and his brother, pris- 
oners, and subdued the nobles of Westphalia. 
Not until Frederick marched against him in 
person, and compelled Liibeck into submis- 
sion, and threatened the Duke with a siege, 

list. did Henry yield to his great 

antagonist. He retained for himself and for his family, Brunswick and Lunenburgh. 

usi. Frederick having overcome all his enemies, celebrated a splendid 

national festival in Mayence, in honor of two of his sons; and then departed on the 

nso. crusade, in which he lost his life. 

But Barbarossa still lives in story, and in later times; the resurrection of the Ger- 
man empire in its ancient strength and glory, has been connected with the legend of 
his return to life. 

§ 234. Henry the Sixth, his son, possessed his father's strength and energy, but 
uemy vi. lacked his nobility of character. He was greedy, stern, and cruel. The 
iioo-iiov. songs of the minnesingers, which delighted his youth, soon ceased to 
charm his heart ; his soul was full of great plans, but the gloomy sternness of his coun- 
tenance terrified the Italians, like the " blood-red northern light." His life was a con- 
tinual contest. When the Norman king died, Henry sought to take Naples and Sicily, 




GERMAN DUKE AND LADIES. 



324 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

as the inheritance of his wife, Constance ; but the nobles, fearing this foreign master 
opposed him and elevated a native nobleman, the brave Tancred, to the throne. Henry 
marched immediately with his army across the Alps. In order to obtain the imperial 
crown, he abandoned the faithful Tusculum to the vengeance of the Romans. The city 
1191. was leveled to the ground. A part of its inhabitants took refuge in 

Frascati, but the King did not overcome Apulia as quickly as he had expected. His 
army wasted away with pestilence, his wife was carried captive to Sicily, and he him- 
self returned home to confront new foes. Henry the Lion had returned to Brunswick, 
and taken up his former plans. But the energetic Emperor soon overcame his ene- 
1193. mies. By the capture of Richard Lion-heart, of England, he deprived 

the Duke of a powerful support, and obtained the means for a new expedition against 
ii9*. Naples and Sicily. Tancred was dead. Henry the Lion soon followed 

ii9s. him. The emperor hastened into Italy, destro} r ed the Norman army, and 

Syracuse and Palermo. His rage and vengeance were terrible. He filled the prisons, 
with noblemen and bishops, putting out the eyes and tearing out the tongues of some, 
ii9->. hanging, burning, and burying others alive. Henry died in his thirty- 

second year, and his wife Constance, soon followed him to the grave. Pope Innocent 
ii98. Ill became guardian of their two-year old son Frederick, and 

made the Sicilian kingdom a fief of the papal see. The friends of the Hohenstaufens- 
Philip of sivabia. thereupon elected Philip of Swabia, while the Guelphs elected Otto, 
ii9?-i298. the son of Henry the Lion, to be king. Philip was a man of gentle 
manners, pure habits, and pious disposition. Otto was a rude, violent and daring 
knight. The South recognized Philip. The North followed Otto, and a ten years' 
otto iv. war ensued, during which violence and lawlessness prevailed. In a 
1191121s. single year, sixteen cathedrals and three hundred villages were burned 
1298. to the ground. Philip was murdered by Otto of Wittelsbach, either 

from private revenge or inconsequence of a conspiracy. Otto IV, who was now ac- 

1209. knowledged generally as king, and who married Philip's daughter, laid 
the murderer under ban. He fled to the Danube, where he was slain; and his family 
castle was torn down. 

§ 235. Innocent III. soon provoked the passionate emperor to a bitter quarrel. 
This pope was a great statesman. He followed the policy of Gregory VII., maintain- 
ing that the church was higher than the state, the spiritual greater than the temporal 
head; that consequently all princes must recognize the Pope as their sovereign liege 
lord, and judge. During the civil war in Germany, he had supported Otto, and won 
from him the promise to confirm all the donations that had been made to the papal 
chair, and to give up the imperial claims to Rome and to Middle Italy. This of course 
would secure the independence of the papal state. Otto came to Rome to be crowned, 
but after his coronation, he asserted his imperial rights anew, and even invaded Lower 
Italy in order to regain the kingdom of Sicily, and to shake off the authority of Rome. 
Innocent excommunicated him, and sent the young Frederick to Germany, in order to 

1210. kindle anew the fight between Guelph and Ghibelline. The latter 
party received the beautiful, hopeful lad with joy. Otto took part as the ally of John 

i2i4. of England, in the war against Philip of France, and suffered a great 

1215. defeat in Flanders. Thereupon Frederick II., of Hohenstaufen, was 

acknowledged generally asking of Germany, although Otto IV. did not die till 1218- 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



325 



1330. Frederick, after having his young son Henry elected king, returned to 

Italy, and received the imperial crown in Rome. But the new emperor was a free- 
Fvedertckxi. thinker, who had been educated in the wisdom of Arabia. He had a 
mis-1250. strong inclination for Islam and for oriental life, and he soon became a 
mighty enemy of the Pope. As king of Upper and of Lower Italy, he threatened the 
temporal power of the papacy ; and as a free-thinker, he threatened the authority of 
the church. Consequently, Innocent and his successors struggled hard to separate the 
dominion of Naples and Sicily from the German crown and the imperial dignity. 

§ 236. Frederick II. delayed so long to carry out his promised crusade, that he was 

i33s. excommunicated by Gregory IX. The next year he started without 

waiting to be freed from the papal ban. Thereupon the Pope not only baffled all his 
undertakings in Palestine, but attacked his possessions in Lower Italy. This hastened 
Frederick's return. He drove back the papal armies 
and threatened the papal state, until Gregory was 
quite willing to make peace, and to free him from 
excommunication. Frederick now gave his whole 
attention to the welfare of his states ; he deposed 
his misguided, disobedient son Henry from the Ger- 

i23s. man throne, and placed his younger 

son Conrad in the vacant kingdom. He issued 
edicts to repress the robberies of the knights, and 
to establish enduring peace throughout the land. 
He gave to Sicily a new constitution, he favored com- j 
merce, industry, and poetry. But in an evil hour he \ 
attacked the Lombard cities, in order to compel them SBSllR n\ 
to acknowledge his imperial rights. This attempt 
produced a terrible war of parties and of principles. 
Frederick made an alliance with the Ghibellines, 
and with the inhuman tyrant Ezzelino of Verona ; he 
brought into the field his faithful Saracens and his 

133* hireling soldiers, and conquered the 

allied army of the Lombards at Cortenuova. Most 
of the cities now submitted to his sway. When, 
however, he sought to compel the Milanese to unconditional surrender, and gave 

i23o. Sardinia to his son Enzio, the Pope renewed the excommunication, 

supported the Milanese, and stirred up everywhere enemies against the Emperor, ac- 
cusing the latter of infidelity and of blasphemy. Frederick retorted and answered in- 

124,1. suit with insult. Finalty Gregory sank under the weight of his hun- 

dred years, and Frederick seemed to be master of the situation. 

§ 237. Fieschi, a Genevese Cardinal, was now elected pope. He assumed the 

1343. title of Innocent IV. Frederick, when congratulated that the new pope 

was his friend, replied, " I fear I have lost a friend among the cardinals, and shall find 
an enemy in the papal chair, for no pope can be a Ghibelline." And he was right. In- 
nocent made a few efforts for peace; then escaped secretly from Rome, and called a 

1245. church council in the city of Lyons, on the borders of the German and 

the Roman world. Here he renewed the ban against the Kaiser as a blasphemer, a 




statue OF Frederick ii. {Roman 



Gate at Capita.) 



326 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

secret Mohammedan, and an enemy of the church. He declared him to have forfeited his 

dignities and crown ; he released his subjects from their allegiance, and threatened all 

the Emperor's adherents with the curse of the Church. The flames broke out in all the 

1240. lands of the empire. The papal party elected another emperor, Henry 

1247. of Thuringia ; and when Henry was defeated at Ulm, and died at the 
Wartburg, Count William of Holland was induced to accept the royal title. But 
the imperial cities, and the secular princes, remained steadfast to Frederick's son Conrad. 

§ 238. Italy meanwhile was devastated by the war between the Guelphs and 
Ghibellines. The hot blood of the vindictive southerners produced incredible cruel- 
ties. Family fought against family, city against city. Ezzelino, the leader of the 
Ghibelline nobles, committed unspeakable outrages against the Guelph cities. Fred- 
erick's majestic form long remained upright ; the number of his enemies only in- 

1248. creased his courage. Even his great losses at Parma could not break 
his spirit. But when his son, Enzio, fell into the hands of the Bolognese, who held 
him prisoner for more than twenty years, when his private secretary, Peter of Vinea, 
proved a traitor, and as he was led to execution, beat out his brains against a church 
pillar, the Emperor broke his heart. He was just about undertaking a new campaign 

i2so. against Upper Italy, as he died in the arms of his beloved son Manfred. 

He was in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Frederick united fine culture with great 
bravery and beauty of person. Surrounded by splendor and pleasures of every sort, 
he might have been happy, had he learned to tame his passions and to moderate his 
desires. His manner of thought, his customs, and his life, were repugnant to the ideas 
of his time and to the maxims of his church ; moreover, he abandoned himself unre- 
servedly to sensuality and to doubt. Dante places him in hell, among the daring 
doubters who rage against heaven, and for a punishment are placed in fiery sepulchers. 
§ 239. Innocent IV. now returned rejoicing into Italy; first, however, stirring up 
the whole world by his letters against the godless family of the Hohenstaufens. He 
declared Naples and Sicily to be fiefs of the papal see, and excommunicated Fred- 
erick's sons, Conrad IV. and Manfred, because they defended their paternal inherit- 

1254. ance. Conrad conquered Naples, but soon passed into the grave. 

His chivalrous half-brother, Manfred, defended Lower Italy with German and Arab 
warriors, and was so successful that most of the cities acknowledged him, and the 

1254. Guelph troops were obliged to withdraw. This brought Pope Inno- 

1258. cent the IV. to his grave. Manfred then won another victory, and 

was crowned in Palermo king of Sicily. He now ruled like his father, in the magnifi- 
cent castle by the sea. The Ghibellines were victorious also in Upper Italy, until 

i25o. their leader Ezzilino was made prisoner at the battle of Cassano, and 

died of his wounds at a castle in Milan. Rome now saw that the papacy could not 
succeed by its own strength. Pope Urban IV. therefore made an alliance with the 
French, and offered Sicily to the energetic but cruel Charles of Anjou, brother of the 

1205. French king Louis IX. He was to have it on condition that he con- 

quered it with the help of the Guelphs, and that he paid a yearly tribute to the papal 
court. Charles landed at the mouth of the Tiber, and was received by the new Pope 
Clement IV. and the clerical party, as a second Judas Maccabseus, who would smite 
hip and thigh the accursed heretic and Mahommedan chieftain. Manfred opposed him 




DEATH OF EMPEROR FREDERICK II. IN PALERMO. (A. Zick.) (pp. 327.) 



328 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



is«e. . bravely, but was betrayed by the Italians at the battle of Beneventum. 
He plunged into the midst of his enemies, and died the death "of a hero. 

§ 2i0. The battle of Beneventum broke the power of the Ghibellines. Naples 




'HBw% Hn?- 5 vdKBBIi^illH Kn 




DEATH OF MANFRED. 



and Sicily fell into the hands of the conqueror, who made them feel all the sufferings 
of the vanquished. The friends of the Hohenstaufens were punished with death, the 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



329 



dungeon and exile, and their property was given to the French and Guelph soldiers. 
In their misery, they called the youthful Conradin to Italy. This son of Conrad IV. 
had the lofty spirit and the heroic mind of his ancestors. He left his German home 
with his friend Frederick of Baden, and a few devoted soldiers, to reconquer the inherit- 
ance of the Hohenstaufens. The Ghibellines received him with transports of joy ; 
he marched victoriously through Upper and Middle Italy, and made a triumphal entiy 




execution of conradin at Naples. ( The last of the Hohenstaufens.) 



into Rome, which the Pope abandoned as he approached. At the capitol he received 
the acknowledgment of the eternal city, and then he marched to Naples. His first 
engagement with the enemy gave him the advantage, but in his eagerness he fell into 
an ambuscade, in which his troops were killed or dispersed. He himself was taken 
1208. prisoner along with his bosom friend Frederick. Charles of Anjou 



330 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

had them both beheaded. King Enzio died a prisoner at Bologna. The sons of Man- 
fred languished in prison to satisfy the implacable Charles. Margaret, the daughter 
of Frederick II., was so ill-treated by her husband, Albert of Thuringia, that she es- 
caped in the night time from the castle of Wartburg, and fled to Frankfurt. As she 
fled (the legend declares), she embraced her eldest son with such violence, that she bit 
him in the cheek, and he was known afterward as " Frederick with the bitten cheek.' . 
Charles of Anjou raged against all the adherents of Conradin. One of these, John 
1282. of Procida, swore to have revenge. At his instigation, the Sicilian 

vespers took place. All the French of Sicily were murdered by the inhabitants, and 
the island was then surrendered to the courageous son-in-law of Manfred, Peter of 
Aragon, by whose help the inhabitants repulsed all the attacks of Charles, and founded 
an independent kingdom. A war ensued between Peter and Charles, which neither 
of them survived. Frederick the Second, son of Peter, was crowned king of Sicily, 
but Naples continued under French rule for two centuries. 

3. Mediaeval Life. 

§ 241. The social conditions of the middle ages resulted from the blending of 
Feudalism. German and Roman institutions. To this mixture we give the name 
of feudalism. When the Roman provinces were conquered, the victors took possession 
of a great part of the conquered land in such fashion, that the king took all the state 
property, but gave a part of the land to his comrades, with the obligation to follow 
him to battle attaching to it. The remainder was left to the former inhabitants. But 
in order to bind the freemen firmly to his throne, the king gave to some of them parts 
of his own share with a life tenure. Such gifts were called fiefs. The giver was the 
liege-lord, the receiver a vassal. In like manner, the richer land owners endowed 
those without property with, parts of their possessions, or with parts of their fiefs, and 
thus they too acquired vassals. Bishops and abbots also gave fiefs to knights upon 
condition that they would protect their cloister, or that they would perform military 
service. The feudal system thus formed a chain of dependence and fidelity, which 
bound together mediaeval humanity, in a most complicated fashion, and greatky limited 
freedom of person and of property. The crown vassals gradually conquered for 
themselves the heredity of their fiefs, and became so powerful that they confronted the 
kings as equals. Rich land holders gradually acquired the property of the poorer 
class, so that they belonged to the nobility, while the small free holders fell into rela- 
tions of dependence, and cultivated their former property as tenant farms, for which 
they paid a rent. Their condition grew worse and worse, until the land population 
fell into serfdom, were chained to the soil, and given up defenseless to the will of the 
master. All who lived in dependence, or in serfdom, were obliged to make contribu- 
tions, or to render services to the lord of the castle ; to give him tithes of their 
fruits and wine and flocks, or to give him money on particular occasions, or to give him 
gratuitous labor. These were called feudal burdens, and grew more oppressive and 
more manifold every 3^ear. 

§ 242. There ' were three classes in the middle ages : the military class, the 

ciiivaii-u- teaching class, and the working class. The military class included 

the nobility and the knights, with their vassals and servants. Knighthood was based 

upon birth, and upon the education of the page. He was required to earn his spurs 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 331 

by a feat of arms, before he could be received into the company. The main purpose 
of chivalry was fight ; sometimes to prove one's strength or fidelity, sometimes to de- 
fend one's personal honor, sometimes to protect religion and the clergy, sometimes to 
protect women as the weaker sex. The latter led to the minnesingers, the soul of 
chivalry and of mediaeval poetry. Tournaments, in which a noble maiden gave the 
prize to the victor, kept alive the feeling for chivalry, and that no false knight should 
slip in under the disguise of his armor and his helmet, the coat of arms was intro- 
duced to signalize the name and family of the champion. 

§ 243. The teaching class included the clergy, both the secular priests and those 
Hierarchy. of the cloister. They alone were in possession of culture, and had the 
power to determine man's salvation. Hence they acquired a great dominion over the 
ignorant, credulous, and religious people of the middle ages. The Pope ruled not 
only in religion and the church and among the clergy, but he sought authority over 
secular princes and kingdoms, and regarded the imperial crown as his fief. The chief 
clergy frequently occupied important state offices, and archbishops and abbots ob- 
tained gradually such great estates, that they resembled princes. Proud cathedrals 
arose, that were decorated with the achievements of every art. A happy life in a 
beautiful house seemed to be the privilege of the superior clergy. The episcopal 
authority, which originally covered all the relations of spiritual, moral, and social life, 
was more and more limited by the Roman supremacy. The appointment of arch- 
bishops and bishops became gradually the exclusive right of the church, althpugh 
these were originally appointed by the secular princes. The episcopal courts were 
more and more limited, as the court of Rome assumed jurisdiction over all important 
questions, and placed many cloisters and monasteries directly under papal control. 
All appointments, appeals, and dispensations must be paid for, and thus much money 
flowed constantly to Rome. Legates were appointed to oversee the churches in for- 
eign lands. The papal authority thus became absolute, until it was dangerous to op- 
pose it. Every antagonist of existing ecclesiastical arrangements was treated as an 
enemy of the church, and punished accordingly. These punishments were of three 
degrees, excommunication, which struck the individual ; the interdict, which struck a 
city or a state, depriving it of worship and of all spiritual and ecclesiastical services ; 
and the crusade, with the accompanying inquisition, in which whole populations were 
given over to destruction. The power of the papacy was especially furthered, first 
by the false decretals, attributed to Isidore of Spain, a collection of church laws and 
decisions pretending to come from the first four centuries, but belonging really to the 
ninth ; secondly, by the growth of monasticism ; and thirdly, by mediaeval scholasti- 
cism. 

§ 244. (1) Monasticism originated in the east, where the contemplation of divine 
Monasticism. things and solitary life is regarded as more meritorious than energetic 
action. So many chose this calling, that at the end of the third century, the Egyp- 
tian Antony, who had cast away his riches, and chosen the desert for his residence, 
gathered together the isolated hermits into a communal life, and his pupil Pachomius, 
accustomed them to a life in monasteries or cloisters. Regulated by definite ordinances, 
52». the system spread gradually to the west. Benedict, of Nursia, in the 

sixth century, founded Monte Cassino in Lower Italy. This was the first cloister with 
definite rules for all its members, touching raiment, food, modes of life, and spiritual 



332 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

exercises. This order of St. Benedict was introduced into all the lands of the west, 
and many monasteries were erected. The sites of these were usually in picturesque 
places, and the inhabitants of them took a three-fold vow of chastitj-, poverty, and 
obedience. These monks cleared the forests, and transformed the moors into blooming 
fields. They furnished an asylum to the persecuted and the oppressed. They en- 
nobled the souls of men, by proclaiming the gospel ; they trained the hearts of the 
young to morality and refinement ; they preserved from destruction the remnants of 
ancient literature and science. Many of the Benedictine cloisters, like St. Gall and 
Fulda, were the nursing places of culture, of science, and of art. When the Order of 
St. Benedict degenerated, the cloister of Clugny in Burgundy was established in the 
tenth century, with a view to stricter discipline ; and Clugny became the centre of a 
great confederacy of more than 2000 monasteries, most of which were very wealthy. 
But this order likewise became gradually less strict ; consequently the Cistercian order 
was founded in the eleventh century, and in the beginning of the twelfth, the Order 
of Premontre. The Carthusian monks went farthest in the practice of renunciation. 
They lived a life of solitary and silent confinement ; their food was meager and coarse ; 
they clothed themselves in hairy garments, inflicted upon themselves frequent scourg- 
ings, and lived a life of uninterrupted prayer. 

§ 245. The mendicant orders were founded in the thirteenth century. Francis 
Franciscans ana of Assisi, the son of a rich merchant, gave up his property, clothed 
Dominicans. himself in rags, and went begging and praying through the world. His 
fiery zeal soon procured him adherents, who cast away their money and property, 
fasted, prayed, chastised themselves, and satisfied their meager wants from voluntary 
gifts and alms. The Order of Franciscans, or Minorites, spread rapidly through all 
lands, and soon divided into several branches. Dominic, a cultivated Spanish noble, 
founded the Order of Dominicans or preaching monks, whose aim was the purification 
of the faith and the destruction of heresy. The conversion of the Albigenses among 
whom the Dominicans lived for a long while, was the first task of this order. The Dom- 
inicans were likewise bound by a vow of poverty and renunciation. The courts of 
inquisition, with their terrible tortures and punishments, were committed to this 
order. The severity with which they exercised their authority in Hesse and Thur- 
1333. ingia, so excited the people, that they slew the judges of heresy and 

put an end to the persecution. The mendicant monks were the most powerful sup 7 
port of the papacy. In return for their fidelity, the Pope endowed them with great 
privileges, and relieved them from the jurisdiction of the local bishops. The Francis- 
cans were the favorites of the common people, in whose sorrows and joys they shared ; 
the Dominicans dedicated themselves to the sciences, and gradually got possession of 
the universities. The greatest doctors of the church belonged to the Order of St. 
Dominic. 

§ 246. (2) The working class included the inhabitants of the country and of the 
cities ana Munic- city, who pursued the arts of peace. The tillers of the soil were, 
ii>ai Life. for a long time, the only working class of Germans. These were 
not free, and had no part in public life. But the Saxon emperors and the Hohen- 
staufens exerted themselves to build cities : and many of the country people settled in 
them, so that the third estate came to consist of burgesses and peasants, and acquired 
gradually various rights and privileges. The German cities were divided into imperial 




prelates pastime. (Ferd. Kriller.) 



(j>p. 333.) 



334 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

cities and land cities. The imperial cities were directly subject to the Emperor, and 
were represented in the imperial diet. The land cities belonged to the territory of a 
secular prince or of a bishop. The imperial cities were the oldest, the richest, and the 
most powerful ; and it was in them that the municipal life of the Middle Age was 
especially developed. 

The municipalities acquired gradually by donation, purchase, or freedom, certain 
rights of sovereignty ;■ for example, the right to administer justice, to coin money, to 
lay taxes, to collect customs. The citizens of the German imperial cities, especially in the 
south, consisted originally, as in ancient Rome, of patrician families, of artisans and culti- 
vators of the soil who, as clients, possessed no share in these civic rights. The officers 
and aldermen of the city were chosen from the Patricians ; but gradually the lower 
classes resisted the dominion of the patrician families. To this end they organized 
guilds. These artisan guilds, the strength of which was to be found in the strong 
arms of the workmen, soon acquired such power, that they not only conquered every- 
where civil rights for thems&lves, and a share in the city government, but in many 
cities, the aristocratic element was expelled by a democratic government of guilds. In 
times of war, these guilds marched to the field with their own banners under the 
lead of the guildmaster, and protected their freedom against foreign enemies as bravely 
as they conquered and maintained it at home. Prosperity and power gave them social 
happiness ; and this was manifested in dances, May festivals, and pastimes of every 
sort. 

§ 247. The literature of the Middle Age was of three kinds of theological writ- 
ings, the most important of which were composed by the scholastics and the mystics. 
The schoolmen were the philosophical theologians, who made Christian doctrine the 
subject of their thought and investigation. They used the logic of Aristotle, and in- 
vented a multitude of terms and formulae, and came at last to empty explanations and 
demonstrations, and to the absurdest subtleties. Their works astonish us by their 
acuteness, by their fine distinctions, by their skill in reasoning, by their learning, and 
their amazing industry. Thomas Aquinas, the Dominican, and Duns Scotus, the Fran- 
ciscan, were the most famous school-men of the thirteenth century ; and the scholastics 
were all divided into Thomists and Scotists. Emotional natures refused to be satis- 
fied with the dry reasoning of the school -men. They opposed therefore, to the philosophy 
and logic of scholastic Christianity, a religion of feeling, of poetry, and of imagination. 
iionaventura. Bernard of Clairvaux who lived in the twelfth century, and 

f 1274. Bonaventura, who lived in the thirteenth, were the beginners of 

this tendency ; but it reached its full development in the Mystics. These 
imitated the life of Christ, sought to overcome the wickedness of the world by 
chastising the flesh and destroying the lusts of the sense, and struggled after a union 
with God, at once complete and direct. Mysticism has greatly influenced literature 
and life, and although this doctrine of humility and self denial weakened the energies, 
and this excitement of emotions led frequently to fanaticism, nevertheless its influence 
upon a rude and obtuse humanity was singularly beneficial. The " Imitation of Christ " 
by the Domincan monk Tauler, of Strasburg, and the little "Book of Eternal Wisdom " 
by Suso, of Constance, were of great authority. But the most powerful influence exerted 
by the Mystics, was through the brotherhood of common life in the Netherlands, to 
t *«»*. which Thomas a Kempis belonged, the author of the famous book of 



THE MIDDLE AGE 335 

devotion known in all languages, and read by all Christians, the " Imitation of Christ." 
The Flagellants were allied in part to the Mystics. When the conflicts between Guelph 
and Ghibelline rilled Italy with wickedness and crime, the cities of the Peninsula were 
startled by throngs of penitents, who marched through the land singing penitential 
songs, and lashing their bare backs until the blood flowed, in order to obtain forgive- 
ness from God. The same thing took place in Germany and other countries in the 
i34o-i3<ts. fourteenth century, when the black death wasted Europe, and was 
looked upon as a punishment from God. Bands of Flagellants marched from place to 
place, preaching penitence and chastising themselves, and persisting in their activity, 
in spite of the Church and of the Inquisition. 

§ 248. Mathematics, natural science, and history, were also in the hands of the 
clergy, although the Greeks and Arabs exercised great influence upon the develop- 
ment of the exact sciences. It was from the Arabian schools that the western clergy 
obtained a great part of their much admired knowledge. Albertus Magnus, a famous 

f i2so. teacher, was also a great traveler, and so skilled in natural sciences, 
that he was counted a magician. Among the authors of Latin chronicles and annals, 
were William of Tj're, the French historian of the crusades and of the Holy Land, 
and Otto of Freysing, the half-brother of King Conrad III. Along with this learned 
writing, there were also, at the time of the crusades, historical descriptions of certain. 
periods and events written in French, Spanish, and Italian. Among these are the his- 
m-oissart, tory of the fourth crusade by Villehardouin, Froissart's Chronicles, 
i.t-m-iioo. and Joinvilles history of St. Louis. Philip Comines, in his Memoirs, 

comiites, is one of the founders of modern historiography. These were writ- 
t-j-t.-,-i.-iou. ten in French. Villani's History of Florence is the most important 
vuiani, -\ i34s. of the Italian chronicles, while Muntanier wrote in Spanish an ac- 
count of the deeds of the kings of Aragon, remarkable for its epic spirit and its fidelity 
to nature. 

§ 249. Poetry however passed early into the hands of the knights, chiefly because 
love, and the service of women, was the heart and centre of mediaeval poetry, and in 
this of course the clergy could not participate. In substance and in form it was alike 
in all the lands of Europe. This likeness is due partly to the international spirit of 
the crusades, and partly to the use of the Romance languages. In Italy, France, and 
Spain, and even in England, the languages resembled each other so that the literary 
products of one land were easily understood in the other. 

Mediaeval poetry was of three sorts : heroic poems, in which the deeds of chiv- 
alry, fights, adventures, and love furnished the material ; lyric songs, in which the 
poet expressed his feelings, his moods, or his thoughts in melodious verses and relig- 
ious poems, where devotional feeling and pious enthusiasm broke forth into praises of 
God and of Mary, or pictured the deeds and the fortunes of the saints. The epic " 
poems were based upon legendary cycles, some taken from the antique world, like the 
Alexandriad, others taken from the Christian world like the story of Karl the Great, 
and of Arthur and his round table, and the legend of the Holy Grail. To this latter 
cycle belong the two great German romances of the Middle Age, Parsival and 
isoo. Tristan, and Isolde. But the Niebelungen is the pearl of German epic 

poetry. It originated at the time of the great migration, but was reduced to its pres- 
ent form by an unknown poet, in the beginning of the thirteenth century. The 



336 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



stories of Siegfried, who was murdered at the Linden spring, in the forest, the bloody 
revenge of his faithful wife Kriemhilde, and the destruction of the royal house of Bur- 
gundy, by Dietrich of Berne, at the court of Attila, the king of the Huns, are the 
chief features of this great production. The lyric poets, the minnesingers of Germany 
and the troubadours of France, gave expression to the feelings of love or to the 
delights of the mind in the changes of nature, though some times they satirized the 
manners of the nobility, and the degeneracy of the clergy. The Wartburg, near 
Eisenach, was the meeting place of the most admired and gifted of the German min- 
itante, nesingers. The greatest poets of the Middle Age belonged to Italy. 

i2«s-i3ss. Dante Alighieri, of Florence, created the Italian poetic diction in his 
f 1374. " Divine Comedy." Petrarch carried it to melodious perfection in his 
sonnets, and Boccaccio created the language of Italian prose in his tales and novels. 
Dante's magnificent poem consists of three parts, Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Its 

melodious verses contain all the wisdom of the 
Middle Age, the whole treasure of its science, 
so that one can say that heaven and earth laid 
hands to the completion of Dante's poem. 
Petrarch's other works are composed in Latin. 
Like Boccaccio, he rendered great services in 
the revival of ancient literature and culture. 
The art of the Middle Age was wholy devoted 
me saa-eii Arts, to religion. All its various 
branches united together in building the sub- 
lime cathedrals, of which the oldest were in the 
round arch or Roman style, and the latest in 
the pointed arch or Gothic. The Gothic style 
reached its perfection in the thirteenth and 
\ fourteenth centuries. The Gothic buildings 
have a free bold character, and point upward 
dante. {Bronze Bust. Made by Death Vl ^ e tne f aith t] -, afc pro duced them. Their chief 
Mask. 

decoration is the slender spire which forms a 

majestic flower, pointing to the goal toward which the human soul is striving. The 
ground-plan has the figure of the cross. The twilight that is obtained by the painted 
windows, fills the soul of the suppliant with awe, at the presence of the Almighty. The 
cathedral churches consist of a choir for the clergy and the high altar, and of a middle 
nave with a lofty roof, and usually two side naves, separated from the middle one by 
rows of columns. Sculpture, music, painting, are likewise in the service of the church. 
The sculpture and carved work which conceal the clumsy and heavy masonry, are to 
be regarded as parts of the great idea that underlies the Gothic style. The pictures of 
Christ and his disciples, the statues of the saints, the manifold decorations, reliefs, and 
symbols, the flowers that start from every corner, all point to the Christian religion, 
and to the struggle of man and the human soul to reach the divine. The carving in 
wood and ivory, the metal work, the pictures above the altars, the painted windows, 
the vaulted roofs, and the lofty columns are also symbols of religious teaching and of 
the church. The eternal ideas of faith are thus expressed in visible form ; hence 
these older pictures all have the character of peace, because peace is the nature of 




THE MIDDLE AGE. 



337 



God. but a peace full of life and energy ; hence too the glory of color that gave variety 
to unity and motion to peace. The solemn tones of the old church music with lue 
majestic play of the organ promoted reverence ; and the chiming bells called men to 
collect their thoughts, and awakened in their hearts a longing for heavenly things. 



V. THE DECAY OF CHIVALRY AND THE 

CHURCH. 



DEGENERATION OF THE 



§ 250. 



1. The Interregnum. (1250—1273.) 




HE death of Frederick II. was a critical moment for Germany. 
Foreign princes without power and influence now obtained the 
imperial title, while throughout the empire disorder and lawless- 
isse. ness prevailed. Might was the only right. When 

William of Holland fell in fighting the Frisians, the Arch-bishop 
of Cologne promoted the election of Richard of Cornwall, brother 
of the king of England, while the arch-bishop of Treves, and his 

following, chose Alfonso X. of Castile. Richard sailed up the Rhine, loaded with 

treasures for the princes who had chosen him. 

Alfonso never visited the kingdom to which 

he had been called. Meanwhile princes and 

bishops sought to extend their territory, and 

to acquire sovereignty, while the knights and 

vassals misused their strength in highway 

robbery. From their castles, which they had 

built on the shores of navigable rivers, or 

beside the main highways, they carried on 

their life of wild pillage, kidnapping travel- 
ers, in order to obtain ransom, and plunder- 
ing the freight wagons of the commercial 

cities. The} r defied the laws and the courts 

with their strong arms and their strong walls. 

The Fehmgericht, as it was called, was a 

wretched make-shift against the violence of 

these insolent knights. This tribunal had 

its principal seat in Westphalia, under the 

conduct of the Arch-bishop of Cologne, who 

sought to alarm transgressors by the fear of 

a secret justice and a blood}- revenge. Even 

the powerful Hansa, the great league of Bal- 
tic cities and the union of the* cities of the 

Rhine, were hardly able to protect their mem- EQUESTRIAN STATUE ofrotolph of hapsburg. 

bers. And yet the cities were the only (Facade of Strasburg Minuter, 1291 A. D.) 

points of light in this dark period. 

They stood for the development of a national society, and preserved the faith in 
22 




338 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



cnromunal life. But the lot of the peasant was terrible. Village and barn were often 
burned down and harvests destroyed in the quarrels of the barons. The chase and the 
wild animals were alike destructive to their fields; the demands for their labor were 
endless. The law gave them neither rights nor protection, and they were exposed to 
most cruel and disgraceful outrages. 

2. The Power op the Hapsburgs and the League op the Forest Cantons. 

§ 251. During the interregnum, many nobles and bishops acquired sovereign 
rights, and not a few, imperial estates. These they desired to preserve, and hence 
they did their utmost to prevent the election of a prince, strong in land and people, to 
the imperial throne. Yet they needed at the same time a powerful man to put an end 
to lawlessness, and to break the superiority of King Ottocar, of Bohemia, Moravia, 

and Austria. All these properties were to 
jtHiiotph be found in Rudolph of Haps- 
of H€ipshnrg, burg; and Archbishop Wer- 
1213-1201. ner, of Mayence, succeeded 
in making him emperor. His estates in 
Alsace, and in Switzerland were large, but so 
separated from each other, that the electoral 
princes did not think Rudolph dangerous 
because of his possessions. His bravery, 
strength, and sagacity, were well-known, 
while his piety and inclination for the church 
and the clergy, made his choice especially 
grateful to the Pope. When, therefore, 
Rudolph had secured to the Pope and to the 
German princes their territories, and acquired 
rights, his election was universally acknowl- 
edged, and Alfonso, of Castile, induced to ab- 
dicate. Only Ottocar refused his allegiance, 
and to appear at the appointed diet. Rudolph 
declared war against him, and with the assistance of his own people and the German 
i2zs. princes, won the glorious victory at Marshfeld. Ottocar was killed. 

Austria, Steyermark, and Krain were given to Rudolph's sons, and the foundations 
laid for the Austrian house of Hapsburg. 

§ 252. Rudolph avoided every interference in the affairs of T^aly, and gave his 
entire strength to Germany. Series of campaigns enabled him to win back many of the 
fiefs, states, rights, and incomes, that had been taken from the empire. But his great- 
est achievement was the establishment of peace, and of social order. He traveled 
throughout the kingdom, and called the robber nobles to his judgment seat. In 
Thuringia alone, he hung twenty-nine of the knights, and destroyed sixty-six castles. 
In Franconia, and along the Rhine, he subdued seventy strongholds in a single year. 
1201. In one of these expeditions the aged monarch died, respected for his 

simplicity, virtue, and uprightness, for his intelligence, his impartial justice, and his 
deeds of war. 

§ 253. The princes now chose Adolph of Nassau to be emperor, partly because 




FAMILY OF GERMAN KNIGHT. 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 339 

Adotph of they feared the increasing power of the Hapsburgs, and partly because 
xassan, they hated Albrecht, Rudolph's cruel and greedy son. But Adolph, 
lnon-mos. like Rudolph, sought to increase his little territory, and used the 
money which he had received from the King of England to purchase Thuringia and 
Meissen. This involved him in a war with " Frederick of the bitten cheek." The 
Rhenish princes were angry at the emperor, because he had taken from them the river 
tolls, and they, in connection with Frederick and his friends, deposed Adolph, and put 
mas. Albrecht of Austria in his place. Adolph was slain in battle, but 

Albrecht continued the unrighteous war against Thuringia. He was an energetic but 
a cruel man, and incredibly obstinate. In his greed he soon provoked a war with the 
Rhenish princes who had made him emperor, and carried destruction into the regions 
along the Rhine and Neckar. He was finally murdered by his own nephew, John of 
i3os. Swabia, whom he had deprived of his paternal inheritance. John expi- 

ated his crime as a monk, but the Emperor's wife and daughter took fearful revenge 
upon all who belonged to the participants in the murder. 

§ 254. Albrecht's cruelty led to the foundation of the Swiss league. Switzer- 
Aibrecnt of land was a part of the empire and was governed by imperial officers. 
Austria, The rich and powerful dukes of Zaehringen, the founders of Berne 
129S-1308. and other cities, were originally chosen for this work. But this house 
mis. dying out, the counts of Savoy governed the southern portion, and the 

Hapsburgs the north of Switzerland. This gave them control of the four forest can- 
tons. When the Hapsburgs came to the imperial throne, they tried to make these 
part of Austria. Albrecht permitted his governors to use the imperial authority, so as 
to oppress the simple but courageous liberty-loving mountaineers. Three of the Can- 
1307. tons, Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, thereupon formed a league, stormed 

the castles, and drove out the governors. Albrecht's death saved them from his 
wrath. But his son Leopold, took up his father's plan. He marched an army into 
i3is. Switzerland, but suffered a terrible defeat at Morgarten. Lucerne 

then joined the league, which afterward included Berne, Zurich, Zug and other can- 
i3se. tons. In the battle of Sempach, the men of the league, in their fight 

with the Austrians, proved themselves worthy of their liberty. 

3. Philip the Fair, of France, and the Emperor Ludwig, of Bavaria. 

§ 255. In Boniface the Eighth, the papacy reached its highest splendor, but in him 
also it came to a fall. In a war between Philip the Fair, of France, and Edward I., of 
England, he offered himself as arbitrator. Philip refused, and demanded tribute of the 
clergy. The Pope thereupon forbade the priesthood to pay this tribute. Philip now 
prohibited every export of silver and gold from his kingdom. This cut off the papal 

1302. revenues. Boniface now declared every one a heretic who refused to 
believe that the king was subject to the pope, in both spiritual and temporal things. 
Philip on the other hand solemnly proclaimed, through the states general, that his 
kingdom was independent. He was therefore excommunicated, and France was placed 
under an interdict. The King sent to Italy to hire soldiers, and made an alliance with 
the family Colonna, and other discontented noblemen, who attacked the Pope and took 
him prisoner. The peasants, however, hurried to his relief, but the shame was too 

1303. much for the proud and passionate man, and he became insane. The 



340 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



French party now succeeded in getting the new Pope, Clement V., to take up his resi- 
des, dence at Avignon, in Southern France, thus bringing the papacy under 




colonna and pope st. bonipace. (A. de NeuviUe.) 

the influence of the French court. This is known as the Babylonian captivity, and 
lasted seventy years. 

§ 256. The Knights Templar were now abolished. Rumors of blasphemous prao 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



341 



tices, secret crimes and infidelity on the part of the Order, gave Philip a pretext for 

imprisoning the Templars, and confiscating their wealth. A six years' trial, marked 

by dreadful tortures, extorted from the prisoners confessions that appeared to prove 

1310. their guilt; and when fifty -four of them retracted these confessions, 

they were condemned to be burned. The Grand Master, Jacob of Molay, protested in 

i3i3. vain against such proceedings, and offered to disprove all charges ; but 

he also died at the stake, summoning in his last breath, pope and king before a higher 

131^. judgment seat. The people reverenced him as a "martyr, and looked 

upon the speedy death of king and pope, as a judgment of God. The French king 

took for himself the lion's share of the Templars' treasures, but some were given to . 

the Knights of St. John, and some to the princes of the land. Thus fell the temple 

which was to reconquer the Holy Sepulcher. 

§ 257. While this was happening in France, Germany was ruled by Henry VII., 

Henry vii., of Luxemburg. Henry took 
130S-1313. measures at once for the 
maintenance of order, and united Bohemia 
to his other possessions. He then turned to 
the long forgotten, discordant Italy, and 
undertook a march to Rome. His arrival 
was greeted with delight by the oppressed 
Ghibellines, and the great poet, Dante, of 
Florence, celebrated his appearance by a 
Latin treatise upon monarchy, and by songs, 
which were soon in every mouth. Henry re- 
ceived the Lombard crown, exacted tribute 
from the cities of upper Italy, and was wel- 
comed to the city of Pisa. But the Guelphs, 
Florence, and the King of Naples at their 
head, rose up against him, and he was com- 
pelled to fight for his coronation at Rome. 
He marched against Florence, but he died 

,■■■,-,, \ i3i3. suddenly, not far from the 

duke, page and nobleman.. {XlVtli Century.) J 

Arno, in the bloom of his manhood. .The 

joy of the Guelphs gave strength to the suspicion that he had been poisoned by a 

Dominican monk, from whose hands he had just taken the sacrament. His death 

broke the last bonds between the states and cities of Italy, and pillage and war raged 

•every where. But, strange to say, commerce, industry, science, art, and poetry 

flourished splendidly. 

§ 258. The seven electoral princes of Germany were now divided in their choice 

iiuiivia of an emperor, some choosing Ludwig of Bavaria, others Frederick of 

Austria. This led to an eight years' war. Ludwig was successful, in 

spite of the strength of the Austrian party. The Swiss victory at 

Morgarten weakened the Austrian forces, but at the battle of Miiehl- 

dorf, Frederick was beaten and taken prisoner. He would not give 

up the fight, or rather his brother Leopold, sought the support of Pope John XXII., 

who placed Ludwig under ban and interdict. Ludwig now released Frederick upon 




of Bavaria, 



1313-13-1?. 



1315. 
1333. 



342 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



«3*s. condition that lie would abdicate, and prevail upon his party to make 

peace. Neither Pope nor Leopold would consent, and Frederick, true to his word, re- 
turned to his captor. Ludwig was so touched by this conduct, that he would have 
shared the empire with Frederick, if the electoral princes had been willing. Leopold 
of Austria died soon afterward, but the Pope refused to be reconciled with Ludwig, 

i32o. whereupon the 

latter appointed' Frederick 
his viceroy, and started with 
an army for Italy. 

§ 259. In Italy he was 
at first successful. The 
Ghibellines and the Francis- 
can monks supported him, 
and an anti-pope was chosen. 
But when he sought money 
from the Italian cities to sat- 
isfy his troops, their enthusi- 
asm waned. The death of 
Frederick obliged him to re- 
t33o. turn to Ger- 

many, and the papal triumph 
was complete. The Ghibelline 
nobles sought a reconciliation 
with Pope John, and the anti- 
pope withdrew. John of 
Bohemia, the restless son of 
Henry VII., tried selfishly 
but unsuccessfully to mediate 
the quarrel. But John XXII. 
and his successor, Benedict 
133^. XII., refused 

all attempts at mediation, and 
the German princes finally 
declared that for the future, 
every election of a monarch 
should be valid without pa- 
pal confirmation. They de- 
i33s. posed and pun- 

ished the clergymen who 
obeyed the interdict. The 
manifest influence of the 
French court, and the greed 
of the Pope and the cardinals in Avignon, diminished the authority of the papal see. 
But Ludwig, also soon lost the confidence of the German princes, by his unjust and 
violent measures, seeking as he did to acquire Tyrol and Brandenburg, and to bend 
spiritual and temporal law to suit his will. This led to the choice of a rival emperor, 




the golden Prague. ( City Hall with Clock Toiver.) 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 343 

i3jo. but the most of the German people, especially the imperial cities stood 

by Ludwig, and the new emperor Karl IV., was not acknowledged until both Ludwig 

i3jj. died, and his successor was chosen by the Bavarian party. During 

all these troubles, lawlessness afflicted every city and district in Germany. Each must 
help himself as best he could. At the same time the empire was visited by earth- 
quake, famine, and the black death. When finally the pestilence died out, the world 
took fresh courage ; men made for themselves new garments and sang new songs. 

4. The Luxemburg Empeeoes. 

§ 260. Karl IV, was a sagacious prince who thought more of money and terri- 
Raii iv., tory, than of glory and renown. The princes and cities of Italy were 
i34*-i3?s. therefore able to purchase from him the imperial rights, and he accepted 
a crown from the Pope, with the condition that he would remain in Rome but a single 
day. The struggle between Guelphs and 
Ghibellines now ceased, but the princes and 
free cities quarrelled with each other about 
territory, and began to employ mercenary 
soldiers, whose enterprising leaders, (Condot- 
tieri), frequently had the fate of peoples in 
their hand. In Germany, Karl's efforts were f; 
directed principally to satisfying his greed for : 
land. He sold privileges and franchises to the 
imperial cities ; he sold patents of nobility for 
money ; he incorporated Brandenburg and other 
lands into his possessions. In Bohemia, how- 
ever, his activity was beneficent. He invited 
thither, artists and artisans from Italy and 
i3js. Germany ; he built towns and 

cities, he furthered agriculture and industry, 
laid out streets and erected bridges, drained the 
marshes, and cleared the forests. He erected 
the first German university at Prague ; for eberhaed ir. 

this he obtained the consent of the Pope and the co-operation of the Italian poet 
Petrarch. The university soon counted .from five to seven thousand students. Karl 
1356. IV., was the author of the golden bull, which made the choice of em- 

peror the work of seven electoral princes. These were the three archbishops of May- 
ence, Treves, and Cologne, the count Palatine of the Rhine, and the princes of Sax- 
ony, Brandenburg, and Bohemia. 

§ 261. But the imperial authority was almost gone. The ordinances of the empire 
wencesia*, were disregarded ; might made right ; each must rely upon himself, or 
i37s-i4oo. upon such allies as he could obtain. Under Wenceslas, Karl's son and 
successor, the confusion grew even worse. The king tried to protect the weak, but 
soon fell a victim to his own passions, and to the difficulties of his time, and became 
a rude and angry drunkard. While the king thus abandoned himself in Bohemia to 
the chase, and to his riotous companions, and made himself hated by his cruelty and 
his tyranny, the German empire was abandoned to distress. The cities in Swabia, in 




344 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Frauconia, and on the Rhine, formed the league of Swabian cities, for the maintain- 
ance of order and defence against the robber knights. The knights imitated their ex- 
ample, and made leagues with each other. These leagues fought incessantty, until the 
i3ss. murder of the archbishop of Salzburg, by a Bavarian duke, brought 

on the war of cities, which nearly ruined southern Germany. In Bavaria the citizens 
were victorious ; in Franconia their bravery enabled them to hold their enemies in 
check ; but in Swabia the nobles were triumphant. The Swiss league fought victori- 
ously at the same time against Leopold of Austria, and his nobles. And in the battle 
i3se. of Sempach, where the brave Arnold of Winkelried made " a path for 

liberty " through the ranks of the enemy, by seizing their spears and burying them in 
his breast, the proud Austrian Duke with six hundred and fifty-six of his knights, fell 
beneath the blows of the Swiss freemen. 

§262. Finally the nobles determined to depose Wenceslas. He had not brought 

peace to the church ; he had sold the title of 
Duke to the rich and able Visconti, in 
Milan ; he had not established the peace of 
the realm, and had ruled cruelly and tyranni- 
iiui„<,i,t, cally in Bohemia. Ruprecht, 
i4oo-t4io. of the Palatinate, grandson 
of the founder of the University of Heidel- 
berg, (1386) was chosen king. But in spite 
of many good qualities, Ruprecht was un- 
equal to the emergency. A number of cities 
and princes of South Germany formed a 
league, " against every one whosoever should 
venture to injure any one of them in his 
privileges, rights, or possessions." This was 
an open defiance of the royal authority. 
Ruprecht fared no better in Lombardy. 
When he tried to restore Milan to the empire, 
he was defeated by the Italian mercenaries. 
The peace of the church was restored with 
sigismmut, great difficulty by his suc- 
nto-n3-i. cessor, Sigismund. He was 
supported earnestly by Frederick of Hohenzollern, Count of Niirnburg. As a reward 
for his great services, Sigismund made Frederick the ruler of the Mark Brandenburg, 
iaii. gave him the land in fief and the electoral dignity. This was the 

foundation of the Prussian monarchy. 




KNIGHT IN FULL ARMOR AND LADY. 

(Middle of XVth Century.) 



5. The Church Schism and the Councils. 

§ 263. For a long time, there had been a clamor for the return of the Pope from 
Avignon to Rome. But the French cardinals, who felt more at home in southern 
France than amid the dissensions and bloody struggles of Itaky, brought to nought 
every plan looking to that end. Finally two parties were formed among the cardin- 
als, whicli resulted in two popes, one at Avignon, and one at Rome. Each declared 
1378. himself the only true head of the church, and each excommunicated 




O 






i 



p 

3 
w 

2 

h-l 

p 

P 

o 
z 
« 
< 



E-< 

< 

o 



o 
a 



346 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



the other and his adherents. The Church of the West was rent in twain, and the con- 
sciences of the people 
confused. Men asked 
for bread, and the de- 
generate church gave a 
i-too. stone. 

The church council of 
Pisa deposed both popes, 
and chose a third, but 
the two first insisted 
upon their rights, and 
now the church was in 
three pieces. Universal 
bitterness filled the 
Christian Avorld, and 
men clamored for a re- 
form of the church in 
its head and members. - 
The conservative party, 
especially the learned 
theologians of Paris, 
hoped to bring about 
this reform by calling a 
general council, but the 
scholars and adherents 
of the Oxford professor, 

John Wyclif, J O h 11 

f 1384. Wyclif, 

urged a complete change 
in the creed and consti- 
tution of the church. 
Wyclif declared the 
papacy to be an unchris- 
tian institution, and 
zealously attacked abso- 
lution, monastic life, 
and the worship of the 
saints. He translated 
the Bible into English, 
and rejected auricular 
confession, celibacy, and 
the doctrine of tran sub- 
stantiation. His most 
important disciple was 
John Huss, professor in 
Prague, a man of distinguished learning, pure life, and Christian humility. Huss 




THE MIDDLE AGE. 



847 



preached against the abuses of the papacy, against the wealth and temporal power of 
the clergy, against monasticism and absolution. He was excommunicated by the 
Pope and his writings were condemned, yet his disciples increased daily, among them 
a Bohemian nobleman, Jerome of Prague. The German students at the University 
opposed this innovation, and losing their privileges, in consequence, five thousand stu- 
uoo. dents and professors left Prague and founded the University of Leipzig. 

§ 264. Finally a church council was called at Constance. The city was filled 
i4ki4t-i4,is, with bishops and princes from all countries, the Pope and the Em- 
peror at their head, and 150,000 persons in all are said to have been present. The 
unity and reform of the Church was the aim of this assembly, and the council de- 




JOHN ZTSKA IN BATTLE. 



clared, at the beginning, that its power came from Christ, and that all must obey. 
The three popes were urged to abdicate. John XXIII., in order to escape this humiliation,. 

ins. disguised himself and fled ; hereupon the council declared itself su- 

perior to the pope, deposed the fugitive John, and united with the Emperor to punish 
the disobedient. One of the two remaining popes abdicated, and the other was dis- 
possessed, after long and fruitless negotiations. But the efforts of the Germans and 
of the Englishmen to reform the church, before electing a new pope, were baffled \>y 
the French and Italians. They managed to get Martin V. elected to the papal chair. 

1*17. Martin was a moderate man, quite willing to abolish certain abuses, 

and to satisfy certain princes, if thereby the cry for a reformation could be stifled. 



348 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




CITIZEN AND PEASANTS. 



John Huss had also been summoned to this council. Provided with a safe conduct, 
Huss repaired to Constance, but was immediately arrested and accused of heresy. 
The pale slender man, whose soul of fire seemed to consume his body, defended him- 
self with dignity and enthusiasm, but his 
judges were his enemies; his friends appealed 
i4i5. in vain to the imperial safe 

conduct. The council would keep no faith 
with heretics, and demanded unconditional 
retraction. The Bohemian reformer refused 
to retract, and suffered death with the forti- 
tude of a martyr. Jerome of Prague was 
i4i6. burned at the stake a year 

afterward. " No sage," wrote iEneas Silvius, 
" has shown more courage on his death bed, 
than these Bohemians at the stake." 

§ 265. But these cruelties drove the 
Hussites to a terrible war. The cup which 
was refused them in the sacrament, was 
chosen for their standard (hence the war was 
called the war of Utraquists.) Thej 7 exacted 
a terrible revenge of the priests and the 
monks, who refused it to them. The Pope 
{15th Century.) eX communicated them, but they stormed 
i4,i». the state-house at Prague, and murdered the city counsellors ; and 

when Sigismund became king of Bohemia, the whole nation took arms to hinder his 
taking possession of the land. John Ziska, a man of great skill in war and great elo- 
quence 



became their 
leader. The Hussites 
defeated three imperial 
1422. armies ; 

they burned the Bohe- 
mian churches and clois- 
ters. Ziska became 
blind, but still led his 
soldiers to victory, and 
was the terror of his 
enemies. After his 
death, his followers 
divided. The radicals 
continued the Holy 
War, devastated Sax- 
siege of Constantinople. ony, and levied tribute 

1424. upon Brandenburg and Bavaria. Finally peace was made, but 

i42e-i43o. Bohemia was utterly ruined. A small party, dissatisfied with the 
concessions made to. the Catholics in the peace, separated from the other Hussites, and 
formed the Moravian brotherhood, a sect poor, peaceful, but bravely true to the Bible. 




THE MIDDLE AGE. 



349 



§ 266. The Council of Basel was called by Eugene IV. This pope hesitated for 
council of Basel, a long time, then finally consented to resume the work of reform. 
i-tia-14-to. But the conferences at this council soon began to threaten the papal 
power. The assembly being composed largely of the inferior clergy, they dimin- 
ished the revenues which the Roman see was drawing from the churches, and limited 
the power of the pope in appointing bishops and other dignitaries. Pope Eugene 
became so anxious, that he removed the council to Ferrara and thence to Florence. 
Many, however, remained in Basel, and these chose another Pope, Felix V., declaring, 




ALBRECHT ACHILLES FIGHTING THE SWABIANS. 



like the council of Constance, that they were higher than the pope. Eugene, encour- 
aged by the people and the princes, who feared another Schism, excommunicated the 
disobedient members of the council, and rejected their edicts. To overcome the re- 
sistance of the Germans, he won to his side the private secretary of the Emperor 
Frederick III. This able man, tineas Silvius, induced the weak emperor to consent to 
i4js. a concordat, that left the church in the old state, and perpetuated 

the abuses and the exactions of former times. Finally the council acknowledged 
Eugene's successor, Nicholas V., as the rightful Pope, and then dissolved. 

6, Germany under Frederick II., and Maximilian I. 

§ 267. The Luxemburg family expired with Sigismund. His son-in-law, Al- 



359 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Albreeht JT., 
1437-1430. 




m$. 


S*t-S 


^-SSS 


ALBEHT 


III 



breeht II., of Austria, obtained the imperial crown, which henceforth 
remained in the House of Hapsburg. Albert's energy was taken up 

entirely with Bohemia and Hungary. His 
Frederick in., nephew, Frederick III., was 
1440-1493. his successor ; a prince with- 
out princely qualities, who met the many 
misfortunes of his long reign with obtuse 
indifference. The Turks conquered Con- 
stantinople, and ravaged the Austrian fron- 
tiers; Hungary and Bohemia chose kings of 
1453. their own ; Charles the Bold, 

of Burgundy, extended his kingdom to the 
Rhine ; Milan and Lombardy were separated 
from the German empire ; the German princes 
ruled independently, and carried on their 
feuds without interference. In Bavaria, 
Duke Ernest of Munich, drowned his 
daughter-in-law Agnes of Augsburg, in the 
Danube ; in Swabia, 200 villages and towns 
were reduced to ashes ; Saxony and Thuringia 
i44o. were devastated by a five 

years' war ; the regions of the Rhine and the 
Neckar were ravaged by the quarrels of princes. In short, Germany was everywhere 
a scene of confusion and of bloody quarrels. 

§ 268. This condition produced at last a wish for a better constitution of *he 
empire. The princes however would make 
no sacrifices of their pretended rights. They 
dreaded any increase of imperial authority. 
But Berthold of Mayence, the patriotic arch- 
bishop, succeeded in bringing about an un- 
Maximiiian i., derstanding between Maxi- 
1493-isia. milian, and the princes and 
the representatives of the free cities. At 
1495. the Diet of Worms it was 

agreed to proclaim a peace, and to prohibit, 
by severe punishment, every private resort to 
arms. The empire was divided into ten dis- 
tricts, in each of which a court of justice 
was established. A tax was decreed for the 
support of the empire and of the army. Yet 
these reforms really increased the power of 
the princes, so that they could manage their 
states as unlimited rulers. The Swiss league 
refused to acknowledge the imperial courts, 
1499. and to furnish soldiers for the 




KNIGHT IN FULL ARMOR AND LADY. 

{Early 16th Century.) 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



351 



imperial army. And when Maximilian attacked them, he was defeated by them and 
compelled to acknowledge the independence of Switzerland. 

§ 269. Maximilian marks the transition from the Middle Age to the Modern Era. 
He was a mighty hunter, a brave warrior, and a gallant knight. His romantic inar- 
riage with Mary of Burgundy, his wars in the Netherlands and in Italy, wear a 
mediaeval character. But Italy was already astir with the beginnings of a finer state- 
craft and a marvelous intercourse of nations, and alive with the signs of discovery and 
of invention that heralded a new epoch. 




VI. HISTORY OF THE OTHER EUROPEAN STATES IN THE MIDDLE 

AGES. 

1. FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. (987-1328.) 
§ 270. 

HE first successors of Hugh Capet possessed little power and terri- 
tory. The dukes, counts, and barons, of the provinces, regarded 
the king as their equal, and conceded to him the first rank, so 
far only as they acknowledged him to be their feudal lord. These 
feudal rights of the king, the noblemen were obliged to support ; 
otherwise their own subjects might become disloyal. The posses- 
sions of the great vassals were for the most part independent estates, and were no 
closer to the French crown than the western lands on the Seine, the Loire, and Ga- 
ronne, that belonged to the English kings, and the eastern lands on the Rhone and the 
Jura, that belonged to the German empire. The Capetians sought of course to increase 
the royal authority, and in their efforts were both fortunate and sagacious. Fortunate 
because most of their line were so long lived that almost always a grown-up son suc- 
ceeded to his father ; sagacious, because the first kings made their eldest sons co- 
regents, so that when the father died, the government underwent no 
change. The most important of the French kings were Louis VII., 
who undertook the second Crusade ; Philip Augustus, who took Nor- 
mandy from the English king John ; and Louis VIII., who increased 
his territory in the south by the war against the Albigenses. But the 
government of St. Louis and of Philip the Fair had most influence 
upon the fortunes of France. The former improved the administra- 
tion of justice, and brought about the acknowledgment of the royal 
courts as the highest in the laud. The latter improved the government of the cities, 
Philip ie Bei, giving to the citizens many rights and privileges, and calling represen- 
tatives from the cities into the states-general. As the cities increased 
in power, they needed more and more the protection of the kings 
against the landed nobilitj', and were more and more ready to pay lib- 
erally for this protection. The cities voted always with the king in 
the states general. The clergy also stood as a rule with the crown, and gave gener- 
pmirp v., ously from time to time to defray the royal expenses. At the same 
i3ie-i322. time they sought to protect the ancient freedom of the Gallican 



I. o it is VII., 
1131-11SO. 

Philip II., 
11SO-1223. 
Xiouis Till., 
1223-1S2G. 
IiOitis IX., 
123G-1270. 



(the Fair,) 

1285-131-1. 

Louis X., 

1314-131G. 



352 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



church against the attacks of the Roman pontiff. The breath of modern history in- 
chariesiv., forms the whole policy of Philip the Fair. After the death of his 
i32g-i32s. three sons the French throne passed to the house of Valois. 



line, 
paid 
this, 
were 



5. France under the Valois. (1328-1539.) 

§ 271. Philip VI. of Valois inherited the French throne, but Edward III. of 

England asserted his 
claim as the son of 
a daughter of Philip 
jp/i«7y> vx., the 
i3ss-i3so. Fair. 
He assumed the title 
of King of France, 
and made war upon 
Philip. The Salic 
law forbade inherit- 
ance by a female 
but Edward 
no regard to 
The English 
victorious at 
a-ecy 13-to. Crecy, 
and Calais fell into 
their hands. Philip 
died very soon after 
this, and his son, John 

John the Oooil, the 
13SO-136J. Good, 

came to the contested 
throne. Eager to 
wipe out the memory 
of Crecy, he attacked 
the English army, 
which was command- 
ed by the Black 
Prince, Edward's 
heroic son. But John 
was defeated at Poi- 
tiers, and carried a 
prisoner to Loudon. 
During his absence, 
battle of bouvines. (Vierge.) Charles, the Dauphin, 

Poitiers, i3so. conducted the government. The citizens of Paris, enraged at the op- 
pressive taxes, and the insolence of the nobility, rebelled under the leadership of 
Marcel. Some of the Dauphin's council were murdered in the palace, and the city fell 
into the hands of the insurgents. The uproar spread rapidly, and a peasant war ensued. 





battle of crecy. (A. de Neuville.) 



{pp. 353. ) 



354 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



i3ss. Great devastation followed, and many deeds of violence, until the 

citizens and the peasants were conquered by the French nobility. Marcel fell in a 
street fight in Paris, and his adherents suffered cruel punishment. After the rebellion 

i3eo. had been put down, France and England agreed upon a treat} r , in 

which Calais and southwest France were given to England, and a large ransom paid 
for John. Edward III. abandoned his claims to the French throne. But the ransom 




EBNVABB, THE BLACK PRi NCE 




ia«4. money could not be collected, so John returned voluntarily to his 

captivity, and died in London. 

§ 272. John's son, Charles V.. healed the wounds of the country. His rule was 
chmies v., mild and gentle ; he quieted the angry feeling of the people by his 
(tne wise) sagacity, his bravery, and his justice. He won back from the English 
i:t»i-i:tso. all their conquests except Calais. But his feeble-minded successor, 




CAPTURE OF KING JOHN AT MAUPERTAIS. (A. de Neuville.) 

(pp.855.) 



356 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



1377. Charles VI., brought France once more to confusion. Two powerful! 

diaries vi., parties confronted each other at court, headed respectively by the Duke 
13SO-U23. of Burgundy and the Duke of Orleans. Each struggled for the regency, 
while the citizens every where rebelled against oppressive taxation, and demanded an ex- 
tension of their rights. This was a period of popular uprisings everywhere. In Ger- 
many, the cities were fighting against the nobility ; in Switzerland, the freemen against 
their lords ; in England, the people under Wat Tyler and other leaders, had risen up 

i38g. against the King, while in Flanders, citizen and peasant were attacking 

nobility and court. But a lack of unity among the insurgents deprived them of the 
victory, and the uprising was followed by a diminution of popular privilege. The 
part3 r of the Duke of Burgundy favored the people, but that of Orleans stood by the 
nobility. 

§ 273. Henry V., of England, took advantage of these circumstances to renew 
the war against France. He demanded 
back the former possessions, and when these 

his. were refused him, he marched 

by Calais into France, and defeated the 
French army at Agincourt. The French 
army was four times as large as the English, 
yet it was utterly destroyed or captured. 
The way to Paris lay open to the victory. 
Party-rage was at its highest point. Popu- 
lar uprisings, and deeds of violence were 
the order of the day. The Burgundians, who 
were in alliance with Queen Isabella, pro- 
i4io. voked an insurrection, in which 
Count Armagnac, the head of the Orleans 
party, and many of his followers were put 
to death. In revenge, John of Burgundy 
was murdered by the friends of the slaugh- 
tered count. This induced his son, Philip 
the Good, and the Queen to ally them- 
selves with Henry V., of England. Isabella 
gave him her daughter in marriage, and 
secured to him and his posterity the French 
throne. In a short time the whole of northern France was in the hands of the Eng- 

1122. lish ; but in the midst of his triumph Henry died. In the same year 

Charles VI. ended his life of insanity, and his son, Charles VII., came to the throne. 
But this made little change in the situation. The English and their French support- 
ers, declared the infant king, Henry VI., the lawful ruler of France, and under the 
leadership of the king's uncle, the Duke of Bedford, besieged Orleans. 

§ 274. It was in this crisis, that the Maid of Orleans, a young girl of Don Remy 

ciiaries vii., in Lorraine, came to the rescue of her country. She believed that 

i422-nie. she had been called by a heavenly vision to restore the courage of the 

i42o. King, and of his soldiers. Clad in steel, with a helmet upon her head, 

and swinging the banner of the Holy Virgin before her, she marched at the head of" 




FtlENCH LADY AND GENTLEMAN. 

{Middle of Hth Century.) 




joan of arc, wounded at Orleans. (A. de Nevville,.') (pp- 357.) 



358 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



the army, and with her inspired exhortations, awakened "the religion of monarchy" in 
the masses of the people. The city of Orleans was saved ; Charles VII. was crowned 
at Rheims; and the English were deprived of most of their conquests. The belief in 
her heavenly mission gave the French courage and self-reliance, but created among 




cathedral at rheims. (Built by Robert Coucy 13th Century.) 

their enemies fear and hesitation. This continued until Joan of Arc fell into the 

zj/3. hands of her enemies. She was arraigned before an ecclesiastical 

court in Rouen, condemned for blasphemy and witchcraft, and burned at the stake. 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



359 



Louis XII., 



l-tOS-1515. 



Has. But the English lost one province after the other, and when at last 

Philip of Burgundy was reconciled to the French king, Calais was their only posses- 
Mae, sion on French soil. Paris opened her gates and received Charles 
with rejoicing. This weak king, who was governed by women and favorites, ruled 
France for twenty-five years, and his reign was one of peace. He was followed by 
Louis xi., Louis XI., a cruel cunning statesman, who acquired absolute authority 
i4ei-i4:S3. by his tyranny and his treachery, and greatly enlarged his kingdom. 
He deprived the nobility of their great privileges, united gradually all the great fiefs 
to the crown, and then, with the help of the Swiss, overthrew Charles the Bold, and 

took possession of Burgundy. Distress 
and fear followed him to his lonesome cas- 
tle, where he lived the last years of his 
diaries via., life. Charles VIII., and 
14S3-U9S. Louis XII. acquired Brit- 
tany, but wasted the strength of their land 
in expeditions to Italy. The beautiful 
country of the Apennines was a "sepul- 
chre " for the French, as it had been for 
the Germans. But during the reign of 
the popular king Louis 
XII., great progress was 
made in civic freedom, social order, and the 
establishment of legal rights. 

2. England. 

§ 275. Henry II., of Anjou, the great- 
Heni-u a., grandson of William the 
liB^-iiso. Conqueror, was the first of 
the Plantagenets on the English throne. 
This family had great possessions on the 
Loire and the Garonne, and as Normandy 
belonged also to England, the whole west 
of France was in the power of these Ange- 
vin kings. This produced many conflicts, 
monument to joan of arc in rouen. as the kin g s of France asserted feudal rights 

(Erected on the spot on which she was burned.) over tllese territories which the English 

kings would not concede. Henry II. was 
a powerful and intelligent ruler, of violent disposition, but of great talents. He de- 
voted himself especially to the improvement of the law and of courts of justice. His 
tie*. " Constitutions of Clarendon " were intended to limit the power of 

ecclesiastical courts, and to compel the clergy to submit to the royal authority in tem- 
poral affairs, without an appeal to the pope. But Thomas a Becket, the archbishop 
of Canterbury, rejected the articles of Clarendon, and deposed all clergymen who sub- 
mitted to them ; and when he was threatened with judicial proceedings, he appealed 
to Rome and fled to France. He remained several years in a cloister of Burgundy, 
whence he excommunicated the adherents of the King. Pope Alexander III., however, 




360 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



nae. brought about a reconciliation, but Thomas had hardly returned to 

Canterbury, when he proceeded with his old severity against the clergy, who had ac- 
cepted the constitutions of Clarendon. This provoked the King to say, " Who will 
rid me of this proud priest ? " Four of his faithful knights stole away secretly from 
his camp, hastened to Englaud, and murdered the Archbishop at the steps of the high 
altar. This pollution of the church, with the blood of a murdered bishop, created 
into. universal horror, and gave the papacy complete victory in England. 

The murderers were punished, the 
constitutions of Clarendon abo- 
lished, and Thomas a Becket canon- 
ized as a saint. Thousands of pil- 
grims journeyed to Canterbury, 
in*. and the king, some 

years afterward, knelt at the grave 
of the martyr, and bared his back 
to the scourges of the pious monks. 

§ 276. Richard Lion -heart and 

jtiehara i., John Lackland sur- 

1199-H90. vived their father. 
jo/i.i, The first, though 

iioo-i2ie. distinguished for 
his bravery and knightly achieve- 
ments, brought no happiness to 
England, and John was defeated 
in all his undertakings and con- 
flicts. His nephew Arthur, he 
ordered to be put to death in prison, 
whereupon Philip Augustus of 
France, as his liege lord, summoned 
him to a court of peers. John 
refused to appear, whereupon the 
1203. French king seized 

Normandy, and the family lands 
of the Plantagenets, on the Loire 
and the Garonne. When he quar- 
reled with the Pope as to who 
should be archbishop of Canter- 
bury, England was laid under an 
interdict : his subjects were re- 
leased from their allegiance, and 




JOHN SWEARS VENGEANCE AGAINST THE BARONS. 

(A. de Neuville.) 



the king of France was urged by the Pope to 
the conquest of England. John thereupon stooped so low as to present the crown of 
England to the Pope, and to take it back from the hands of the legate of Innocent 
III. as a papal fief, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of a thousand marks. Innocent 
thereupon relieved him of the interdict, and forbade the expedition of the French 
king. The English people were outraged at this conduct of the King's, and at his 
mi*. defeat at Bovines, brought about largely by his cowardice. They 




THE MURDER OF ST. THOMAS A BECKET. 



(pp. 361.) 



362 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



hated him too for his arbitrary conduct, and his unscrupulous cruelty. They rcse 
against him, therefore, and compelled him to sign his name to the Magna Charta, which 
i9i5. is the foundation of the English Constitution. This charter secured to 

the clergy the right to elect their bishops, to the nobility relief from feudal obliga- 
tions, and to the freemen of the cities protection against oppressive taxes, delays of 
Hem-y in., justice, and arbitrary imprisonment. Henry III. reigned for many years, 
i2ia-i2m. and though the condition of the realm during the half century of his 
rule was deplorable, it greatly furthered the progress of constitutional liberty. His 
lavish rewards to his favorites, the extortions of the papal legates, and the Italian 
clergy, so injured the prosperity of the land, that nobility and people rose in re- 
bellion. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, was the leader of this rebellion. He 
imprisoned the King and the royal family, until the evils were partly removed and new 
privileges secured. Westminster Abbey was built during the reign of Henry, who 
was a lover of the fine arts, and furthered architecture and many forms of industry. 

§ 277. Edward I. succeeded to his father 
jEiitvai-a i. Henry III. His reign is memor- 
1272.-130?. able for a series of bloody wars. 
12S3. He annexed Wales to his king- 

dom, and introduced into it the English consti- 
j| tution and civil law, and gave the title of Prince 
of Wales to the heir of the English throne. 
Another war took place in Scotland, where 
Robert Bruce and John Baliol contended for 
the Scottish crown. Edward, who was chosen 
arbitrator, decided in favor of Baliol, who was 
ready to call himself a vassal of the English 
king. This provoked the Scotch to arms. 
Under the lead of William Wallace they 
marched against the English; the low lands of 
Scotland ran red with the blood of heroes. 
Wallace was taken prisoner and beheaded. The 
coronation stone of the Scottish kings at Scone 
was brought to London, and still adorns West- 
minister Abbey. All Scotland, as far as the 
highlands, was overrun by Edward's victorious troops, and yet the Scotch maintained 
their independence. Robert Bruce the younger, the grandson of the former contestant, 
after many vicissitudes, obtained the Scottish throne, which continued in his house 
Eatvaia n. until it finally passed over to the related family of Stuarts. Edward 
1307-1327. II. had none of his father's energy. He made no conquests abroad, 
and was unable to maintain peace and order at home. The nobles took up arms 
against him, killed his favorites, and looked on quietly as the Queen and her paramour 
Mortimer drove the unlucky monarch from his throne, and compelled him to die a 
Eaivara in. wretched death in prison. But when Edward III., his son, came of 
1327 1377. age, he punished their wicked deed by the execution of Mortimer and 
the banishment of the Queen, to a lonesome castle. 

§ 278. Edward III. ruled with ability and renown. He limited the power of the 




THE BLACK PRINCE. 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



363 



pope by measures in which he was ably supported by John Wyclif, and he gave to 
many cities the right to send deputies to Parliament, as had been done by some of his 
predecessors. But Parliament was now divided into two houses. The House of Peers, 
consisting of the great nobles and the bishops, and the House of Commons consisting 
of the landed gentry and the representatives of the cities. Without their consent no 
taxes could be levied, and no laws proclaimed. The war with the French, which has 
been already described, was greatly to the advantage of the English. It brought them 
into close relations with the industrial people of Flanders, whereby English industry, the 

niehai-a ii. source of her modern greatness, made extraordinary progress. But 
1377-1390. Richard II., the grandson of Edward III., had an unquiet and unhappy 
reign. A popular insurrection was 
with difficulty suppressed, and then 
only by the resolute swiftness of the 
king himself, and when Richard ban- 
ished the originator of these troubles, 
his cousin Henry of Lancaster, the 
latter formed a powerful party, which 
deposed the King. Richard died of 
starvation, in a distant castle in York- 
shire, while Henry of Lancaster took 
possession of the English throne. This 

Henry iv. Henry IV. of Lancaster 

13901-113. was distinguished for 
the sagacity and the bravery, by means 
of which he secured the crown to him- 
self and his posterity. The Earl of 
Northumberland and his son, Percy, 
known as Hotspur, rebelled against 
14,03. him, but were unsuc- 
cessful. The Lollards or disciples of 
Wyclif were persecuted to satisfy the 
clergy, many of them being imprisoned 
in a gloomy dungeon, which was known 
as Lollards' tower. Henry of Lan- 
Heuru v. caster was followed by 

14,13-1-122. his brave son Henry V., 
whose youthful frivolity and subsequent nobility of character have been portraj'ed 
by the great poet Shakespeare. He made great conquests in France, all of which were 
lost during the reign of his son Henry VI., who was the unhappiest prince that ever 
occupied a throne. 

§ 279. The sixth Henry lost the French crown through the activity of Joan of 
Henry vi. Aye, when he was but one j'ear old. But the Wars of the Roses robbed 
142a »4ei. him of his English possessions. Richard, Duke of York, great grand- 
son of Edward IIL, believed that his title to the English throne, was better than that 
of Henry. He formed a powerful party and lifted the banner of rebellion. As the em- 
blems of the House of Lancaster were red, and those of the House of York, white roses, 




WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE. 



364 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



this civil war is always called the War of the Roses. In the beginning, Richard was 
defeated by the troops of the Queen, who decorated his head with a paper crown, and 
then planted it upon one of the roofs of York. But Richard's eldest son Edward, 
revenged his father's death. He got possession of the throne and maintained it 
through many vicissitudes, until Henry VI. closed his wretched life in the 
tower, and his son had been put to death. But the blood-stained crown brought the 
t:ii„a,<t xv. House of York no blessing ; for they now turned their weapons against 
i4ei-us3. each other. Edward put his brother Clarence out of the way, and 
when he himself died, leaving two young princes behind him, his youngest brother, 

Richard, had these strangled in the Tower, and 
took possession of the throne, upon which he 
tried in vain to establish himself by fresh 
crimes. Henry Tudor, a descendent of the 
House of Lancaster, who, by flight to France, 
had escaped the destruction of his famil} r , landed 
on the coast of England, and marched against 




Richard III. 



NOBLEWOMEN AND ENGLISH DUCHESS. 

{14th Century.) 



Richard III. In the battle of 

1483-14&5. Bosworth (1485), Richard was 

i4ss. slain, and Henry VII. became 

Hen,-,, vn. king of England. Henry mar- 

i48s-iso9. ried the daughter of Edward 

IV., and thus brought about a reconciliation 

of parties, but history can tell of no other war 

in which so many cruelties were heaped upon 

each other. Eighty members of the royal 

family and nearly all the nobility of England, 

perished in the conflict. The Tudors were able 

therefore to give to the crown a more absolute 



authority than it had possessed under the Plantagenets. 

279 b. Scotland under the Stuarts. 

Meanwhile the Scotch throne was in possession of the House of Stuart. But the 
nobility, powerful through their estates and clansmen, and accustomed to war and weap- 
ons, conquered from these feeble kings an almost independent position. They sought 
to diminish the royal privileges, and to get for themselves the estates of the crown. 
Thus the history of the Stuart kings is nothing but a story of struggles 
and rebellions, and of the fruitless efforts of the Scottish monarchs 
to put down the anarchy of the nobles. James I. was murdered by a 
conspiracy ; his bold son James II., who imitated his father's example, 
died a violent death in the campaign against England; and James III., 
a prince of great parts, was also a victim to this hatred of authority. 
This latter monarch sought to modify the rough manners of the nobility by arts and 
industries, and to increase the royal authority, by following the example of Louis XL 
of France. This brought upon him the hatred of the nobility, who were especially 
angry when the king showed favor to the common people, who shared his love for 
astrology,, music, and architecture. They formed a conspiracy, therefore, murdered his 



James I. 

140-1437. 

Jtnni'S IT. 
1437-1400. 
James III. 
14BO-148S. 



366 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



favorites, and drove the King from Lis throne. He fell by the hand of a common 
james iv., soldier. His son James IV., was frank and chivalrous, and found more 
148S-1513. favor with the nobles. He gave banquets and festivals, and gathered 
them about him at his brilliant court ; but when James IV. made war upon Henry 
VIII., of England, the Scottish army was defeated in Flodden field. Ten thousand 
Scottish warriors perished, and the corpse of the King was found the day after the bat- 
tle under a pile of slaughtered nobles who had refused to survive their beloved prince. 
This campaign against England, and its fatal consequences, were the outcome of 
i5i3. an alliance of Scotland with France, that proved in many ways disas- 




THE TOWER OF LONDON. 



James T 7 . 
1513-1542. 

barbarism. 



trous to both countries. During the reign of James V., Scotland was 
torn by the rage of political and religious parties, and lapsed almost to 



279 c. Ireland. 

Henry II. was the first king who undertook to conquer the Emerald Isle, with its 
Celtic population. The permission to do so was given him by the pope of Rome. The 
conquest, however, was merely in name. Only Dublin and its environs recognized the 
supremacy of England. Bloody wars divided the population, and destroyed the poetic 
culture of the earlier time, and the Christian enthusiasm of the seventh and eighth cen- 
turies. Native chieftians, who called themselves kings, made perpetual war upon each 
other, and upon the English conquerors, and prevented the development of industrial 
art and civil order. Knightly adventures, and warlike romance, constitute the annals 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 367 

of mediseval Irish history. The people were without freedom, and without culture: — 
abandoned to the oppression of the nobility, and the control of the clergy. Law and 
order were unknown. The settlement of English noblemen in Ireland made no change ; 
for these Englishmen adopted the language, customs, manners, even the garb and name 
of the conquered, and as stubbornly opposed the civilization of the island. The Eng- 
lish of the mother country were compelled to conquer their own degenerate country- 
men, and the hatred between the two made the wars exceedingly bloody, and increased 
the division and the race hatred between victors and vanquished. 

3. Spain and Portugal. 

§ 280. Aragon, Castile and Portugal, were for centuries independent kingdoms. 
Aragon sought to extend eastward, conquering the coast-lands and the islands, sub- 
duing Sardinia and Sicily, and finally acquiring the kingdom of Naples. Castile ex- 
tended southward, driving out the Moors and annexing Cordova, Seville and Cadiz. 
These struggles had a powerful influence upon the history and the character of the 
Spaniards. First they developed a love of war and chivalry, so that the Spanish peo- 
ple found their pleasure in feats of arms, in tournaments and in romantic poetry. Sec- 
ondly, they intensified religious zeal, and established the dominion of the clergy, which 
has prevailed continually in Spain. Thirdly, they aroused the sense of freedom and 
self-reliance in the people, that gave rise to the Spanish Cortes, an institution, the 
like of which was to be found in no other kingdom. The Cortes of Aragon possessed 
not only the right to make laws and to determine taxes, but the king was required to 
get their consent even to his choice of counsellors, and all differences of the Cortes 
with the king were determined by an independent supreme judge. 

§ 281. Peter III., conqueror of Sicily, is the best known of the kings of Aragon ; 
peter, in. Alfonso X. the most important of the Castilian monarchs. The latter 
two-lass. studied astronomy and astrology, music and poetry ; enlarged the uni- 
versity of Salamanca, furthered the perfection of the Spanish language, and procured the 
writing of law books and historical chronicles. But he failed in practical wisdom. 
Seeking the phantom of the imperial crown of Rome, and eager for pleasure and lux- 
Aiphoiiso x., ury, he oppressed his people with taxes, and by his waste and debase- 
1225-1284. ment of the coinage plunged the land into misery. Alfonso XI. con- 
Mphonso xi., quered the Moors, but in order to pay the expenses of this campaign, 
1312-1350. the tax known as Alcavala was introduced. This required a payment 
i.?5o-i3tto. on every piece of property that was sold, as often as it changed hands. 
Peter the Cruel, the son of Alfonso, seems to have been insane. He was finally con- 
isabeiia, quered and put to death by his half brother Henry, who then ascended 
ail-so*. the throne. The marriage of Isabella of Castile with Ferdinand of 
Aragon united the two kingdoms, and began a new era for Spain. 

§ 282. (a.) Ferdinand and Isabella had a single aim. They sought to diminish the 
werauiana, power of the nobility, and to increase the royal authority. Ferdinand 
1*79 i5i5. obtained from the Pope the dignity of Grand Master, for the three rich 
Castilian orders of knighthood, and also the right to appoint the Spanish bishops. He 
then deprived the nobility of their share in the administration of justice, established a 
royal judiciary, and created a standing army for the maintenance of peace and the 
extinction of robbery. But the most powerful of all his methods was the court of the 



368 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Inquisition, in which the King himself was grand inquisitor and the creator of all the 
judges. This court was not only the terror of heretics, and secret Mohammedans and 
Jews, but it held the nobility and the clergy in dread, and fettered every form of free 
intellectual activity. The least suspicion, the false witness of an enemy could lead to 
prison and to judicial inquiry. By means of torture, confessions could be obtained 
from the innocent, and even the bravest could be entrapped by cunning questions and 
artful subterfuges. Numberless sacrifices marked these autos da fe (acts of faith). 
The damp dungeons were filled with languishing prisoners, while the state treasury 
was enriched with their possessions. Throne and altar were thus bound together 
against the freedom of the people. In the later years of their reign, Ferdinand and 
Isabella were guided in their policy by the energetic and severely orthodox, but able 
statesman, Cardinal Ximenes. 

§ 282. (b.) During the first crusade, Count Henry of Burgundy deprived the 

jp ot t„ ,ii. Moors of Portugal. At first 
he ruled it as a Castilian dependency. But 
his son and successsor Alfonso I., after his 
great victory over the Arabs, assumed the 
title of king, made the land independent of 
Castile, and gave it a constitution with an 
11*3. excellent code of laws. Soon 

ii±-.. afterward he conquered Lis- 

bon, with the help of some Dutch and Flem- 
ish crusaders, and made it his royal resi- 
dence. Pope Alexander III., confirmed him 
in his royal dignity, upon the payment of an 
ut». annual tribute to the papal 

ii8s-ign. see. His son Sancho I., who 
conquered the Arabs at Santarem, acquired 
for himself the surname of the "peasants' 
friend," because of his interest in agricul- 
ture, and the improvement of villages. In 
the fifteenth century, the kingdom was ex- 
tended by conquests in North Africa, and by 
daring voyages of discovery. Before that its history is marked principally by strug- 
gles between king and nobility, wars with the Moors, and Castilians, and quarrels 
135J-130. with the pope and the powerful clergy. Pedro the Stern, is noted 
13S5-H33. for his revenge of his murdered wife Inez, and his son John for his 
1481-1495. conquests in Africa. The glorious period of Spain began with John 
140S.1521. II., and Emanuel the Great. 
§ 283. The expulsion of the Moors is one of the most tragical events in Spanish 
i4os. history. When Granada succumbed, after a ten years' war, to the arms 

of Ferdinand and Isabella, religious freedom was guaranteed to the Moslems. But the 
zeal of the clergy soon destroyed this guarantee. The Moorish inhabitants of Gran- 
ada, then rebelled at this oppression, and resorted to the sword. But they were sub- 
dued a second time, and were given the choice between expulsion or conversion to 
Christianity. Many turned their backs forever upon their beloved homes : others 




DOGE AND DOGARESSA. 



370 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



reluctantly accepted the gospel, but were brought to repeated rebellions by the severity 
of the Inquisition, and the oppression of the government. The fight against the 
Moors was both a race and a religious fight. Every victory was a step toward para- 
dise. Every earthly crime found its expiation in the blood of the infidel. The fate of 
the baptized Moors under Philip II., and Philip III., was the most tragic of all. A-t 
first they were commanded to renounce their speech, their national costume, and their 
peculiar usages, and when this proved insufficient to extinguish the last traces of their 
Arabian origin and their foreign faith, they were driven without mercy from the Span- 
ish soil. 800,000 Moors, men and women, the aged and the infant, left the land of 
their birth, their fertile fields and the homes built by their own hands. In a short 
time the fruitful meadows of the south were bare as the desert, agriculture was 
neglected, industry was arrested, prosperpus villages went to ruin, industrious cities 
were depopulated, poverty, filth, and indolence, covered the once wealthy and fortunate 
regions, where only ruins remained to give witness of the former glory. The Jews 
suffered a like fate. Priests and courtiers shared with each other the estates and 
treasures of the persecuted. Another consequence of this unfortunate alliance of 
throne and altar, was the destruction of the parliamentary rights and the political free- 
dom of the Spanish people. 







4. Italy. 

a. Upper Italy. 

§ 284. Venice and Genoa became so prosperous by their commerce and their 
ships, that thej r brought 
back the days of ancient 
Greece. Venice confined 
her attention to the Adri- 
atic and JEgean seas, con- 
quering the islands and 
the coast-lauds in order to 
acquire convenient har- 
bors and landing places in 
Dalmatia and Greece, in 
the Archipelago and at the J 
Dardanelles. This re- 
markable city, which orig- 
inated in the union of 
several islands, had become rich and mighty by its oriental trade. Splendid 
churches (St. Marks), magnificent palaces (palace of the doges), beautiful piazzas 
and lofty bridges made it the wonder of the world. But its wealth and its magnifi- 
cence could not supply the lack of freedom. The constitution, which was originally 
democratic, was transformed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, into an 
oppressive oligarchy. The chief magistrate was an elective doge whose authority was 
limited. The power of the state was in the great council, to which only a certain 
number of aristocratic families, whose names were written in the golden book, were 
eligible. And to prevent any change in this constitution, there was a dictatorship of 
" the ten " under whose control a secret police force was always active. Spies and 




v%. 



VENETIAN GALLEY OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 




BOABDTL SURRENDERING TO FERDINAND. 



{pp. 3U.) 



372 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



informers, subterranean dungeons and instruments of torture constituted a veritable 
Inquisition. Every footstep was watched, every word was overheard, every movement 
1355. of the people vigilantly guarded. The attempt of the Doge, Marino 

Falieri, to overthrow this haughty aristocracy, by the help of the lower classes, resulted 
in his own downfall and his death on the scaffold. Their insatiable greed for money 
and estates created a hardness of heart among the Venetians, which undermined all 
family affections, morality and religion. In the fourteenth and fifteenth century 
Venice sought to extend its territory on the main land, and acquired dominion over 
Verona, Padua, Brescia, and many other cities of Upper Italy. This brought the city 
into conflict with other European states, and more than once to the edge of destruc- 
lsos. tion. Especially in the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the 

league of Cambray was formed, in which were 
united the Emperor Maximilian, Louis XII. of 
France, Ferdinand of Spain and Pope Julius 
II., — all bent upon the dismemberment of 
Venice. The French were at the point of con- 
quering the city, when the senate succeeded in 
dividing the league and winning over the Pope 
and the king of Spain. The French were now 
driven out of Italy. The founding of the 
Ottoman empire however, was the greatest 
calamity to Venice. The Turks deprived them 
of their Eastern possessions, and at the same 
time the discovery of a sea-route to East India 
destroyed their commerce. The marriage of 
the doge with the Adriatic Sea, which used to 
take place upon the ship of state, Bucentoro, 
became a meaningless festivity. But the liber- 
ality of the rich Venetians, and their love of art, 
greatly furthered the development of painting, 
especially through Titian and his school. 
§ 285. Genoa was the proud rival of Venice. The jealousy of the two repub- 
lics led to many wars and naval engagements, in which Venice was usually the victor, al- 
though in the Chioggia war, the Genoese fleet sailed victoriously through the lagoons of 
i3so. the city. The marble palaces of Genoa, her harbor covered with a 

forest of masts, and her bank of St. George testified to her wealth. But the quarrels 
of democracies and aristocracies, of Guelphs and Ghibellines, weakened her strength 
and destroyed her virtues. Avarice and the pride of wealth were the ruling passions 
tans.. of the people. Unable to rule themselves, they sought for foreign lords 

and came at last, sometimes under the power of Milan, and sometimes under the 
authority of France. A constitution was framed for Genoa in the sixteenth century 
by her naval hero Andreas Doria, he- having overthrown the French dominion and re- 
stored republican forms. But although Doria gained independence for his native 
city,- he could not give her domestic peace. Twenty years later, the handsome, rich, 
is**. and cultivated Fiesco, sought to deprive the house of Doria of the 

chief authority, but the enterprise failed with the unexpected death of the chief con- 




KNIGHT IN FULL ARMOR AND LADY. 

(Early 16th Century.) 




louis xii. in battle. (A. de Neuville.) 



(pp. 373.) 



374 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 




spirator. Genoa's power and commercial greatness, like that of Venice, was shattered 
by the Ottoman empire and the discovery of a sea-passage to the East Indies. 

§ 286. Milan came gradually under the control of the rich Visconti. This 
family obtained the ducal dignity from the Emperor, founded a terrible tyranny by 
their crimes and by their mercenary soldiers and banditti, and conquered the greater part 
of Lombardy. About the middle of the fifteenth century, the male line of the Vis- 
conti expired with Philippo Maria, who had greatly extended his 
power with the help of his general, Carmagnola. Philippo was 
cruel and faithless, murdered his own wife with cruel tortures out 
of jealousy, and ruled the people with the utmost tyranny. The 
Milanese after his death, offered the sovereignty of their city to 
gem of Florence. 14SO , Francisco Sforza, the ablest of the bandit chiefs, 

although France and Spain were eager to possess the city. The French king Louis 
XII., who had claims to the dukedom as a descendant of the Visconti, conquered it 
because of quarrels in the family of Sforza. Ludovico, the Moor was abandoned 
tsoo. by his Swiss mercenaries and led away captive to France where he 

languished ten years in a subterranean dungeon. The great artist Leonardo da 
Vinci left Milan about the same time. He had adorned it with his " Last Supper"' 
and other important works. But the 
French were driven out of Italy a few 
years later, and the son of the im- 
prisoned Ludovico was made Duke of 
Milan. But the duke and his Swiss 
soldierswereconquered by the French 
isi5. king Francis I., in 

the battle of Marignano and Milan 
once more united to France. Ten 
years later, it fell to the Spaniards 
and remained in their possession for 
nearly two centuries. 

§ 287. The Counts of Savoy ac- 
quired nearly all of the western part 
of Upper Italy. This house had ex- 
tended its little territory into a duke- 
dom, by sagacity and courage, had 
pushed its way acrosss the Alps to 
Geneva, and southward to Piedmont 
and Turin, including also Nice and 
other territories. But the Swiss ^^^^Vk^T 

league and the strong kingdom of savonakola. 

France pushed forward their frontiers, and crowded Savoy gradually into a smaller 
territory. The Reformation made Geneva free, and in the wars between Francis I., 
and Charles V., the Duke of Savoy lost the best part of his inherited dominions. 
But his successors were able to obtain abundant compensation for these losses by the 
acquisition of Sardinia and Genoa, and the house of Savoy is now the reigning house 
of Italy. 




THE MIDDLE AGE. 



375 



I. Middle and Lower Italy. 

§ 288. Pisa was the first commercial city of Tuscany. When this succumbed to 
the jealousy of the Genoese, Florence rose above the other cities and brought Pisa 
under its control. Florence was governed at first by the nobility, but these were so 
weakened by the party struggles of Guelphs and Ghibellines (Bianchi, Neri) that the 
guilds obtained control. These guilds embraced masters and craftsmen in all trades, 
and especially the workers in wool, but a democracy was hardly established in Florencs 
before the rich merchants and the lower classes battled for the control of the city. In 








Tii j JiiiIImmIEKELO 




■ill ** 

- i 3BP 







DEATH OF SAVONAROLA. 



this struggle a plutocracy sometimes, and sometimes the democratic guilds, were mas- 
ters of the commonwealth. But in spite of them, Florence was noted for its 
love of liberty and of culture, and could be compared to ancient Athens. The rich 
cosmo, family of the Medici finally succeeded in winning over both classes, 

i-tns-1494. so that Cosmo de Medici, a man of noble mind and patriotic feeling, 
without rank and title ruled Florence with almost unlimited power. He received from 
his fellow citizens the title of " Father of his Country," for he made the city powerful 



376 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



and prosperous by fortunate wars, and by his patronage of arts and sciences, and 
adorned it by the erection of splendid buildings. 

§ 289. Cosmo's grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent, made Florence the seat of 
every art and science and the nursing school of all Europe. Artist, poets, and writers 
z,oremo, adorned his court. Greek scholars escaping the sword of the Turks 
**»2-«»3. taught' the Greek language and literature. Sculpture, painting, and 
music developed their finest qualities. After Lorenzo's death the folly of his son 
Piero, and the eloquence of the dominican monk Savonarola induced the Florentines 
to expel the Medicean family, and to restore the republic. For a while Savonarola 
was the actual ruler of the city, and the Florentines renounced " the vanities of the 
world." But the Pope excommunicated "the Prophet of Florence," the clergy rose 
against him ; overthrown by his enemies, he was condemned to death as a seducer of the 

1498. people, and burned 

at the stake with two of his faithful 
companions. The Mediceans soon 
returned, and when they were ex- 
pelled a second time, the Emperor 
Charles V., beseiged the city, and 
having conquered it, established the 
cruel Alexander de Medici as duke 
is3o. over the humiliated 

republic. Alexander, after seven 
years of tyranny, was murdered by 
the people. But the Medicean house 
remained in possession of the gov- 
ernment. Of the many artists who 
lived in Florence in this stormy 
period, Michael Angelo Buonarotti 
was the most famous. He was 
equally wonderful in architecture, 
sculpture and painting. The most 
famous author of the time was the 
statesman Machiavelli, author of the 
" Prince," the " History of Florence " and " Discourses on Livy." 

§ 290. The popes we have seen lived for twenty years in Avignon in southern 
France. During this period Rome was the scene of violence and of bloody family 
feuds between the two great families, Colonna and Orsini. This induced Cola Rienzi 
to attempt a restoration of the republican constitution, and thus to give the city peace 
and the greatness of ancient Rome. His fiery eloquence carried the Romans with 
1347. him ; they created the new republic, made their orator the tribune of 

the people and drove the nobility beyond the walls. But Rienzi's head was soon 
turned ; vanity destroyed him.. Oppressive taxes took away his popularity, and his 
enemies compelled him to fly. He returned after a few years, but only to be destroyed 
1354. in a popular tumult. After the return of the popes to Rome, and the 

healing of the papal schism, some distinguished popes did their utmost to heal the 
wounds of the city, and of the Church. Among these we must mention especially 




MICHAEL ANGELO BUONAROTTI. 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



37T 



Nicholas t., Nicholas V., the founder of the Vatican Library and Pius II., the bril- 
1447-1455. liant and versatile writer, (iEneas Silvius, § 266), both of whom were 
patrons of culture and of science. Alexander VI. (Borgia), on the other hand aston- 
pius ii., ished all Christendom with his godless conduct. The cruelties and 
ussiitn. crimes of his family, especially of Csesar and Lucrezia Borgia, have 
Alex, vii., been the themes of modern poetry and romance, and have reached 
1492-1503. posterity with strange embellishments. Caesar Borgia died as a fugitive 
in Spain, and Lucrezia expiated the sins of her youth as Duchess of Ferrara. Alexan- 
luiius ii., der's successor Julius II., possessed splendid ability, but his love of 
1503-1513. war was in strange contradiction with his spiritual dignity. He 
marched in person to the field, and extended the papal domain by the annexation of 
ieo x., Bologna, Ferrara and other 
f pec. l, 1521. cities. Leo X. the highly edu- 
cated son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, united 
in the Vatican all the glory of art and culture. 
But he forgot the doctrine of the church and 
the gospel in his study of Greek and Roman 
literature, and by the sale of indulgences en- 
couraged the pious credulity of the people in 
order to pay for the church of St. Peter, and 
to reward his artists with a liberal hand. The 
Raphael, divine painter Raphael was the 
14S3-15SO. ornament of his court. Ferrara 
was ruled in the fifteenth century by the house 
of Este, — no less distinguished than the Medi- 
Ariosto, cean for its culture and its 
1474-1533. patronage of art and science. 
lasso, Ariosto the poet of " Orlando," 

f 1505. and Tasso, the singer of " Jeru- 

salem Delivered," dwelt at the court of Ferrara. 
Savonarola also was a native of the city. 

§ 291. Naples, after the fall of the Hohenstaufens, was a papal fief, governed by the 

descendants of Charles of Anjou. They defended the cause of the Guelphs, as eagerly 

as the Aragonian kings of Sicily defended that of the Ghibellines. Joan I., and Joan 

loan i„ II., queens of Naples, filled the kingdom with cruelty, war and con- 

134,3-1382. fusion. The latter dying without children, named at first a Spanish, 

and then a French, prince as heir to the throne. This resulted in two parties, which 

jroan ii., fought for the possession of Naples with great bitterness and varying 

14.14-1*35. success. The house of Aragon, Alfonso and his sons, obtained the 

upper hand. But Charles VIII. of France, invaded Italy to assert the claims of 

the House of Anjou. He marched through Upper and Middle Italy, took possession of 

1405. Naples and drove his adversaries to Sicily. But a league between 

Milan, Venice and the Pope, compelled the French to withdraw, and the House of 

Aragon came once more to the throne. Louis XII., of France in alliance with the 

Spanish king Ferdinand, subjugated Naples some years later, but Ferdinand and Louis 

quarreled over the division of the spoil. The Spanish king by force and cunning, 




MACHIAVELLI. 



378 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



laiis-liot. 
Jfotm the 
Fearless 

1404-1410. 



1410-14S7. 



ISO*. managed to get Naples into his possession, and for two centuries, the 

kingdom of the two Sicilys was subject to the Spanish sceptre, and governed by a 
viceroy. Oppressive taxation and the destruction of civil rights led gradually to the 
poverty, and the political slavery, of the once prosperous country. 

5. New Burgundy. 

§ 292. Philip the Bold, received the dukedom of Burgundy from his father, King 
vhMp me Boia, John of France. To this he united by marriage and inheritance, many 
other possessions, but especially the rich cities of Flanders. His son, 
John the Fearless, who was deeply implicated in the civil wars of 
France, and ruined thereby, extended his possessions into the Nether- 
lauds, and Philip the Good came to be ruler over Brabaut, Holland, 
Fhuij, tne ciooa, and other cities of the Low Country. Philip the Good was one of the 
mightiest and richest princes of his time, and the knights of the Low 

Countries were distinguished for their splen- 
dor and their noble bearing. The rich com- 
mercial and industrial cities, Brussels, Ant- 
werp, Ghent, possessed great rights and priv- 
ileges but a powerful militia. In Lyons, a 
University was erected in 1426, and four 
years later the order of the Golden Fleece 
was founded. 

§ 293. Philip's son, Charles the Bold, 
diaries the Boia, extended the dukedom, and 
1407-H77. increased the glory of his 
court. He was a man of strength and 
bravery, but his greed of power and his pas- 
sions made him headstrong, insolent, and 
reckless. He was eager to transform his 
dukedom into a kingdom, of which the Rhine 
should be the eastern frontier. But his un- 
dertakings were brought to nought by the 
cunning and faithless Louis XL, of France. 
For when Charles attacked the Duke of 
Lorraine, Louis brought about an alliance between Lorraine and Switzerland. This 
alliance was joined by Alsace and by the cities of the upper Rhine. Charles thereupon 
marched a powerful army against the Swiss, but was so terribly defeated in the battle 

1476. of Granson that the survivors fled in wild panic, while the artillery 
and the camp full of treasures fell into the hands of the enemy. The angry Duke, un- 
able to endure this disgrace, attacked the Swiss once more, but the battle of Murten 

i47o. ended in the same way. The victors were enriched once more with 

enormous booty. The Duke of . Lorraine received back the land which Charles had 
taken from him, and Berne took a portion of Savoy. ' This calamity shattered the mind 
of the bold Duke ; he refused every offer of mediation, and marched a third time against 
his fearless foe. But in January, 1477, his army was defeated at Nancy, even more 

1477. terribly than before, partly by the bravery of the Swiss, Alsatians and 




BURGUNDIANS. (14*70.) 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 379 

their allies, and partly by the treason of the leader of his Italian mercenaries. Charles 
himself was killed in the fight. 

§ 294. Louis XI. now took possession of Burgundy as a fief of the French crown, 
and stretched out eager hands for the other possessions of the ruined duke. But at 
this crisis Maria, the daughter of Charles the Bold, married Maximilian of Austria, 
who conquered the French king, and compelled Louis to abandon his schemes. Maria 

1470. died shortly after hj a fall from her horse, whereupon the French king 

resumed his plots, hoping to take the cities of the Low Countries from Maximilian, who 

ws». was the guardian of his infant son, Philip of Burgundy. Louis stirred 

up an insurrection in Ghent; Brabant wavered, and the guilds of Bruges openly 

i4ss. rebelled. But Maximilian brought the Netherlands to acknowledge 

the rights of his ward. Philip, however, died early in Spain, at the court of his father- 

isoo. in-law. His son Charles V., the child of the Spanish Infanta Joan, 

inherited all the lands of his parents and his grand-parents. Born at Ghent, his heart 

lsoo. clung to the rich and cultivated Netherlands, which he united into a 

great kingdom by the acquisition of Utrecht, and added to the German empire as the 
Circle of Burgundy. 

6. Scandinavia. 

§ 295. The bold sea voyages and wanderings of the Normans and Danes, of the 
Vikings and Varings, gradually ceased. A few enterprising prrnces obtained the 
mastery over the other chieftains (Fylken kings, Folk-chiefs), and bj r uniting different 
tribes they founded kingdoms. Thus Harold Fairhair founded Norway ; Gorm the 
Mat-oid Fairhair, Old, founded Denmark ; and the Ynglings founded Sweden. But the 

f 93o. war-like Norman chiefs, j'ielded reluctantly to the authority of a king, 

aorm, the oia, and many of the discontended started off again to sea, seeking new 

f o3«. homes in other countries. Thus Rollo established himself and his 

people in Normandy. This struggle of the kings against the discontented chiefs en- 
dured for several centuries, and prevented the thorough introduction of Christianity 
into the Scandinavian monarchies. Bishop Ansgar, the apostle of the North, had, it 
is true, introduced the gospel as early as the ninth century into the three countries, 
and certain kings like Harold Bluetooth in Denmark and Olaf Lapking in Sweden, 
had adopted this Christian teaching in the next century. Nevertheless the heathen 
Canute, the worship of Odin struggled a century longer against the progress of the 

Great, new faith. Canute the Great, in Denmark, and Olaf the Saint, in 

t 1035. Norway, gave the victory to the crucified Savior. But Sweden was 

not completely won until the middle of the twelfth century, in the time of Eric the 
Saint. And the half-savage Finn did not yield until much later. But the Scandina- 
vian kingdom was greatly benefited by this triumph of the church ; the Benedictine 
monks planted the germs of intellectual culture, purified the manners of the people, 
and made them acquainted with the blessings of civilization. They introduced the art 
of writing, and supplanted the ancient runes by the Latin alphabet. They encouraged 
agriculture, introduced new cereals, erected mills, opened up mines, and accustomed 
the war-like people to the arts of peace, to industrial occupation, and the tilling of the 
soil. Christianity greatly modified the relations of master and slave, awakening the 
feeling of human dignity, and of all men's equality before God. Only the pagan 



380 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

poetry and the heathen myths of the olden time were destroyed by the monks. The 
intellectual life of Iceland therefore perished. Gradually the clergy acquired great 
riches, privileges and estates, so that the hierarchy became the peers of the landed 
nobility. The peasant class however, continued in abject dependence, and the cities of 
Scandinavia had little or no importance. 

§ 296. Denmark and Norway were united together until the close of the Middle 
Age. The kings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were war-like and enterprising, 
waiaemar i., and greatly extended their dominion. Waldemar I. and his son, 
1157-1182. Canute VI., guided by the sagacious and enterprising Arch-bishop 
Canute ft., Axel, extended their authority in every direction. And Waldemar 
iis2 taoz. II., known as "the Conqueror" was singularly successful throughout 
jvaidemai- ii., the Baltic Sea. He conquered all the Slavonic lands on the south and 
monism. east coast, from Holstein to Esthonia, and called himself king of the 
Danes and Slavs, and lord of Nord Albingia (Schleswig — Holstein). But his cruelty 
1323. provoked hatred and bitterness. He was consequently imprisoned by 

the deeply injured Count Henry of Schwerin, for two years in his castle. Danne- 
berg and all his vassal princes abandoned him, conquering their independence with 
the sword. The proud structure of Waldemar fell to pieces. Hamburg and 
Liibeck became free imperial cities; the peasant republic of Ditmarsen, reconquered 
its independence ; the German lands of the Baltic fell once more to the emperor- 
After the death o'f Waldemar II., there ensued a period of great confusion, which the 
nobility used skillfully to increase their privileges. The great landholders obtained 
waiaemnr xt'.. exenqjtion from taxes, and an individual judiciary for each estate. 
i3io-i3?5. Waldemar IV., subsequently re-established the royal authority with a 
1307. strong hand, and by the Union of Cahnar, his daughter Margarethe 

united the three Scandinavian kingdoms into a single monarchy. 

§ 297. Sweden, also, was the scene of continual struggles between the nobility 
and the crown. Even the mighty house of the Folkungs, which acquired the throne 
about the middle of the thirteenth century, finally succcmbed to the destiny that as- 
sailed every Swedish dynasty. Of the seven kings of this house, five were dethroned, 
and died in a dungeon, or in exile. After the expulsion of the last Folkung, Magnus 
1363. II. the Swedish crown passed to his nephew, Albert of Mecklenburg. 

Albert, however, was conquered by the Danish Margarethe and deprived of the king- 
dom, whereupon Sweden concluded with Denmark the Union of Calmar. This union 
1397. was an injury to all three kingdoms, for Margarethe was followed 

by weak kings. The power of the state in Denmark and Norway came more and 
more into the hands of the landed nobility, while Sweden was treated by the Danish 
kings almost like conquered territory. 

Discord undermined the Union of Calmar, without destroying it. The Hanseatic 

League, desirous to prevent a permanent union of the three kingdoms, carefully nour- 

cinistian i. ished this discord. With Christian I., the House of Oldenburg began 

i44,s-i4,8i. to rule in Denmark, and at the same time Sweden was governed by 

the wise and brave Sten Sture, who restrained the violence of the nobility, in- 

sten sture. creased the power of the cities and of the peasants, founded the 

1171-isoi. University of Upsala, and brought foreign scholars and printers into 

the kingdom. He governed the realm with almost absolute power. But Sten Sture 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



381 



the Younger, quarreled with the Archbishop of Upsala, who formed an alliance with 
t52o. Christian II. of Denmark, by means of which Danish authority was re- 

established in Sweden. Sten Sture was defeated in battle and mortally wounded, 
whereupon Christian II. caused ninety-four of the most powerful nobles of Sweden to 
be beheaded in Stockholm. This cruelty so embittered the Swedes, that in a few 
years Denmark and Sweden were separated forever. 

7. Hungary. 

§ 298. Otto I. won a great victory at Lechfeld, near Augsburg, in the year 955, 
and thus put an end to the roving of the armed Magyars. 

Not long after this their king, Geisa, was converted to Christianity, and 

073. permitted German missionaries to preach the gospel to his people. 

His son, Stephen the Saint, completed the work that Geisa had begun, and received 

Stephen the from the Pope the royal dignity and a consecrated crown. He estab- 

saint. lished bishoprics, and invited Benedictine monks into his kingdom. 

oo7-io3s. These soon acquired a great influence over his wild people, who had 




loots the great in battle. (A. de Neuville.) 

hitherto resisted Christianity, partly because they hated the Germans, and partly be- 
cause they loved a wild and licentious life. Stephen divided his kingdom into 
countries, and to the presidents of each he committed the administration of justice and 
of military affairs. He accustomed his people to civil order, and to agricultural and 
industral life. But the war-like nature of the Magyars, and their dislike of Christian 
culture, which brought to them instead of the ancient freedom, serfdom, feudal slavery, 
and the hard toil of the fields, broke out shortly after Stephen's death in savage con- 
aeisa xi. flict and confusions. Geisa II. ruled during the twelfth century, and 
1141-iiai. in his reign Flemish and Low German emigrants settled in Trans}d- 
vania. These (Saxons) have preserved down to our own day the manners, language, 
and institutions of their fathers. Through their industry and perseverance they have 
converted a desert into a garden, have created rich cities and prosperous villages, and 
have protected energetically their great- privileges against all attacks. In the thir- 



382 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



teenth century the Hungarian magnates extorted from king Andreas II. a charter 
called " the golden privilege." This guaranteed to the nobility and clergy most im- 

1222. portant rights, and laid the foundation for the free constitution of 

Hungary. A breach of this golden privilege by the king justified the nobility in 
armed resistance. 

§ 299. Andreas III. was the last king of the House of Arpad. After his 

t3oi. death Hungary became an elective monarchy. Louis the Great of 

Naples, of the reigning House of Anjou, was elected king, and under him Hungary 

isouis tne en-eat. reached the highest point of external power and inward prosperity. 

i3jg-i3S2. He obtained the crown of Poland, extended his frontiers to the lower 

Danube, and made the Venetians his tributaries. The hills about Tokay were planted 




FINDING THE BODY OF LOUIS II. AT MOHACZ. 

with vineyards, the statutes of the realm were greatly improved, citizens and peasants 

were guaranteed against the oppression and caprice of the nobility, and schools were 

established in the land. But after the death of Louis, violent quarrels ensued until 

finally the German emperor, Sigismund, obtained the Hungarian crown, and arranged 

for a representation of the estates of the realm. But his daughter's children were so 

weak that Hungary became a prey of the Ottoman Turks, until the heroic and skillful 

Matthias cor- Hunyad saved it from their hands. The grateful nation therefore gave 

vinus. the Hungarian crown to his powerful son, Matthias Corvinus, who 

l-iiis-i-ioo. reigned for thirty-two years', a worthy successor of Stephen the Saint 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



383 



and Louis the Great. He held the Ottoman power in check, extended the frontiers 
toward Austria and German}', and improved the military system. He founded a new 
university at Buda, established a library, and cared for the culture of the people by 
attracting to his kingdom scholars and artists, printers and architects, gardeners and 
artisans. But all these gains were lost by his successors. The Turks marched con- 
quering beyond Belgrade ; the territorial acquisitions in the west were abandoned, and 
the royal authority was so limited that not only taxation, but even peace and war, were 
made dependent upon the will of the national convention, and at last the magnates as- 
is2g. sumed the whole authority to themselves. King Louis II., was de- 

feated at Mohacs. This brought on a struggle for the throne, which tore the land in 




CASIMIR THE GREAT ANNOUNCING THE STATUTES OF WISLICA. 

two, into East and West Hungary. The former fell to the Turks ; the latter was 
united by Ferdinand of Austria to his other possessions, and finally all Hungary, both 
East and West, fell to the House of Hapsburg. 



8. Poland. 

§ 300. The plains along the Vistula, and the lands along the Oder and the 

Wartha, were the homes of Slavic tribes which were sometimes united together under 

one chieftain, and sometimes separated into several princedoms. After the conversion 

9«e. of Duke Misco by German missionaries, Poland was looked upon as an 

imperial fief, but it was so loosely connected to the empire that under Frederick II. it 



384 THE MIDDLE AGE. 

became altogether free. Manifold divisions so weakened the kingdom, that in the 

twelfth century, the Silesian princedoms on the Oder seceded, and were Germanized. 

Tunisians iv. But in the fourteenth century Poland became quite important, for 

130S-1333. Duke Ladislaus united the countries along the Wartha (Posen) with 
the countries on the Vistula. He called these territories the Kingdom of Great Po- 
land; had himself crowned in Cracow and made the royal authority hereditary. His 
casimir the son, Casimir the Great, conquered Galicia and Red Russia, established 
Great. a university in Cracow, and gave his people better laws. He sought 

1333-1310. earnestly to diminish the power of the nobility, and to favor the 
growth of cities, but a people so war-like and so destitute of culture made free cities 
impossible. Dominion in Poland was founded upon the sword, and remained iii the 
hands of the nobility. Money and trade was in the hands of the Jews; the peasant 
was a serf, who led a wretched life, and in spite of the fertile fields on the Vistula, 
obtained a bare existence from his bitter toil. 

§ 301. The male line of the Piasti became extinct with Casimir. The Poles 
Louis the areat. now offered their crown to his nephew, Louis the Great, of Hungary, 

i37o-i382. and from this time forward Poland was an elective monarchy. Never- 
theless, the nation remained for two centuries true to the House of Jagellon, which, 

tageiions. however, was obliged to reward the nobility for their support with ex- 

x3so.is72. e'mption from taxation and other g? - eatpriviliges. Jagello (Ladislaus), 
was the first king of this family. He added Lithuania to the Polish kingdom, after 
Christianity had been introduced there and the idols thrown down. The woolen gar- 
ments that were distributed at baptism led thousands to the new faith. Casimir II., 

casimir ii. was obliged in the wars he waged to purchase the help of his nobility 

1441-1402. by fresh concessions. In order that the nobility need not all appear 
in person at the diet, it was arranged that a certain number of representatives should 
i-mo. be sent from each voiivodescliaft, who, in conjunction with deputies 

from the clergy and councillors, appointed by the king, should constitute the diet of 
the realm. Without the consent of this diet, in which the commons were not at all 
represented, the king could make no change in the tax system, nor in the laws, nor do 
anything of importance, either in domestic administration or in war. The nobility 
were the only citizens of Poland, and the principle of their absolute equality among 
each other so increased their authority that frequent changes of monarchs, and wars of 
succession, undermined the royal power. The Teutonic order of knights in Prussia 
had carried on long and bloody war-s with the Slavs, but had established a kingdom 
that reached from the Oder to the Gulf of Finland, a prosperous kingdom, with rich 
trading cities, with civil order, and with German habits. The long reign of the grand 

i3si.i3S2. master, Winrich of Kniprode, marks the golden age of the Teutonic 
order. But the ceaseless conflicts with the Poles and Lithuanians, and the quarrels of 
the knights among themselves, undermined their kingdom. In the battle of Tannen- 
1-110. berg, the grand master and most of his knights were slaughtered, and 

the order was compelled to yield to the authority of Poland. The intrepid grand 
master, Henry of Plauen, revived its strength, and wished to resume the struggle with 
the Poles, but he was deprived of his dignity, whereupon he entered into treasonable 
i4i*. negotiations with the Poles which led to his imprisonment and death. 

In the disgraceful peace of Thorn the order was compelled to cede its finest possessions 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 385 

wee. to Poland and the grand master obliged to remove his residence to 

Konigsberg. In the century of the Reformation, the feudal authority of Poland was 
extended by King Sigismund over the dukedom of Prussia. Albrecht of Branden- 
burg, the grand master having become a Lutheran, established this dukedom as a 
sigismund i. secular principality and gave Courland as a fief to Gotthard Kettler, 
tsoe-isis. grand master of the Order of the Sword, who had also become a 
Lutheran. But notwithstanding these extensions of the kingdom, the selfishness of the 
nobility made it impossible for Poland to efficiently resist the aggressions of the Rus- 
sians and the Turks. 

9. The Russian Kingdom. 

§ 302. Vladimir the Great, great grandson of the Scandinavian chieftain Rnric, 
vuiMmu: introduced Greek Christianity into his kingdom at the close of the 
.i bo »f iooo. tenth century. His dominion extended at that time from the river 
Dnieper to lake Ladoga, and to the banks of the Dwina, and his residence was at 
Kieff. But his successor lost, by divisions and domestic wars, so much of unity and 
■}{ strength, that the Poles and "Brothers of the Sword" conquered large territories 
1224. in the East, and finally the Moguls overran the whole land from the 

Dnieper to the Vistula, and compelled the Russians to pay them tribute. The great 
khan of the " Golden Horde," of Kaptschak, for two centuries exacted an oppressive 
12*2. tribute from the Russian princes and their subjects. The princes of 

Moscow attempted in vain to break the heavy yoke, and not until the might of the 
Golden Horde was broken by their own dissensions, did Ivan the Great, of Moscow, suc- 
ceed in liberating the country. 

He then engaged in several successful wars, and extended his power in all direc- 
jiniii (John) tions. He first conquered the rich maritime city of Novgorod, which 
me Great. belonged to the Hanseatic League, destroying its republican constitu- 
(wasiUicitcH.) tion, and transplanting a number of its chief citizens to other cities. 
1402-isos. Ivan was also law-giver, administrator, and the real founder of the 
Russian monarchy. He arranged the succession to the throne so as to prevent further 
division of the kingdom, and brought artisans and builders from Germany and Italy, 
in order to plant the beginnings of culture among his people. He built the Kremlin 
(Citadel), to protect his capital, Moscow. After the capture of Constantinople by 
the Turks, the Russian metropolitan (afterward patriarch) was chosen by the native 
bishops, and thus the independence of the church was obtained. Ivan's grandson 
ivan Ivan II., was the first to assume the title of Czar, or " sole autocrat 

Wftsiiemifc/i ii. of all the Russias." Kasan and Astrakhan were conquered b} r him ; 
his dominion was extended to the Caucasus, and preparations were made for the dis- 
covery and the subjection of Siberia. By the formation of a troop of archers (Stre- 
1533-issi. litz), he began the creation of a standing army. With Ivan's son 

Feodor, the male line of the House of Ruric became extinct. The Cossacks were 
isos. also subdued by Ivan and his successors. These famous riders dwelt 

near the waterfalls of the Dnieper, along the Don, and among the foothills of the 
Caucasus. They led a life of wild independence under their self-elected chieftains, 
and fought continually with the Poles and the Moguls. 
25 



386 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



10. Moguls and Turks. 

§ 303. In the beginning of the 13th century, Genghis Khan, the chief of a 
GenoMs niian, Nomad horde, started out from the high tablelands of Asia, con- 
f 122:. quering and to conquer. He crossed the Chinese wall, and subdued 

the "Celestial Kingdom." Hindoostan, Persia, the vast empire of the Karismans, 
were unable to withstand the strength of these wild herdsmen. Bochar, Samarcand, 
and Balca, with all their treasures of art and science, were reduced to ashes. 
These conquests were continued by the sons and grandsons of Genghis Khan. 
Batu subdued the lands north of the Black Sea, made Russia tributary, set fire to 




IVAN IN KASAN. 



Cracow and devastated Poland and Hungary. The Moguls or Tartars then crossed 
the Oder. Breslau disappeared in flames. Duke Henry of Silesia, with his Christian 

urn. comrades, were defeated at Liegnitz by these Asiatic heathen. The 

people fled to the mountains ; the West of Europe trembled ; and Pope and Emperor 
were too busy and bitter with their quarrels to save Christendom. Fortunately the 
Moguls halted, frightened by the bravery of the European warriors, and by their 

mas. strong castles. They turned their arms against the caliphate of Bag- 

dad, which they brought to a bloody end. The last caliph perished with 200,000 Mos- 
lems, and the Moguls pushed on to Syria. Here they destroyed Aleppo and Damas- 
cus, and annihilated Christian and Arabic culture in the Holy Land. In a few gener- 
ations the Mogul empire fell into several independent states, but for two centuries the 





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388 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



Russians bore the yoke of the Golden Horde, and Hungary and Poland recovered but 
slowly from the awful visitation. 

§ 304. The Moguls pushed the Ottoman Turks from their homes about the Cas- 
pian Sea, and drove them toward Asia Minor. These were warlike nomads of Moham- 
i2»». medan faith, who were urged by their priests to fight against the 

Christians. Othman pushed into Bithynia, chose Prusa for his residence, and main- 
tained his conquests against the indolent Greeks and their western mercenaries. His- 
successors selected the handsomest and strongest lads from among the conquered 
Christian peoples, and trained them up in the Mohammedan faith and to military life. 
aiurati i. Out of these they made a splendid infantry, called janissaries. Murad 
(Auuirath i.) I. reduced all Asia Minor ; then crossed into Europe, and subdued 
1301-13S0. the country from the Hellespont to the Hsemus. Adrianople was 




BATTLE OF mCOPOLIS. 



taken, adorned with splendid mosques, and chosen to be the residence of Murad and 
Bajaset. the capital of his empire. His son, the energetic but violent Bajazet, 
t.tsu-no.t. continued the victorious course of his father so successfully that he 
was called "the Thunderbolt." He conquered Macedonia and Thessaly, and all 
Greece to thesouthern extremity of ancient Laconia. Then finally the West took up 
arms against the dreadful foe. Sigismund of Hungary, John of Burgundy, the flower 
of French knighthood, and of the German nobility, 100,000 strong, marched to the 
lower Danube. But at the battle of Nicopolis the Christians, in spite of their bravery, 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



389 



1396. were utterly defeated. Many noblemen and knights fell into the hands 

of the Turks, from whom they were ransomed only b} T great sums. Ten thousand 
prisoners of lower rank were butchered by Bajazet. 

§ 305. But an unexpected enemy now blocked the course of the powerful victor. 
The Mongolian ruler, Tamerlane, a descendant of Genghis Khan, who had determined 
to restore the fallen kingdom of his great ancestor. At the head of a horde of herds- 
men, he left his capital Samarcand, determined to subdue all the races from the Chi- 
nese wall to the Mediterranean Sea. He marched victoriously through India and 
Persia, destroyed Bagdad and Damascus, took Syria from the Mamelukes, and filled 
Asia Minor with cruelty and terror. Clouds of smoke, piles of ruins, and heaps of 
dead bodies marked his victorious track. Grinning skulls were his trophies. Bajazet 




santa sophia. ( Constantinople.) 

now raised the siege of Constantinople, and marched to meet the conqueror of the 
14,02. world. A fearful battle was fought at Angora, which resulted in the 

victory of the Moguls. Bajazet was taken prisoner and died the following year. But 
Tamerlane's world — empire fell to pieces as rapidly as it had been created. 

§ 306. Murad II., the grandson of Bajazet, restored its former strength to the 

luunui ii. shattered empire, and reconquered the lost territories in Asia and 

(Amuratn ii.) Europe. He reduced the eastern empire till it comprised only Con- 

i-iin-1451. stantinople and a few adjacent districts, and made this tributary to 

his throne. Thereupon John Palseologus determined to obtain the help of western 

Europe, by a union of the eastern with the Romish church. To this end, he, with 



390 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



the patriarch and many bishops, proceeded to Rome, and thence to the council of 
i±3». Florence. After a long, violent discussion, an ambiguous treaty was 

agreed upon, which was however rejected by the zealots of botli churches. This 
made the separation worse than before. Yet the Pope urged the Christian princes to 
a crusade against the Turks, and persuaded Hungary and Poland to attack the Otto- 
man empire. Laclislaus, kiug of Hungary and Poland, and the heroic Hunyad, of 
Hini«ioire«. Transylvania, crossed the Danube but were terribly defeated at the 
im. battle of Varna. The head of the young king was carried about on 

a pole by the exulting Turks. 

§ 307. After the death of Murad II., his blood-thirsty son, Mohammed II., be- 
Mohammea ii. came sultan of the Ottoman empire. Determined to make Constant- 
JJ5/-/JS/. inople his capital, he besieged the city, and after fifty days of desper- 
ate resistance, it was compelled to 
surrender. As the Turks stormed 
the walls, the last emperor, Constan- 
tine Palseologus, in whom survived 
the antique Roman heroism, the love 
for freedom, religion, and countrv, 
rushed to the thickest of the fight 
1453. and fell gloriously in 

the defence of the imperial city. But 
the old seat of Byzantine splendor 
became the residence of the Sultan. 
The church of St. Sophia was trans- 
formed to a Mosque, and the crescent 
was planted upon the ruins of Christ- 
ian civilization. The fall of Con- 
stantinople was followed by the con- 
quest of Greece, and by the subjec- 
tion of the lands of the Danube. 
Pope Nicholas V., and Pope Pius II., 
tried in vain to arouse the slumber- 
ing religious energy of the West to 
(solomon i. the splendid.) new cmsades . Only a few disordered 

i4S6. companies marched under the Franciscan monk Capistrano, to the 

relief of. the heroic Hunyad in Belgrade. But the West could not be inspired 
again to a general war. Yet in the mountains of Albania and Epirus, the heroic 
i4oi. Scanderbeg maintained until his death, an independent dominion, 

and Hungary was saved by Hunyad's victory at Belgrade. But the battle of 
i52o. Mohacs, brought the half of Hungary along with Buda into the 

hands of the Turks, while Solomon the Magnificent, wrested the island of Rhodes 
soiomo.. from the knights of St. John, and then marched to the gates of 
the spie^a. Vienna and carried terror into all Europe. Solomon gave to the 
isso isee. Turkish empire its greatest extent, and its utmost strength. His do- 
minion included Syria and all of Asia to the Tigris, Egypt, and the north .coast of 
Africa, with the pirate states of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. Solomon died at a great 




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392 



THE MIDDLE AGE. 



age, before Szigeth in Hungary, in the defence of which place the highminded Zriny 
lost his life. After the death of Solomon the power of the Turks declined ; the jan- 
isarries grew indolent, judges and governors purchasable, and the provinces were de- 
populated by oppression. Barbarism soon covered the lands of the Eastern empire. 
The once rich cities and cultivated fields, bore witness everywhere of decay and 
wretchedness ; for wherever the Turks planted their feet, they destroyed the germs 
of life. 




SALLY OF COUNT ZRINY FROM SZJGETH. 




( pp. 394. ) the man with the ieon mask. ( Vierge.) 




I. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



1. THE SEA ROUTE TO THE EAST INDIES AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



HE great inventions that came into use in the fourteenth and 
fifteenth centuries, •wrought a complete change in the condi- 
tions of the Middle Age. An Italian from the neighborhood 
of Amain (Flavio Gioja) invented the compass by teaching 
how the magnetic needle with its peculiar property of point- 
ing to the North might be used to determine the points of 
the horizon and this gave a tremendous impulse to the art of 
navigation. Gunpowder (according to some, the invention 
Berthold Schwartz, a German monk ; according to others bor- 
Jwed from the Chinese and the Arabs,) began to be used in 
■war about the middle of the fourteenth century and hastened the 
destruction of chivalry. But the invention richest in results, 
fas the art of printing, due to John Guttenberg of Mainz. His 
assistants in the work were the goldsmith Fust or Faust, 
and the copyist, Peter Sehoffer, who were the only ones to profit 
by the invention. Sehoffer introduced cast metal types instead of the carved 
wooden ones used by Gutenberg. At first the invention was kept secret, but it was 
soon carried by German craftsmen into all the lands of civilized Europe. Books which 
hitherto were accessible to the rich only, now came into the hands of the people, since 
the facility of reproducing literary works so greatly reduced their price. 

§ 309. The use of the compass made it possible to- extend navigation which, 
hitherto, had been chiefly along the coast only, and limited to the European seas. The 
Portuguese were the first to sail the ocean. The discovery of the islands Porto 
Santo and Madeira (soon famous for their wine and sugar cane) was followed by the 




(395) 



396 



THE MODERN AGE. 



acquisition of the Azores, the discovery of the green promontory (Cape de Verd), and 
of the coast of upper Guinea, so rich in gold dust, ivory, and gum. The negroes seen 
here for the first time were captured and the slave-trade introduced. In the reign of 
King John II. lower Guinea (Congo) was discovered. Sailing from here, the daring 
Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern extremity of Africa, called by him the Cape 
i4s«. of Storms, but soon changed by the hopeful king into the Cape of Good 




DESTRUCTION OF FIRST PRINTING PRESSES. 

Hope. Twenty years later (America having been discovered meanwhile) the enter- 
prising Vasco Da Gama discovered the sea route to the East Indies, by sailing from the 
i49s. East coast. of Africa across the Indian Ocean to the Malabar coast and 

Into the harbor of Calcutta. 

Amid hard struggles with the natives, the Portuguese established here the first 
European trading-colonies, an undertaking that they executed with persistance and 




COLUMBUS QUELLING THE MUTINY. 



{pp.391.) 



398 



THE MODERN AGE. 



courage. Vasco Da Gama and Cabral (who on their way had. discovered Brazil and 
acquired it for Portugal) were followed by the brave Almeida. The latter compelled 
moo. several Indian princes to pay tribute and to permit the building of 

warehouses in their chief cities. But on his return home, stopping to fetch water from 
South Africa, he and his brave companions were slain by Hottentots. 

Albuquerque, a hero as wise as he was brave, now became Governor of 
India. He conquered Goa and made it the capital of the Indian colony; he besieged 
lsio. Malacca, the centre of the far Indian trade ; subjugated the ruler of 

Ormuz in the Persian Gulf and made the name of the Portuguese king respected and 
ism. feared. But king Emanuel rewarded his faithful servant with ingrati- 

tude and thereby broke the hero's 
heart. In the following decades, 
the Portuguese established colonies 
and warehouses upon the island of 
Ceylon and the coast of Coro- 
m an del ; subjugated Malacca and 
also the Sunda islands, famous for 
their spices. Lisbon thus became 
the centre of international trade. 
But selfishness and greed coon 
strangled the nobler impulses in the 
hearts of the Portuguese. 

§ 310. The zeal for discovery, 
awakened by these Portuguese 
undertakings, led the bold Genoese 
Christopher Columbus, who had 
been a sailor from his youth, and 
had spent a great part of his life 
in Portugal, to the idea of finding 
another route to the famous Indies, 
by a western passage. He com- 
municated his plan to King John 
II of Portugal, but could obtain no 
support. His plan was declared 
to be a dream. Nevertheless, behind 
his back, the attempt was made to 
take advantage of it. Dissatisfied with this ignoble conduct, Columbus left Lisbon 
and turned to Spain, while his brother Bartholmew went to England to lay the enter- 
prise before King Henry VII. But even in Spain, for a long time, Columbus found no 
hearing. But at last Isabella of Castile, rejoicing over the happy conquest of 
Granada, was moved to equip three ships and to entrust them to the daring navigator. 
The dignity of a great admiral and of viceroy over the lands and islands that he 
might discover, and the tenth part of the revenues derived from them, were promised 
to him for himself and his posterity as the reward of his success. On the third of 
August 1492, the little fleet sailed from the harbor of Palos on past the Canary 
I*™. Islands to the unknown West. The fear and anxiety of the crew 




CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 



400 



THE MODERN AGE. 



increased with the distance, and changed finally from murmur to mutiny. The daring 
leader was threatened with death it" he did not turn back, just as the discovery of 
the island Guanahani (afterwards called San Salvador) came to save him on the 
twelfth of October. It was a beautiful, fruitful, wooded land inhabited by copper- 
colored, naked savages who witnessed, without suspicion, the taking possession of 
their land in the name of the Spanish King and Queen, and who exchanged their 
best possessions for the tinsel and the toys that were offered them. But the ex- 
pected treasures of gold, diamonds, and pearls were not to be found either here or in 
the larger islands Hayti and Cuba which were soon afterwards discovered. Yet the 
Spaniards were delighted with the luxurious plants and giant trees, and with the 
charming climate and splendid star-lit skies of these tropical lands. Columbus having 
founded a colony that he called Hispaniola, upon the 
island of Hayti, returned to Spain and after a danger- 
ous voyage, astonished Europe with the story of the 
distant world of wonders, which, in consequence of 
his original error, received the name West Indies. 

On his three subsequent voyages Columbus 
discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico and other islands, 
and finally the northeast coast of South America, not 
far from the mouth of the Orinoco. Yet the new 
continent bears the name, not of its discoverer, but 
of its first describer, the Florentine Amerigo Ves- 
pucci. Columbus, like many great men, did not enjoy 
the fruits of his achievement. The colony at 
Hispaniola was soon troubled by quarrels among the 
colonists and with the natives. And when Colum- 
bus punished the worst malcontents, and sent 
others back to Europe, they assailed him at the 
Spanish Court and painted his government in the darkest colors. King Ferdinand 
sent thereupon, a narrow-minded official Bobadilla to investigate affairs: be began his 
isoo. work by deposing Columbus from his office and sending him in chains 

to Spain. Upon his arrival he was released from his fetters, but no more thought was 

given to the original agreement. A 
new commander Ovando was ap- 
pointed in his place. Kept away 
from Hispaniola (or San Domingo) 
Columbus now undertook a fourth 
150S-1504. voyage, hoping to 
find a western passage through 
Central America ; but this proved 
a failure. He returned to Spain 
sick and worn out, and as Queen 
Isabella died about this time, the 
last years of his life were gloomy 
and cheerless. Deprived of his offices 
and his dignity, he died at Valladolid 
in his fifty-ninth 3-ear. His remains 




AMERIGO VESPUCCI. 




HOUSE WHERE COLUMBUS DIEE. 




BALBOA ADDS THE PACIFIC OCEAN TO THE SPANISH REALM. 



402 



THE MODERN AGE. 



were subsequently brought to Cuba. The chains in which he had been sent back 
isoe. to Spain were, at the command of his son Diego, buried with him. 

§ 311. Columbus and his discoveries aroused a new heroic spirit. Every courageous 
mariner thirsted for discovery. The storm-beaten and enterprising Balboa, one of the 
isi3. most imposing forms in this " Ocean Chivalry" crossed the mountain- 

isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. The Portuguese Magellan 
sailed through the strait called after him into the Pacific Ocean, and reached, half 
starved, the East Indian Islands, being therefore the first to make the voyage around 
isio-i52i. the world. Both died a violent death. The former at the hands of his 
jealous successor, the other slain in battle by the savages of the Philippine 
Islands. Even the distant Labrador in the icy north was discovered by the Italians 
Cabot, father and son. And gradually the South Sea also swarmed with newly 
isgo-1521. discovered islands. But the discovery and conquest of Mexico by 
Cortez, was the most important of these events, for he discovered, not a land 
of savages, but a people dwelling in cities carrying on arts and industries, clothing 

themselves in woolen stuffs, and 
§1 governed by a constitutional King, 
| a rich nobility and a powerful 
m priesthood. With seven hundred 
I daring Spaniards, Cortez subju- 
gated a populous nation that lacked 
neither courage nor patriotism, 
imprisoned their proud and mighty 
King Montezuma in his own palace 
and conquered their capital Mexi- 
co, £he Venice of the western 
world. The thundering cannon, 
the stately cavalry, the splendor of 
European warfare created in the 
natives the belief that the Spaniards 
were superior beings, whom they 
could not possibly resist with 
their weak powers and wretched 
weapons (iron was unknown to 
them), nevertheless the Mexicans 
fought heroically for their country 
and their freedom. They stoned 
to death their captured king, be- 
cause he favored the Spaniards, and 
compelled the foreigners by their 
desperate uprising, in the famous 
" Night of Mourning " to retreat 
across the lake ; and in the furious 
battle of Otumba they would have 
exterminated the Spaniards if Cor- 
tez had not, with daring presence 




CABOT ON THE SHORES OF LABRADOR. (B. Bayard.) 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



403 




SEBASTIAN CABOT. 



of mind, hurled their leader to the ground, and thus precipitated a panic and a flight. 
Cortez however, carried his dangerous undertaking to a glorious conclusion. Within 
two years he conquered the land, stormed the capi- 
tal in spite of the brave resistance of the new King 
Guatemozin and put an end to the cruel idolatry of 
Huitzilopochtli to whom thousands of human be- 
ings were annually sacrificed. But, in the establish- 
ment of a new order of things, he was baffled on all 
sides by his mistrustful government. Having dis- 
covered Honduras and California he returned to 
Spain in order to appeal in person to the court. He 
was received with high honors, presented with rich 
estates at the foot of the Cordilleras, raised to the 
rank of Marquis but no longer continued as governor 
of Mexico; When about to return to Mexico, he 
died in a village near Seville in 1547. 

Pizarro and Almagro, men of warlike spirit and 
of great enterprise, but selfish, passionate and uncul- 
1Z29.1535. tured, conquered Peru, the land of 
gold, with even slenderer resources. Under the rule of the Incas, the Peruvians had 
reached a peaceful prosperity, and a civilization free from the cruel superstition of the 
Mexicans, though without their manly courage. The Spaniards were helped in their 

conquest by a quarrel over the succession between 
the royal brothers Atahualpa and Huascar. Piz- 
arro getting possession of the person of Atal- 
malpa cruelly and treacherously put him to death, 
in spite of his promise to set him at liberty for an 
enormous mass of gold; he then subjugated the 
beautiful land, so rich in gold and built the new 
153.5. capital, Lima. Orellana, starting 

ls^o. from Peru, sailed up the Amazon ; 

encountering incredible dangers and hardships. 
Eldorado, the fabled land of gold, was however not 
found along its shores. 

Pizarro and his brothers soon quarrelled with 
Almagro the discoverer of Chili. Almagro was 
conquered and beheaded, but revenged by his son, 
who with a band of conspirators waylaid and 
killed Francis Pizarro. The band being nearly 
ruined by this thirst for blood, the emperor, 
Charles V, sent a sagacious priest, Pedro de la 
is4,n. Gasca to be governor of Peru; 

the rebellious bands were soon put down, the last 
Pizarro hung upon the gallows and the state reorganized. 

§ 312. Admirable as the courage and energy might be, thus displayed by Eur 
ropeans in the discovery of the new world, their cruel treatment of the natives was 




AZTEC PRIESTS SACRIFICING A VICTIM. 



404 



THE MODERN AGE. 



reprehensible in the highest degree. Sword and shot and disease and slavery were 
combined by the Spaniards, for their extermination. The Indians were compelled to 
work the plantations, and the gold and silver mines of the conquerors, and to bear 
burdens too heavy for their weak bodies. 

The well-meaning missionaries, who had been sent out to convert the Aborigines, 
sought in vain to inculcate kindness and humanity ; avarice hardened the hearts of the 
Europeans and made them deaf to the teachings of the gospel. And when the noble 
Las Casas, in order to ameliorate the lot of the West Indians, suggested the use of 
Negroes for the harder labor, he inaugurated the cruel slave-trade without benefiting 
the copper-colored races. 

The discovery of the New World and the introduction of foreign products from 

America and the Orient, produced great 
changes in the lives and manners of the 
Europeans. Coffee, sugar, potatoes have 
become necessaries of life. Dye-stuffs, cotton, 
and the finer kinds of wood are indispensable 
to modern industry. The increase of the 
noble metals has exercised a powerful 
influence upon prices and upon commercial 
relations. Science began to take new form, 
especially in all that relates to our knowl- 
edge of the earth. Commerce also took a new 
direction ; the Italian sea-ports were aban- 
I doned, while Portugal, Spain, the Nether- 
elands and England, in a word the Atlantic 
coast states became the centre of interna- 
tional trade and the seats of wealth. Portu- 
gal and Spain did not, however, long enjoy their prosperity ; for they shackled 
commerce and excluded other nations from their colonies. 




AN INCA EMPEEOJi. 



2. The Renascence of the Arts and Sciences. 

§313. Italy in the fifteenth century was the brain of Europe ; many splendid 
courts and rich cities vied with each as patrons of the arts and sciences. The 
Mediceans in Florence (§ § 288, 289) and several of the popes founded libraries and 
academies and collected costly manuscripts ; the art of printing, which soon appeared 
in every city, contributed powerfully to the culture of the people. Hitherto Latin 
literature had been pursued exclusively ; but the taking of Constantinople by the 
1453. Turks, drove the Greek scholars to Italy, and the study of their lan- 

guage soon became the fashion. Dictionaries and grammars, commentaries and trans- 
lations made the ancient writers easily intelligible. To write classical Latin was the 
mark of the educated. New schools were founded, at first in Italy, then in the other 
lands of Europe. Universities, gymnasia and seminaries of all sorts, sprang up in Ger- 
many, and scholars like John Reuchlin (f 1522), Erasmus of Rotterdam (f 1536), and 
Ulric Von Hutten (f 1523), vied with the great Italians in their knowledge of Greek and 
Latin literature and philosophy. Latin was at this time the language of scholars, and 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



405 



a lively interchange of letters took the place of the modern newspaper. The conflict 
of the old and the new learning culminated in the struggle of Reuchlin with the Domini- 
cans of Cologne. The latter Avere determined to burn up all Hebrew books written 
since the birth of Jesus. Reuchlin, to whom the matter was referred by the Chancellor 
of the empire, Archbishop Albert of Mayence, declared the purpose of the Dominicans 
injurious to science. This so enraged them that they accused Reuchlin of heresy, 
i5i4. burned one of his writings publicly, and condemned the study of 

Greek and Hebrew. A war of ink-horns ensued. The friends of the new learning 
stood by Reuchlin and humanism won a complete victory. The Pope finally forbade 
the conflict. Ulric Von Hutten and Crotus Rubianus contributed to this controversy 
the famous Epistolae Virorum Obscu- 
rortjm. (Letters from the Dark.) In these 
letters, the conduct and ignorance of cloister 
life were satirized with exact but comical 
fidelity in the barbarous latin of the Monks. 
Hutten died in exile near Zurich. Erasmus 
continued for thirteen years longer to oppose 
scholasticism and monasticism with all the 
weapons of humor and intelligence. The 
" Praise of Fools " and his edition of the 
Greek Testament are his most important ' 
works. Allied at the beginning with Hutten 
and Luther, lie separated from them in later 
years and opposed them in violent tracts. 
His career in England, especially his con- 
nection with Colet and More, and the new 
learning at Oxford, as well as his relations to 
the humanists and Luther, make him a figure 
of unusual moment. 




ITALIAN SCHOLARS AND GERMAN WOMEN. 



§ 314. 



II. THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION. 
1. The German Reformation. 
a. Martin Luther. 




ET the Church be reformed in head and members ! ' : was the cry of 
Europe in the fifteenth century. But the great church councils 
had met and accomplished nothing. The Church had refused the 
desired self-regeneration, and the voice of the people had received 
but little attention. The papal court was in the receipt of great 
revenues from the churches of other countries, the inferior clergy 
were indolent, immoral, ignorant, taking little or no part in the new learning and 
the progress of the age. The superior clergy led a worldly life, taking pleasure 
in sensual enjoyment and princely extravagance, frequently forgetting the doctrine of 
the Church in the art and literature and philosophy of pagan antiquity. A great dis- 



406 



THE MODERN AGE. 



content prevailed with the Church, and the hierarclry and the unchristian life of several 
popes greatly increased this dissatisfaction. It needed only an impulse to unite all the 
elements opposed to the papacy into a powerful opposition. This impulse was given 
by Pope Leo X. To defray the expense of building St. Peters, and other architec- 
tural works, he gave Archbishop Albert of Mayence, and of Magdeburg, the privilege 
of selling an indulgence, in which the purchaser was guaranteed escape from purga- 
torial punishment. Albert obtained the half of this money, and made use in Saxony 
of the Dominican monk Tetzel, who went about his work so heedlessly, that Dr. Mar- 
tin Luther, an Augustinian monk, seeing that true penitence and the authority of the 
i5i7. confessional were brought into disrepute, felt moved to nail ninety-five 

theses to the church door at Wittenberg, on the evening of All-saints Day, 1517. He 
offered at the same time to defend these theses against all comers. He denied in them 
that an indulgence had any efficacy without repentance, and denied also the right of 
even the Pope to grant absolution to any who were not truly sorry for their sins. 

The indulgence might 
free the purchaser from 
ecclesiastical punish- 
ment, but it could not 
acquire for him the 
grace of God. He 
pointed out the differ- 
ence between false pen- 
ance and true peni- 
tence ; between external 
opinion and inward 
faith ; between the dead 
holiness of works, and 
true Christian right- 
eousness. 

§ 315. Martin 

Luther was born on the 10th of November, 1483. His father, an honest 
miner in Mdhra, desired him to study law, and he had spent four years in Erfurt 
to that end. But anxiety for the salvation of his soul drove him to a cloister. He 
spent a last evening with his friends, in song and music and wine, and then departed 
for a quiet cell in the Augustinian monastery. He performed all the duties and drudg- 
eries of a mendicant monk, but obtained no relief for his melancholy and his distress 
of soul. At last he reached the conviction that man can not be saved by works, but 
only through faith in the mercy of God, through Jesus Christ, and this brought peace 
to his heart. Staupitz, his vicar-general, recommended him for Wittenberg in 1508. 
Frederick the Wise, had just established a new university in that town, and there 
Luther began his activity as teacher, preacher, and a curate of souls. 

§ 316. The deep religious earnestness that was unmistakable in Luther's theses,, 
found a response in all Germany. But Luther was summoned to defend him- 
self in Pome. The Elector of Saxony interfered however, and the papal nuncio Caj- 
©cfo&er, lsis. etan appointed a hearing in Augsburg. Luther, provided with 
a safe conduct, proceeded thither. The proud Dominican thought it an easy 




TRAFFIC IN INDULGENCES. 

Part of Bare Engraving by Hans Holbein. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



407 



matter to overcome the humble monk, with his theological learning ; but, after a short 
encounter, Cajetan commanded him to depart, and not to appear again before him till 
he retracted. Appealing to the Pope, Luther fled with great haste by night from 
Augsburg. Cajetan demanded of the Elector to deliver the bold preacher to Rome, 
or at least to expel him from his dominion. Frederick answered that Luther's re- 
quest for an impartial court seemed to him quite just. This protection of the Elec- 
tor was the more important for Luther, because the Elector was at that time the 
January, isio. ruler of the empire, as the death of the emperor Maximilian, required 
a new election. And, as the Pope desired to influence this election, he was anxious 
not to lose the support of Frederick. He therefore sent his chamberlain Miltitz, an 
adroit Saxon nobleman, to 



make his peace with Fred- 
erick, and at the same time 
to withhold Luther from 
further steps against the 
church. Luther promised 
to abandon the matter if 
the sale of indulgences 
was stopped, and if silence 
was imposed upon his en- 
emies. To prove his earn- 
estness he urged everyone 
in writing to obedience and 
reverence toward the 
Church and its head, and 
assured the Pope, in all 
humility, that it had never 
been his intention to attack 
the prerogatives of the 
Roman see. 

§ 317. But the ex- 
pected reconciliation did 
not take place. John Eck, 
a professor in Ingolstadt, 
a scholar and a skillful 
disputant, challenged 
Carlstadt and Luther to a 
disputation in Leipzig. In 

j«»e, ism. the heat of the debate, Luther maintained that the Roman bishop had 
become head of the Church, not by command of Jesus himself, but by later human 
institution, and expressed doubts of the infallibility of the pope and of councils. As- 
tonished at this boldness, Eck immediately published a learned book, in which he tried 
to prove that the papacy had been established by Christ, in the person of Simon Peter, 
and was consequently a divine arrangement. With this book Eck hastened to Rome, 
and obtained a bull, in which a number of Luther's propositions were condemned as 




408 



THE MODERN AGE. 



jr„„ e , ie, isao. heretical, his writings ordered to be burnt, and he himself placed un- 
der excommunication, if he did not retract within sixty clays. This condemnation of 
Luther, upon the charge of an antagonist, without waiting for his defence, was disap- 
proved in all Germany. Eck published the bull of excommunication, but Luther's 
writings were burned only in Cologne, Mayence, and Lyons. In Saxony the bull had 
no effect. Luther now replied with his famous writings, " An Address to the Christ- 
ian Nobility of Germany," and the '" Babylonian Captivity and Christian Freedom." 
In these he laid bare, without mercy, the abuses and wrong doings of the existing 
church, and demanded immediate reform. The enthusiasm with which these writings 
were received, and the cry for freedom which re-echoed throughout Germany, embold- 
ened Luther to a step which separated him from the Roman Church by an impassable 

gulf. He marched with the students of 

Wittenberg to the Elster gate of the city, 

December to, and there threw the bull 

isso. of excommunication and 

a copy of the canon law into the flames. 

§ 318. Meanwhile Charles V., grand- 
son of Maximilian, king of Spain and Bur- 
gundy, had been chosen German emperor, 
and his first task was the settlement of 
these ecclesiastical difficulties. He ap- 
pointed a diet at Worms, gave Luther a 
safe conduct, and permitted him to appear 
before the assembled princes and repre- 
sentatives of the imperial cities. Luther, 
remembering the fate of Huss, went not 
without trembling, }^et full of confidence 
in God, and found himself surrounded 
by a thronging multitude. The Ern- 
Awa, ism. peror and the papal am- 
bassador (Alexander), many princes, 
lords, prelates, and representatives of the great cities were present, when the 
embarrassed monk was introduced. Required to retract, he hesitated and asked 
for time. He was granted till the following day. The second time he appeared 
resolute and strong. He acknowledged himself openly to be the author of the writ- 
ings that were laid before him, and replied to their demands with the following words ; 
"As long as I am not convinced from the Holy Scriptures that I am in error, I can and 
will not retract, for my conscience is a prisoner to the word of God," and concluded 
with the exclamation, " Here I stand; I can do no otherwise ; God help me. Amen." 
All attempts to bring him to another declaration failed, but no violence was attempted. 
Luther started away unassailed; many princes and members of the diet did the same. 
And not until their departure was the ban proclaimed against Luther and his adher- 
3tay 20, ism. ents, and his writings condemned to the flames. Charles V., now closely 
allied to the Pope, was determined to root out this heresy, but Luther was already in 
safety, for the Elector Frederick had ordered him to be seized and to be carried off to 
the Wartburg, where he lived as " the Knight George." His friends mourned him as 




POPES IN ORNATE AND HOUSE COSTUME, AND 
PAPAL GUARD. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



409 



dead until some bold writings and an angry pamphlet against Albert of Mayence, who 
was once more selling indulgences, convinced them that he was more alive than ever. 
Albert reflected and stopped the sale. 

§ 319. While Luther was at the Wartburg, he led a life of activity, but of illness 
and of melancholy. During his absence from Wittenberg, a new movement took place, 
which greatly disturbed the pious and pacific Elector. Dr. Carlstadt abolished the 
mass, gave the cup to the laity, and attacked images and ceremonies. He was soon 
joined by the so-called 
"Prophets of Zwickau." 
These were uneducated 
men, ruled by their fanat- 
ical feelings, who attacked 
the baptism of children, 
because they said a sacra- 
ment without faith had no 
efficacy, and insisted upon 
the rebaptism of adults 
(Ana-baptists). These 
prophets declared that they 
had communications direct 
from God. In some of the 
churches the images and 
the priestly robes were 
destroyed. Many monks 
abandoned the cloisters, 
and confusion took pos- 
session of the people. 
Luther could remain 
no longer at the Wart- 
burg ; he hastened to Wit- 
naren, ions. tenberg, 
preached every day for a 
week against these innova- 
tions, repulsed the enthu- 
siasts of Zwickau, and pac- 
ified the people for a quiet 
development of the Refor- 
mation. Wittenberg now 
became the centre of German 




Vrvj^fTis-ro'rviT-DVRERrv^.oRA.THiLippi 
-/VYenteavnqn «t oT vit-pingere-do CTA i 

JAANVS 



M 



PHILIP MELANCHTHON. 



(After Aibrecht Diirer.) 

culture. Philip Melanchthon, a young man of 
twenty years, who had already penetrated to the depths of knowledge, came to 
Meianchtiion, Luther's assistance and brought the University of Wittenberg to great 
140V-1&60. renown. Luther Avas violent and destructive, but Melanchthon was 
mild and conciliatory. While the latter and other great scholars sought to give a 
scientific basis to the new doctrine, Luther by his German writings and hymns, and 
especially by his translation of the Bible, won the hearts of the people. This was 
begun at the Wartburg and completed at Wittenberg. It was discussed thoroughly 



410 



THE MODERN AGE. 



in the circle of his friends, and was published entire in the year 1534. It is a master- 
piece of German language and of German genius. 

§ 320. The new doctrine soon crossed the frontiers of Saxony. The Landgrave 
Philip, of Hesse, became an earnest supporter of the gospel ; but the citizens of the 
imperial cities were after all the most devoted friends of reform. The assembled con- 
gregations often started a psalm, or a new church hymn, of their own accord, and thus 
led to the postponement of the mass. When the churches were refused the people, 
they worshipped in the open air, in the fields, in the meadows, and when religious 
motives were not powerful enough, the prospect of church estates and worldly advantages 
kindled a fresh zeal. All Germany appeared to be swept along in the movement, and a 
national church, independent of Rome, seemed to be inevitable. But the Pope won 

ism. over Ferdinand of Austria, 

the Dukes of Bavaria, and several South 
German bishops to the league of Regens- 
burg, in which they promised each other 
mutual support and the expulsion of the 
Wittenberg doctrines from their dominions. 
The seed of dissension was strewn in 
Germany at the very moment in which the 
noblest minds of the nation were striving 
for freedom and independence. 




German citizens' dress. (Early 16th 
Century.) 



b. The Peasant War. (1525.) 

§ 321. This cry for freedom filled the 
peasants with the hope of lightening their 
burdens by their own strength, since Christ 
had made them free by his precious blood. 
A peasant war ensued. In the beginning, 
patriotic men like Sickingen and Hutten 
seemed willing to place themselves at the 
head of the movement, and to conquer the 
transformation of Germany in state and 
1522. church ; but Sickingen's early 

death, at the siege of his castle Landstuhl, and Hutten's flight, delayed the uprising 
and took away from it definite plan and aim. The wild speeches of the ana-baptist, 
Thomas Milnzer, who demanded the abolition of all spiritual and temporal power, 
and the establishment of a divine kingdom in which all men should be equal in rank 
and in wealth, heated the brains of the excited peasants. In a short time the whole 
population about Lake Constance assembled under Hans Miiller, of Bulgenbach, a former 
soldier. Clad in a red mantle, and wearing a red cap, he marched with his adherents 
from village to village, while the standards of rebellion fluttered from the wagon that 
drove behind him. The peasants had " twelve articles " which they meant to establish 
at the point of the sword. They demanded freedom to hunt and to fish, and to cut 
wood in the forests, the abolition of serfdom, of feudal service and of the tithes, the 
right to choose their own clergy, and the free preaching of the gospel. The peasants 
along the Neckar, and in Franconia soon followed, under the command of George 



412 THE MODERN AGE. 

Metzler. They compelled the nobilitj' to accept the twelve articles, and to give their 
subjects the demanded rights. Whoever ventured to oppose them died a swift, pain- 
ful death. They marched through the land, setting fire to barns and buildings, 
destroying cloisters and castles, and visiting their oppressors and opposers with a . 
bloody revenge. Under the lead of brave knights like Gotz of Berlichingen, (Gotz, 
of the iron hand), they pushed into Wurzburg, while others devastated Baden. The 
insurrection then spread into Swabia, Alsace, and the regions of the Rhine. Ecclesi- 
astical and secular princes, were panic-stricken, and conceded the demands of the angry 
peasants. But in Thuringia and the Harz mountains the uprising had a more relig- 
xay, less. ious character. Thomas Miinzer had acquired the authority and the 
reputation of a prophet. He girded himself with the sword of Gideon and sought to 
found a kingdom of God, all of whose members should be free and equal. Inflamed by 
his preaching, the people destroyed, in their rage, castles and cloisters, and the monu- 
ments of the olden times. 

§ 322. Luther in the beginning of the uprising counseled peace. He reminded 
the princas and landowners of their cruelty and severity, and dissuaded the peasants 
from the insurrection. But as the danger increased, as the prophets of murder and the 
spirits of plunder broke loose in the land, he published a violent pamphlet against the 
" plundering and murdering peasants," in which he called upon the magistrates to 
smite them with the sword, and to show no mercy. The elector, John of Saxony, the 
landgrave, Philip of Hesse, and other princes, now broke into Thuringia, and easily 
overcame Thomas Miinzer and his poorly armed peasants. A scaffold was erected at 
Miihlhausen, upon which the prophets came to a horrible death. In Swabia peace was 
restored by Truchsess von AValdburg, who then marched against the peasants of 
Franconia ; these were soon put down. The prisoners were butchered, and the citi- 
zens of the Franconian cities who had supported them were severely punished. It was 
everywhere the same. In most regions the peasants were compelled to carry all the 
former burdens, and the nobility in their triumph, declared " Our fathers have chas- 
tised you with rods, but we will chastise you with scorpions." 

c. The Protest and Confession of Augsburg. (1529-1530.} 

§ 323. The new church grew stronger in spite of conflict, and Luther's energy 
increased with opposition. In 1524 he left the Augustinian cloister, and in the fol- 
lowing year he married Catherine von Bora, a former nun. In the circle of his faith- 
ful friends he now began to lead a happy family life. His etrength and his cheerful 
confidence in God, were not broken, either by repeated attacks of illness, or by poverty. 
He wrote two catechisms, in which he laid the foundation for a uniform creed and for 
better religious instruction. Melanchthon was equally active. By the appointment 
of the Elector, he visited the churches of all Saxony. The Reformation was making 
such progress that Catholic princes, spiritual and temporal, became alarmed. They 
therefore resolved at the diet of Speyer, that no further innovations should be per- 
mitted, that the new doctrine should not be extended, and that the mass should be in 
no wise hindered. This action of the diet led to the famous protest of many princes 
and imperial cities ; and from this protest all who reject the authority of the pope, and 
the maxims of the Roman Catholic Church are called Protestants. The Emperor was 
in Italy when the protest was laid before him ; he would not receive it. The protest- 




THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 413 

ing princes and cities would then have formed a league of defence, if Luther and the 
evangelical theologian had not rejected every defence of the divine word by carnal 
weapons. 

§ 324. In the following summer the emperor convened the splendid Diet of 
rune as, 1S30. Augsburg. The protesting princes and cities now presented their 
Confession, composed by Melanchthon and approved by Luther. In this they sought 
to prove that they were not establishing any new church, but purifying and 
restoring the old one. This Confession composed with great clearness and moder- 
ation, embraces in its first sections the doctrines of evangelical faith, and in the 
second section it enumerates the abuses against which the reformers fought. After 
the Confession had been read, the assembly resolved to justif} r the doctrines and usages 
of the existing church by a confutation, and then to attempt a reconciliation by a con- 
ference of the moderate men of both parties. But the confutation composed hy Eck 

and others made but little impression, and the conference led 
to no result, because both the Pope and Luther were opposed 
to any further concessions. The unity of the church could 
now be conquered only by the sword. The Protestant princes, 
and the important cities, rejected the order of the diet 
which forbade the spread of their teaching, and denom- 
inated them a sect ; they then left the diet. After their 
departure it was resolved to root up the new sect, and to put 
swiss mountain cannon, under the ban all the adherents of it who did not, within a 
(XlVth Century.) given time, abandon their innovations. But this edict did 
not frighten the princes, or the Wittenberg reformer. The princes thought more of 
their faith than of the Emperor's favor, and Luther in his confidence composed the 
immortal hymn, " Our God is a strong castle." . 

§ 325. The reformed church of Germany was, unfortunately, sodn divided into the 
Lutheran and the Zwinglian. Ulrich Zwingli of Toggenburg, a classically educated and 
liberal clergyman of republican principles, was a priest of Zurich, when the Franciscan 
zwingii, monk, Samson, appeared there to sell indulgences. Zwingli opposed with 
ij,84-i53i. all his might this and other abuses of the Church, and attacked with great 
energy the Swiss custom of serving as hireling soldiers in foreign wars. He was a prac- 
tical, sensible man, more bent upon the improvement of morality than upon purity of doc- 
trine and of faith. He went very thoroughly to work, seeking to re-establish the simple 
life of primitive Christianity. He was bravely supported by the council of Zurich, and 
with their help he transformed the teaching and the usages of the Church : he removed 
all images, crosses, altars and organs, and so ordered the administration of the Lord's 
Supper, that it resembled the lovefeast of the early Church, and became simply a token 
of remembrance and of mutual love in Jesus Christ. This entangled Zwingli in a 
fatal conflict with Luther. The German reformer rejected Zwingli's interpretation of 
"this is my body" into "this betokens my body," and maintained that Christ was 
bodily present in the sacrament, although the bread and wine were not trans-substan- 
tiated. Philip of Hesse convened a conference at Marburg, and tried in vain to 
1529. effect a reconciliation. Luther declared that Zwingli's opinion was a 

denial of Christ, and with the words, "You have, another spirit in you," refused the 
hand that Zwingli offered him with tears. Luther also advised a separation of his 



414 



THE MODERN AGE. 



adherents from the South German cities, which had adopted Zwingli's views. On this 
account, the latter presented a separate creed of their own, to the Diet of Augsburg. 
§ 326. Zwingli's teachings produced a great excitement in Switzerland. In 
Zurich, Basel, Berne and Sehaffhausen, and in the valley of the Rhine, the Church was 
reformed according to Zwingli's principles. In St. Gall, Glarus and other cantons, the 
parties were equally divided. But in the forest cantons the ancient usages prevailed. 
The monks and clergy were very powerful among the shepherds and peasants of Lake 
Luzerne, and moreover the hireling Swiss soldiers came principally from this region. 
These cantons made an alliance with Austria, and forcibly put down every reform. 




death of zwingli. ( Weekener.) 



Berne and Zurich, on the other hand, urged the reformation with equal violence. A 
conflict was inevitable ; especialty as Zwingli was determined upon such political 
changes as would make Berne and Zurich supreme in Switzerland. The clergy of both 
parties insulted each other with impunity ; this increased the excitement, and 2)rovoked 
tumults. Zurich and Berne now blocked the highways and prevented the movement 
of goods and provisions ; this excited the rage of Luzerne, and the forest cantons ; 
they armed themselves secretly and invaded Zurich. The latter, abandoned by the 
people of Berne, marched their little army of two thousand men, against an enemy 
four times as strong, and were defeated utterly in the battle of Cappel. Zwingli, 
i53i. who marched to *he field as chaplain, fell beside the banner of the city, 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



415 



and with him fell the best men of the reform His body -was mutilated by the angry 
foe, then burned and the ashes of it strewn to the winds. As a result the old church 
was restored in many places that had favored the new doctrines, and Switzerland was 
divided about religion for all future time. 

2. The "Wars op the Hapsburgs against France. 

§ 327. Karl V, ruled an empire the like of which had not existed since the 

cHariea v., days of Karl the Great (Charlemagne). Before he was of age he was 

1S19-15S9. lord of the wealthy Netherlands, which were his paternal inheritance; 

f isss. as a young man he succeeded to the Spanish monarchy, upon the death 




CHARLES v. 



of his grandfather, Ferdinand the Catholic, and with these he obtained Naples and 
Sicily, and the newly-discovered lands in America : in his mature manhood he inherited 
the Austrian estates, and was elected the successor of his grandfather Maximilian, as 
German emperor. He could say with truth, that "the sun never set in bis dominion." 
He was a man of singular intelligence, and unwearying activity ; great as an adminis- 



416 



THE MODERN AGE. 



trator and a brave leader of armies. His adversary and rival was King Francis the 
wancis r., First, of France ; — a handsome and powerful man renowned for his 
i.->ir,-is-i?. love of art and science, for chivalrous bearing and for his courage ; 
famous also for his despotic government, bis love of pleasure, and his fondness for 
beautiful women. Francis and Charles hated each other with deadly jealousy. Each 
wished to be the first prince of Europe, and each eagerly sought the imperial 
crown. Charles was the victor, and Francis became his determined foe, seeking by 




every means to weaken his authority. This produced four wars, of which Milan was 
1515. the chief occasion. The battle of Marignano threw this beautiful 

dukedom into the hands of the French. But Charles claimed it as an imperial fief, 
and marched a great army into Italy. At that time wars were conducted with hireling 
soldiers and no nation could stand up against the Swiss and Germans. Their muskets 




& 



P4 



frl 
El 
<! 

CO 

B 
H 



418 



THE MODERN AGE. 



made short work of the knightly warfare of the Middle Age, and their cannon broke 
lata. the castles into ruins. The French were conquered. They lost Milan 

lsaa. and Genoa, and retreated across the Alps. Bayard, " the knight with- 

out fear and without stain," was one of the sacrifices of this campaign. The Con- 
stable Bourbon, the richest and mightiest nobleman in France, in order to revenge him- 
self for the insults and injuries which he had received from Francis, entered the 
H21,. service of the Emperor and now led the imperial army into southern 

France. But the brave citizens of Marseilles compelled it to withdraw. 

§ 328. Francis I., smarting from his defeat, and eager to regain his lost terri- 
tory, placed himself at the head of a well equipped army and marched into Italy. But 
he was held back at Pavia, during which time the Constable Bourbon obtained fresh 

troops from Germany and united with the 
Spanish general, Pescara. But want of 
money and provisions brought the allied 
army into great distress, while the camp of 
the French overflowed with abundance. 
Bourbon and Frundsberg thereupon ex- 
cited their soldiers to storm the French 
camp. Surprising them at night the battle 
1325. of Pavia took place in 

which Francis was defeated and taken 
prisoner. Ten thousand soldiers were 
killed or drowned ; Francis was kept at 
Madrid for a j r ear, and compelled to sign 
a peace in which he promised to renounce 
is2e. his claims to Milan, and 

to give up the duchy of Burgundy. But 
the French king had hardly reached home 
when the Pope released him from his 
oath, and formed the holy league, in order 
to free Italy from Spanish rule. This 
league consisted of the Pope, the King 
of England, the King of France, and a 
few Italian princes. The rage of war once 
more broke loose in Italy, and the recruiting drum went beating through every German 
town. As it was a fight against the Pope, the Lutherans enlisted in throngs, so that 
Frundsberg soon led a powerful army across the Alps, and united once more with the 
Constable Bourbon. But money was "too scanty to satisfy the troops. The soldiers 
mutinied and Frundsberg died of apoplexj 7 . The troops demanded to be led to Rome : 
Bourbon yielded. On the sixth of Ma} r , 1527, the Spanish and German soldiers 
i52i. climbed the walls of the eternal city ; among the first to fall was 

Bourbon. The robber band now broke through the streets of the city, plundering the 
palaces and the dwellings, robbing the churches of their ornaments and their vessels, 
and mocking the Pope and the cardinals. Clement VII., was obliged to purchase his 
liberty upon hard conditions, and took the first opportunity to escape. The Emperor 
expressed great sorrow for the outrages that the head of Christendom had endured. 




THE CHEVALIER BAYARD. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



419 



The French meanwhile made conquests in Upper Italy, and then marched to Naples in 
order to take this kingdom from the Spaniards. Disease however wasted their army, 

i53s. and as the imperial troops were also dying rapidly from the effects of 

their debaucheries, both parties were anxious for peace. The mother of Francis, and 

1529. the aunt of Charles, now intervened and brought about the "Ladies 




THE TROOPS DEMAND TO BE LED TO ROME. ( Vierge.) 



Peace " of Cambray. Francis renounced his claims to Milan, and paid two million 
crowns for the ransom of his sons, but retained possession of Burgundy. Maximilian 
Sforza got back Milan as an imperial fief. The Pope and the Italian princes then made 



420 



THE MODERN AGE. 



their peace. Charles V. was crowned by Clement, King of Lombardy, and Emperor 
of Rome and the Pope was promised the destruction of the heretics and the return of 
is3o. the. Medici to Florence. The latter happened immediately; Florence 

was conquered and deprived of its republican constitution. But the former was not so 
easy to accomplish. The Diet of Augsburg, which was convened immediately led to 
no result. 

§ 329. But Francis had by no means given up Milan. When Maximilian Sforza 
1535. died a few years later he made an alliance with the Turks to accom- 

plish this end. Charles about the same time conquered Tunis and brought to an end 
1535. the piratical kingdom of Hayraddin. By this great achievement he 

gave freedom to 20,000 Christian slaves. Francis now made a rapid march to Upper 
Italy, taking possession of Savoy and Piedmont, the duke of which countries was in 

dose alliance with the Emperor. But the 
next year Charles marched an army into 
i53s. Provence in order to attack 

his adversary in his own country. He 
was obliged to withdraw, as the French gen- 
eral, Montmorenci, converted all the land 
between the Rhone and the Alpine passes 
into a desert, and threatened the imperial 
army with destruction by starvation. But 
all Christendom was outraged at Francis' 
alliance with the Turks, especially as these 
were making such ravages in Lower Itaty 
i53s. and in the Greek islands. 

Pope Paul III. offered therefore his media- 
tion, and brought about the truce of Nice, 
which left to each combatant what he had in 
his hands. A personal interview of the two 
monarchs appeared to have effected a rec- 
onciliation, and Charles was so convinced 
German landsknechts. {16th Century.) ' of the good faith of his antagonist, that 
is3». when he was obliged to visit the Netherlands the following year he 

went through Paris. But the friendship was of short duration. In 1541 Charles 
tail. undertook a second African campaign, in order to annihilate the pirates 

of Algiers, who were scouring the Mediterranean Sea. But the storms of autumn, 
and the attacks of his enemies, made this expedition a failure. The Emperor lost 
heavily in ships and men, and was obliged to retreat. This disaster filled the king of 
1542-1544. France with new hopes ; he therefore made a new alliance with the 
Sultan, # ancl began a fourth war against the Emperor. But the latter marched into 
France, with a great army from Germany, and moved rapidly upon Paris. Francis 
1544. ■ was glad enough to conclude the peace of Crespy. This estab- 
lished the Spanish superiority in Italy. Three years later Francis died. But his 
Hem-M ii., son Henry IT., followed the same path. He allied himself with the 
i547-i55». Protestant princes of Germany, while he oppressed the reformed relig- 
ion in his own country. And when finally Charles V. passed from the scene of action, 




THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



421 



the war between Philip II. and the French king was continued for several years, until 
isso. the peace of Chateau-Cambresis put an end to the struggle of both 

monarchs, without, however, destroying the hostility between Franoe and Spain. 

3. The Religious Wars in Germany. 

§ 330. The wars with France, and the danger from the Turks prevented the 
Emperor from carrying out the decrees of the Augsburg Diet against the German 
Protestants. While the Ottoman armies were threatening Austria, he thought it 
unwise to compel by force the return of the people to the Catholic Church. But the 
imperial courts were beginning to proceed against the evangelical princes and cities, 
in order to deprive them of their ecclesiastical estates. The Elector of Saxony, and 
the Landgrave of Hesse took the lead, therefore, in forming a union at Schmalkald, in 

i53i. which they promised to protect 

each other, if any Lutheran prince or city was at- 
tacked for its adherence to the word of God. The 
Emperor thought it best to make peace with the 
union which he did the next year at Nuremberg. 

153a. Both parties agreed not to attack 

each other before the meeting of a church council, 
and meanwhile legal proceedings should be sus- 
pended. This agreement tied the hands of the 
Protestants and yet it favored the extension of 
the evangelical doctrine throughout Germany. 
The most important conquest of the Reform was 
Wurtemberg. Duke Ulric, a passionate and cruel 
man, had been driven from his possessions by the 

(iai9.) Swabian union. He wandered for 

many years in foreign lands, and his dukedom 
was governed by Austria until the landgrave, 
Philip of Hesse, determined to restore him to 
his possessions. He marched into Wurtemberg, 

1534. overcame the Austrians, and re- 

stored Ulric to his people, who forgetting their 
former oppressions, received him back with joy. As Ulric had become a convert to 
evangelical doctrine, he permitted it to be preached throughout Wurtemberg, and 
the church of the dukedom was soon transformed. The University of Tubingen, 
which had been established in 1477, became one of the chief nurseries of evangelical 
learning. 

§ 331. But the new church suffered greatly from strange doctrine. The Ana- 
baptists had not disappeared with the death of Thomas Mlinzer. Fugitives propa- 
gated it, so that it reappeared in many places, although it was opposed by the re- 
formers, and put down by the magistrates. The worst form of it appeared in 
the city of Miinster. The reformation had taken place with such violence that the 
153*1535. bishop had been compelled to fly. But it soon appeared that Rott- 
man, the most influential preacher of the town, was an ana-baptist, and the ana-bap- 
tist party obtained such power that they soon were in possession of the magistracy, 




henry ii. (Glouet.) 



42S 



THE MODERN AGE. 



whereupon the}' drove out all who were not of the same faith, and shared their prop- 
erty among themselves. They established a religious commune, in which John Mat- 
thiesen possessed absolute authority. They introduced community of goods, and be- 
gan the defence of the city against the army of the bishop. Matthiesen was soon 
killed, and Bockold took his place. His divine revelations, as he called them, led him 
to follies and to crimes. He turned over the government of the city to twelve elders, 
who were chosen from the wildest fanatics. He then introduced polygamy and put to 
death all that dared to oppose him. One of his adherents was " moved by the spirit 
of God " to propose the title of " King of the new Israel." Bockold put on a crown, 
clothed himself in splendor, erected his throne of justice on the market place of the 
city, and began a reign of sensual wickedness and bloody tyranny. He and his people 

defended themselves with courage and 
endurance for many days. Even when re- 
duced to starvation they continued to 
resist, and when their walls were stormed by 
the enemy they fought with the courage of 
despair. But the city was finally captured 
by the bishop and his allies. The worst 
of the leaders were starved to death in iron 
cages, that were suspended from a tower ; 
the others were beheaded or banished. 
Miinster has been since then a Catholic 
city. A generation later the Ana-baptists 
were transformed by the priest Menno, and 
are now known as Mennonites. They are 
distinguished by simplicity of dress and 
manners, by their rejection of priesthood, in- 
fant baptism, oaths and military service. 
But they have given up the dangerous prin- 
ciples of the early time. They lead a quiet 
life as peasants and farmers. In the North 
German cities the aristocracy were compelled to struggle with the democracy of the 
guilds. In Liibeck the daring Burgomaster, Wullenweber, placed himself at the head 
of the democrats and the discontented, and undertook to conquer for the Hanseatic 
is37. League, the countries of the Baltic. He was already in possession of 

Copenhagen when he was removed from his office and executed as a " revolutionary 
scoundrel." 

§ 332. The reformed church soon won an entrance into the dukedom of Saxony, 
and the electorate of Brandenburg ; for the two princes who had hitherto resisted it, 
both died in 1542. George of Saxony was followed by his brother Henry, who was 
favorable to the Reformation, and Joachim II. received at Spandau the Lord's Supper 
in both forms, and permitted the Protestant teachers to indoctrinate his people. Henry 
of Brunswick would have nothing to do with any faith that he must share with the 
former friend of his youth, now his bitter enemy, the Land-grave of Hesse. But Henry 
1542. was conquered by the troops of the Saxons and of the Hessians, and 

led to prison. Along the Rhine and the Neckar the same progress was made, and the 




MAJOR AND LIEUTENANT OF GERMAN LANDS- 
KNECHTS. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



423 




CANNON OF THE 16TH CENTURY. 



Emperor was finally convinced that neither discussions nor diets would heal the schism. 

His hope rested entirety upon the general council which Pope Paul III. had convened 

ibis. at Trent. But the Protestants rejected a council which they regarded 

as partisan, and under the control of the Pope, and demanded a church council of the 

German people. This destroyed the Emperors 
last hope of a peaceful solution and determined 
him to restore the unity of the church by force 
of arms. In this same year Luther died in his 
is4«. native town of Eisleben, whither 

he had gone to reconcile some quarreling 
friends. 

§ 333. When the Emperor determined upon war, he made a secret treaty with 
the Pope, with the spiritual princes, and with the Duke of Bavaria. But his most im- 
portant ally was the Protestant duke, Maurice of Saxony. This young prince bitterly 
disliked his cousin the elector, John Frederick, and was greatly discontented with the 
course of things. He therefore abandoned the league of Schmalkald, and his father- 
in-law, Philip of Hesse, and joined the Emperor. He promised the latter obedience and 
a recognition of the decrees of Trent and he was promised in return by Charles an in- 
crease of territory, and the electoral dignity 
of Saxony. The Protestants had not the 
least knowledge of these alliances. Indeed 
when the Schmaldkaldic army marched to 
the field, the Elector entrusted the govern- 
ment of his dominion to his cousin Maurice. 
Schartlin, the general of the South Ger- 
man cities, wished to attack the Emperor at 
once, but he was overruled. He then pro- 
posed to march into the Tyrol, cut off the 
Italian troops, and to dissolve the council 
of Trent ; but this too was prohibited. Thus 
Charles gained time to get his troops from 
Italy, and to take up a secure position. 
The Protestants lost their opportunity in 
fruitless skirmishes, until Charles by a junc- 
tion with troops in the Netherlands, was 
able to take the offensive. But the cold 
weather proved so damaging to the Span- 
iards and the Italians, that the Protestants 
expected to conclude a favorable peace, when the news reached them that Maurice had 
turned traitor ami marched into the lands of the Elector of Saxony. John Frederick 
immediately hastened home ; the Landgrave of Hesse and the other leaders followed 
his example ; and the army of the league of Schmalkald was dissolved. 

§ 334. South Germany now stood open to the Emperor. Well-meaning counsel- 
lors tried to induce him to make religion free, and thus to bring all classes back to their 
allegiance and to their obedience. But Charles wished to restore the unity of the 
church, and, at the same time, to give to the imperial power its ancient authority. He 




German LANDSKNECHTS.(i67/i Century.) 



424 



THE MODERN AGE. 



therefore called upon the South German princes and cities to submit and to renounce 
the league of Schmalkald. The frightened cities immediately obeyed. Ulm delivered 
up its cannon, and purchased the forgiveness of the Emperor. Augsburg was abund- 
antly able to resist, but the merchants determined to surrender. Frankfort and 
Strasburg followed. Duke Ulric of Wurtemberg paid a heavy fine, and delivered 
over his strongholds to the imperial troops. The Elector of Cologne announced his 
dignity, and made way for a Catholic successor, who soon restored the mass. In 1547, 
all South Germany had been reduced to obedience. 

§ 335. Meanwhile John Frederick had defeated Maurice and conquered Saxony, 
except Dresden and Leipzig. The Protestant population greeted him everywhere with 
joy, and he could easily have collected an army with which to oppose the Emperor, but 
his allegiance had by no means died out. He refused the offered help. But Maurice 

now appealed to the Emperor. The latter 
hastened with his army to Bohemia, and 
marched against the Elector. The imperial 
troops, 27,000 strong, crossed the Elbe, 
surprised John Frederick while he was at 
worship, and defeated him in the battle of 
is-*?. Miihlberg. John himself 

was taken prisoner. The Emperor tried to 
frighten him by condemning him to death. 
But not venturing to execute this sen- 
tence, he changed it into imprisonment 
for life, upon condition that John Frederick 
would surrender his fortresses and transfer 
his land, along with the electoral dignity, to 
Maurice. John bore his imprisoment with 
submission and pious resignation. Philip 
of Hesse was the next to be chastised. 
Maurice and Joachim of Brandenburg inter- 
ceded for him. The Emperor replied, "If he 
surrenders unconditionally, begs,for mercy, 
and gives up his fortresses, he shall not be punished with death, or life-long imprison- 
ment." Finally the Emperor agreed orally that Philip should not be injured in body 
or estate, nor troubled with imprisonment. Trusting to this promise Philip surren- 
dered, and accompanied by the two electors, he went to the imperial camp, and, falling 
upon his knees before the Emperor, begged for mercy. The Duke of Alba invited him 
to supper, and then took him prisoner. The Emperor had his two chief enemies in his 
power, and carried them with him when he left Saxony. But Maurice, who had 
pledged his honor to his father-in-law, was angry at this breach of faith, and Charles 
had reason to repent it. 

§ 336. The Council of Trent opened its deliberations on the 13th of December, 
1545. The proceedings were conducted by the papal legate. The assembly consisted 
of uncompromising adherents of the papacy. The Protestants, therefore, found little 
satisfaction in their conclusions. The Emperor, who hoped above all things to bring 
about a union of both confessions, was greatly displeased. He protested and wished 




BISHOPS IN PLTJVIALE AND CASULA. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



425 



the conclusions to remain unpublished, especially as the Protestant states had 
agreed to submit to the council, if certain points were reconsidered. Paul III. not 
only published the results of the council, but he removed the coun'cil itself to Bologna. 

is,i*. The Emperor was now exceedingly angry. He forbade the clergy to 

leave Trent, but was able to retain a minority only. He then published the Augsburg 

i5*s. Interim. In this document the cup and marriage of priests were con- 

ceded to the evangelical church, and some concessions were made, touching justifica- 
tion and the mass. But the old ceremonies were to be retained in worship. The 
Protestant princes were willing to accept this Interim, but the cities and the preachers 
refused. The latter fled from their home to North Germany, which had refused the 
Interim. Four hundred preachers became fugitives, most of them going to Magde- 
burg. In Saxony the Leipzig Interim was proclaimed, in the composition of which 
Melanchthon was thought to have made too many concessions. Here also many 
preachers left their parishes. Magdeburg 
was put under the imperial ban. Never- 
theless a multitude of pamphlets, satires, 
mocking poems and caricatures issued from 
the city, all of which breathed hatred and 
scorn for the Interim and its makers. 

§ 337. The Emperor seemed now to 
have reached his goal. The council returned 

i55i. to Trent, and even Protest- 

ant delegates were admitted. Already he 
was thinking of making his son his succes- i 
sor, and the imperial crown hereditary in his 
family, when suddenly he found an unex- 
pected adversary in the man to whom he 
owed his victory, Maurice of Saxony. Maur- 
ice secretly made an alliance with several 
German princes, and secured the help of 
the French king, Henry II., b} r a treaty in 
which he permitted Henry to garrison Metz, 
and other imperial cities. He offered the 
city of Magdeburg pardon and religious lib-GERMAN drummer and color bearer. {16th 
erty, and thus induced it to surrender. Century.) 

Charles was warned, but Maurice dissimulated with such skill, that he easily deceived 
the Emperor, who thought it impossible that he should be outwitted by a German. 
Suddenly Maurice entered Augsburg, and marched into the Tyrol. He was ap- 

i5S2. proaching Innsbruck to take the Emperor prisoner, when a mutiny 

among his German troops gave Charles the opportunity to escape. The council of 
Trent dissolved in a panic. Charles set the elector, John Frederick, at liberty, and 
then fled by night, leaving to his brother Ferdinand the work of making peace. 
Ferdinand immediately concluded the treaty of Passau, which guaranteed religious 

1552. freedom to those who adopted the Augsburg confession, abolished the 

Interim, set the Landgrave of Hesse at liberty, and declared that the decrees of Trent. 




426 THE MODERN AGE. 

were not binding upon Protestants. The past was forgiven, and a permanent peace 
provided for. 

§ 338. This treaty of Passau was the last work of Maurice. His ally, Albert 
of Brandenburg, refused to accept it, and continued his ravages in lower Saxony. 

iss3. Maurice marched against him to conquer a peace, but in a conflict of 

horsemen he was mortally wounded. Albert continued his devastations, but was 
finally captured and condemned to death, but escaped to France. In 1555, the peace 
of Augsburg was adopted. By this peace the religion of the ruler determined the 
religion of the subject. Those who would not follow their prince might emigrate. 
The chief contention was over the clause that required the spiritual princes, who should 
hereafter adopt the reform doctrines, to forfeit their estates and revenues. This point 
was left undecided, and became the " seed of bloody harvests." 

§ 339. The peace of Augsburg destroyed the Emperor's cherished hopes. He 
determined to abdicate and to retire to a cloister. In a solemn assembly at Brussels 
he transferred to his son, Philip, the government of the Netherlands, and a short time 

lass. afterward the kingdoms of Spain and Naples, as well as the New World. 

The Austrian states, and the conduct of German affairs, he had already given to his 
brother, Ferdinand. He then retired to West Spain to the cloister, San Juste. Here 
he lived two years in retirement, employed in religious exercises and pious meditation, 
but not altogether careless of the affairs of the empire. Ferdinand I., chosen emperor 
by the German princes, then united the imperial crown with the Austrian hereditary 
kingdom, and held faithfully to the religious peace which he had promised to observe. 

4. Pbogeess op the Refoematton in Eueope. 

a. Lutheranism and Calvinism. 

§ 340. Charles V., by his ecclesiastical policy, prevented the conquest of the 
whole German nation by the reform movement. The treaty of Passau and the peace 
of Augsburg created a divided Germany. The Lutheran reform extended gradually 
from Saxony and Hesse to the neighboring countries, acquired supremacy in North 
Germany, made great progress in Franeonia and Swabia, and from Strasburg spread into 
Alsace and Lorraine. It spread also along the Vistula and the Baltic,' where the 
grandmaster of the Teutonic order, Albert of Brandenburg, united with the evangel- 
ical church, converted the province of Prussia into a hereditary dukedom, and ac- 
knowledged the overlord-ship of Poland. The Grandmaster of the Knights of the 
Sword did the same thing in Courland and Livland. But the House of Hapsburg, the 
dukes of Bavaria, and the ecclesiastical princes of Germany, were enthusiastically de- 
voted to the ancient church, while Ingolstadt was a nursery for the old faith. Never- 
theless the two emperors, Ferdinand I., and Maximilian II., refused to do violence to 
the consciences of their subjects, and the evangelical doctrine soon had numerous con- 
fessors in Austrian territory. The Protestants obtained toleration and built many 
churches, and in Hungary and Transylvania they were more numerous than the Catho- 
lics. In Bohemia, the Hussites became for the most part Lutheran, but the later 
princes of Austria abolished the rights of the Protestants, and gave exclusive domin- 
ion to the Roman church. The doctrine of Zwingli was adopted by several South Ger- 
man cities, but spread no farther. When, however, Calvin elaborated the principles of 
Zwingli into a complete system of doctrines, the Calvinistic Reformed church in Ger- 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



427 



many grew quite rapidly. Frederick the Third, of the Palatinate, introduced it into 

1559. his dominion, and caused the composition of the Heidelberg Catechism. 

It found its way also into Hesse, Bremen, and Brandenburg. Melanchthon and his dis- 
ciples were at heart Calvinists, and the publication of his opinions brought upon him 

iseo. so much opposition and defamation that he died in great sorrow. His 

adherents, who were called Philipists or Crypto-Calvinists, were bitterly persecuted in 

isso. Saxony. The formula of Concord, which was signed by thirty 

Lutheran princes and cities in the year 1580, was intended to restore unity, but only 
widened the breach between 
the Calvinistsand the Luth- 
erans. Chancellor Crell, who 
tried to convert Saxony to 
Calvinism, was first impris- 
oned and then beheaded as a 

ieot. traitor. 

§ 341. Switzerland like- 
wise had two evangelical 
doctrines, although the teach- 
ing of Zwingli was \>y no 
means so far from the system 
of Calvin as that of Luther. 

caivin, Calvin had 

laoo-issj. fled from 
France to Geneva, in which 
Farel had already begun the 
preaching of reform. At the 
latter's earnest entreaty, he 
remained in Geneva, where he 
exercised a powerful influence 
upon the constitution, relig- 
ion, nibrals and culture of 
the city. He was a man of 
lofty intelligence and moral 
power ; severe with himself 
and severe with others ; opposed to every earthly pleasure, he governed men purely 
by a strong will. In his doctrine he followed Zwingli, although in his views 
of predestination and grace he went bey r ond him, and even beyond Augustine. 
Like Zwingli he desired to restore the simplicity of primitive Christian worship. 
Pictures, decoration, organs, candles, crucifixes he banished from the church. 
Worship consisted in prayer, preaching and the singing of psalms. Sunday (or 
the Sabbath) was the only church festival. The constitution of the Calvinistic 
church was republican in form. The congregation elected elders who administered 
discipline, chose its own clergymen, watched over the morals of the people, and 
the relief of the poor. Clergymen and elders together formed the Synods which 
Legislated for the churches. The Calvinists forbade the theater and the dance, and 




JOHN CALVIN. 



428 



THE MODERN AGE. 



the pleasures of society, and consequently their teaching took no such root in the 
higher classes as in the others. 

§ 342. Calvinism extended from Geneva into southern France. Its adherents 
were soon so numerous that they could enter upon a desperate struggle with the rul- 
ing church. The French court wavered for a while, but political reasons decided it to 




HENRY VIII. 

stand by the Roman hierarchy. The so-called reformed faith was forbidden. Cal- 
vinistic preachers were burned at the stake, the followers of Calvin were nick-named 
Huguenots, and persecuted with great bitterness. From France and Switzerland, Cal- 
vinism spread into the Netherlands, and in the northern provinces became victorious 
after a desperate struggle. In Scotland the new teaching was opposed by the court 
and the clergy, and many of its confessors were committed to the flames. Mary of 
Guise, the queen regent, was eagerly devoted to the Roman church, and in conjunc- 
tiop with Cardinal Beaton did her utmost to root out heresv. But the Cardinal was 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



429 



murdered by a mob of conspirators ia his own house. The regent, after a three years 
struggle against the reform, passed to another world, and John Knox, who had been a 
iso/. pupil of Calvin in Geneva, conquered Scotland for the reform teach- 

ing. The confession of faith, the form of worship, and the Presbyterian constitution 
of the Calviuists, were introduced into Scotland, the mass forbidden as idolatry, and 
the church property confiscated. Cloisters and cathedrals were destroyed in an out-, 




CARDINAL THOMAS WOLSEY. 



break of blind rage. The Scottish church soon came to be called the Presbyterian. 
The Puritans of England held the same principles, but they were compelled to yield to 
the adherents of episcopacy. Numerous sects started into existence, which received 
their development on the free soil of North America. 



b. The Founding of the Anglican Church. 

§ 343. England at first met the adherents of Luther with bloody persecution, and 



430 



THE MODERN AGE. 



Henry viii,, king Henry VIII., by his learned treatise againstthe German reformer. 
1SOO-1S4?. acquired from the Pope the title of "Protector of the Faith.'" But 
Henry's adherence to the Pope was changed into hatred, when Clement VII. refused 
to declare void his marriage with Catharine of Aragon, the aunt of the Emperor 
Charles V. The king was partly moved by doubts of the validi.ty of his marriage 
with the widow of his deceased brother, and partly by his desire to marry the beauti- 
ful Anne Boleyn. Af- 
ter waiting many years 
for a decision from 
Rome, he grew weary 
of delay and determined 
upon the separation of 
the English Church from 
the papacy. He re- 
moved Cardinal Wolsey 
from office, made 
Thomas Cranmer Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, 
is33. and rest- 

ing upon the opinions of 
English and foreign un- 
iversities, he declared 
his marriage with Cath- 
arine to be null and void. 
He then compelled the 
clergy to recognize him 
as the head of the Eng- 
lish church, and induced 
parliament to pass stat- 
15.14. utes abol- 

ishing the authority and 
the power of the pope 
in England. He dis- 
solved the monasteries, 
turning monks and 
nuns hungry and help- 
less into the world, 
and confiscated their 
property partly in favor 
of the crown, and 
partly in favor of his friends. The institutions of the Catholic Church were for 
the most part untouched, and the statutes of the Six Articles (called by the people 
is3o. The Bloody Articles) commanded upon penalty of death the observ- 

ance of celibacy, of auricular confession of monastic vows, and of the mass, and re- 
quired all to believe in transubstantiation, and the witholding of the cup. Bishop 
Fisher and Sir Thomas More (once lord-chancellor and author of Utopia) died on the 




THOMAS MORE TAKING LEAVE OF HIS DAUGHTER. (A. Zick.) 



432 



THE MODERN AGE. 



scaffold because they refused to acknowledge the King as the head of the church. The 
Pope excommunicated Henry and his adherents, at the moment when the dissolu- 
tion of the monasteries provoked a rebellion in the North of England. Henry replied 
by executing the friends and relatives of the English cardinal Pole, who had published 
the bull of excommunication, and by handing abbots and monks over to the executioner. 
§ 344. The rejected Catharine soon d-ied in exile. But Anne Boleyn did not long 
1536. survive her. Hardly was the second wife beheaded by her jealous hus- 

band, when the beautiful Jane Seymour died in child-bed. Henry then married Anne 
of Cleves, but neither her face nor her manners pleased the King, so he put her away 
and Cromwell, who had brought about the marriage, fell into disfavor, and was soon 
1540. beheaded. Catharine Howard, Henry's fifth wife, expiated her unfaith- 

15^2. fulness upon the scaffold, and Catharine Parr, who was eagerly devoted 

to the Reformation, escaped death only by her great intelligence. Even on his own 
death-bed Henry signed death warrants. 




burning heretics. (A. de Neuville.) 

§ 345. Edward VI. was but ten years old when his father died. This necessi- 
Edwarti ri,. tated a regency, in which the Duke of Somerset and Arch-bishop Cran- 
1547-1543. mer exercised the greatest influence. The first became Protector of Eng- 
land, ursurped the whole authority of the state, and greatly favored the plans of Cranmer 
for the establishment of the Anglican church. Cranmer proceeded with care and mod- 
eration to blend together Catholic and Protestant elements. " The Book of Common 
Prayer " was composed in English from the old English missals. Festivals and the 
worship of the saints were abolished, the Lord's Supper was administered in bothforms, 
the clergy were allowed to marry and the Confession of Faith, or the thirty-nine articles, 
were brought into substantial harmony with the confessions of the continental reform- 
ers. The episcopal form of government, the use of the surplice, and other features of 
the English Church, lean to the Roman Catholic system. But the king and not the 
pope was made the head of the church, archbishops and bishops being appointed by 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



433 



isb2. him. Somerset by his tyranny made himself many enemies, who 

finally accomplished his execution. The Duke of Northumberland succeeded him and 
governed the realm even more absolutely. He persuaded Edward on his death-bed 
to alter the last will of his father, and to name as his successor Lady Jane Grey, a 
grandniece of Henry VIII. But hatred for Northumberland, and for his son Dudley, the 
husband of Lady Jane, brought about a reaction in favor of Mary. By the declaration 







MARY TUDOR. 



that she would disturb no one in matters of belief, the people were brought to her sup- 
siary Tudor, port, and placed her upon the throne. Northumberland died upon the 
1553-1SS8. scaffold. Dudley and Lady Jane languished for a time in prison, and 
then were executed. Lady Jane was the most cultivated woman of her time, beauti- 
ful, pious, and singularly intelligent. 

§ 346. Mary did not keep her promise. Brought up in the Catholic faith, for 
which her mother suffered, her chief thought was the restoration of the papal power. 
She induced her parliament to abolish the reforms of Edward VI., restored the former 
28 



434 



THE MODERN AGE. 



religion of Rome, and arranged with Cardinal Pole, whom she had appointed Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, measures to root our heresy. The bishops who resisted were 
dejjosed ; Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley were burned to death at Oxford, and the 
flames of martyrdom were kindled throughout the realm. Not to attend the mass was 
a capital offense. Crowds of fugitives crossed the channel and sought protection in 




ELIZABETH. 

Germany and Switzerland. Persecution became hotter when Mary married Philip of 

Spain. But her sorrow over the evident dislike of her husband shortened her days. 

The people called her Bloody Mary, but she was only a gloomy, unfortunate and dis- 

xnixabetii, appointed woman. Her half-sister Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne 

isss-i603. Boleyn, exchanged her cell in the tower for a royal palace, and by the 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN AGE. 



435 



ises. Act of Uniformity restored the church establishment of Edward. The 

book of common prayer and the thirty-nine articles were made obligatory, and the 
court of High Commission appointed by the Queen to supervise the affairs of the church. 
The returning fugitives hoped to induce her to adopt the principles of Calvin, but 
Elizabeth had no mind for the simplicity of the puritan forms, or for their notions of 




church government. This led to the separation of some of the Puritans from the An- 
glican church, and to the gradual development of a Presbyterian party inside the estab- 
lishment. The separatists were persecuted and driven from the kingdom into Holland. 
Presbyterians inside the church organization first made their power felt under the 
Stuarts. 



436 



THE MODERN AGE. 



c. 



Gnstavua 1'asa. 



1523-1500. 



The Reformation in the Three Scandinavian Kingdoms. 
§ 347. Christian II., the last king under the Union of Calmar, so embittered the 
christian ii., nobility by his cruelty that the insurrections broke out in Sweden and 
i5i3-i523. Denmark. These led to the dissolution of the union, and to the intro- 
1559. duction of the evangelical church. In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa was 

the author of this ecclesiastical and political change, and the founder of a powerful dy- 
nasty. He had been taken to Denmark by Christian II. as a hostage, but he escaped 
to Liibeck, where he was protected and furnished with money with which to liberate 
his native land. In the very year in which the massacre of Stockholm filled Sweden 
i52o. with terror, Gustavus landed on his native shores. He escaped a thous- 

and dangers by his own resolute courage, and the fidelity of his coun- 
trymen, and although the agents of Christian pursued him everywhere,* 
he was able to gather about him a band of peasants who defeated the Danish troops 
ism. and their allies, and soon took possession of Upsala. The glory of his 

name, and the cry of freedom soon brought him adherents from every section. Lii- 
beck supported him with troops, 
cannon, and money, so that he 
compelled the Danish garrison to 
1533. leave the kingdom, 

and having been chosen king by 
the Swedish diet, he entered 
Stockholm in triumph. The new 
monarchy was at first elective, but 
twenty years later the diet de- 
clared the crown hereditary in 
the male line of Vasa. The 
154,4. royal estate, how- 

ever, had been so wasted by 
the Danes, that the dignity of 
the crown required increased revenues. The Reformation furnished a welcome 
opportunity. The people, instructed in the new doctrine by the brothers Petri, ac- 
cepted it willingly, a»d the diet confiscated the estates of the clergy, inasmuch as 
i52i. they had taken part with the Danes, and showed no interest in the 

independence of their country. Gustavus then gradually introduced the Reformation 
everywhere, and took from the church the largest part of her revenue. The nobility, 
in order to enrich themselves, supported his undertaking. The bishops, after a long 
resistance, recognized the new order of things, and were allowed to remain as superin- 
tendents of the church, but dependent upon the king and limited by consistories. 

§ 348. Denmark, meanwhile, had also undergone a great change. Frederick I. 
Fretierick i., of Schleswig-Holstein had been acknowledged as king by the no- 
1523-1533. bility and the people, and had strengthened himself against his rival, 
Christian II., by encouraging the evangelical teaching. While Frederick was conced- 
ing to the Protestants equality with the Catholics, and arranging for the independence 
of the Danish church, Christian II. had gone over to the Emperor and Pope, and with 
christian in., their help was making an attack upon Denmark. But he was captured 
1534,-1559. and imprisoned for sixteen years in a gloomy tower. Christian III., the 




OLD SWEDISH LEATHER CANNON. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 437 

son of Frederick, completed ■ the victory of the Lutheran church in Denmark. The 
clergy forfeited most of their estates to the crown and the nobility, while the bishops 
became wholly dependent upon the government. In Norway the new church was es- 
tablished by the peasants, but in Iceland the bishops and their adherents fell with arms 
in their hands. The Swedish and Danish nobility acquired, by the Reformation, great 
wealth, power, and privileges. 

§ 349. Gustavus Vasa established the welfare of S.weden by good laws, and by 
the encouragement of commerce and of industry. But his sons experienced a bitter 
Erie xiv., fate. Eric XIV. was so violent and so suspicious that he at last became 
iseo-ises. insane. He murdered several members of the Sture family with his 
own hands, and the nobles all quaked with fear. They therefore formed a conspiracy 
under the lead of his brothers, as a result of which Eric was imprisoned and put to 
joaii in., death. His brother, John III., succeeded him. His first wife, the 
15GS-1502. daughter of the Polish king, was a bigoted Catholic, and she in con- 
nection with a Jesuit, who lived in Stockholm secretly as an ambassador, induced to 
the King to restore the ancient faith, and to bring up the young prince Sigismund as a 
Catholic. But the Swedish people earnestly resisted the Catholic ceremonies and John 
repented the undertaking, especially as his second wife worked for the evangelical 
sio>sm>tna, church. But his son Sigismund, who was also king of Poland, suffered 
isos-ieoo. greatly through his Catholic education. When the Swedish diet made 
the evangelical Lutheran religion the sole religion of Sweden, Sigismund refused to 
obey. His uncle Karl was appointed Protector of the Realm. Sigismund defended 
his rights with arms. But he was conquered and given the choice to renounce the 
papacy and retain his kingdom, or to send his son to Sweden to be educated in the 
Lutheran religion. Sigismund refused to send his son, so Karl IX. obtained the crown, 
and a new law of succession secured it to his offspring. 

§ 350. This provoked a war between Sweden and Poland. Under Gustavus 
Kari ix., Adolphus, the son of Karl, this war resulted to the advantage of 
xeoo-iaii. Sweden. Livland, and other provinces, were lost to Poland, whose 
power now steadily decreased. The Polish nobility resisted all attempts to reform the 
church or to reorganize the state. A few persecuted religionists found protection and 
toleration in Poland, and the " dissidents," as the adherents of the new doctrines were 
called, acquired, after many struggles, religious liberty and civil equality. This how- 
ever they were unable to retain. Yet opinions which were rejected by the reformers 
found toleration in Poland, especially the Socinians, a Unitarian sect that rejected the 
mystery of the Trinity. 

d. The Catholic Church. 

§ 351. Spain and Italy were not without traces of the Reformation, but the 
nature of the people, and the severity of the Inquisition hindered the progress of Reform. 
Among the confessors of the new doctrine were scholars and writers like Peter Martyr 
who were compelled to seek safety in foreign lands. Some adopted principles which 
iss3. were rejected by the reformers as false doctrine. Socinus, already 

mentioned, was an Italian and Servetus, who was burned, was a Spaniard. 

The leaders of the Catholic church did not give up the idea of suppressing the 
new doctrine ; wherever they could, they sought to obtain this end by force, and where 



438 



THE MODERN AGE. 



the use of 

r 



force was impossible, they did their utmost to prevent the preaching of the- 

Hadrian VI., P V t e S taut 

15X2-1S23. beliefs. Al- 
most all the popes, even 
Hadrian VI., .and Paul 
III, who earnestly de- 
sired to reform the church, 
were exceedingly severe 
pniii in., against the. 
1534-15-to. Protestants. 
Paul IV, a gloomy octo- 
genarian monk, so pro- 
voked the people by his- 
cruelty, that on the day 
paui xv., of his death 
J555-1559. they muti- 
lated his statues, and 
burned down the house of 
the Inquisition. The 
Council of Trent began 
its third session under Pius 
IV., in January, 1562. 
pins iv., The decrees 
tsBo-iBos. of this coun- 
cil are the fundamental 
doctrines of the Catholie 
church. The confessions 
of faith of the ancient 
councils were declared in- 
fallible, and the creed of 
the church expressed in a 
most indefinite form. Pure 
ethics were re-established, 
church discipline i m- 
Dec. 4, ise3. proved, and 
the clerical order brought 
under closer supervision. 
The Council of Trent com- 
pleted the development of 
the Roman Catholic 
church, and in three cen- 

aregoi-y XIII., tUl'ieS DO 

1572-isss. subsequent 
council was called. Greg- 
ory XIII. reformed the 
calendar by passing from' 




TRIAL BY WATER. 






THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



439 




IGNATIUS LOYOLA. 



the fourth of October to the fifteenth. He also ordered the singing of a Te Deum 
when he received the news of the massacre of Saint Bartholemew. The greatest pope 
of the century was Sixtus V. He began life as a shepherd boy, became a Franciscan, 
status v., then an inquisitor, afterward a cardinal, and finally head of the 
isss-is90. church. He was a powerful ruler, maintaining order with great se- 
verity, and erecting great buildings, and excavating the monuments of antiquity from 
the ruins of ancient Rome. 

§ 352. The Jesuits or " Company of Jesus," were 
the chief support of the popes in their efforts to arrest the 
reformation. This powerful order was founded by Igna- 
15-to. tius Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, a sol- 

dier, a dreamer, an organizer and an enthusiast. Led to 
renounce his military career oy a wound that crippled him 
for life, and by reading the lives of the saints, he made a 
painful pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher. Commanded to 
return and to get an education, he studied with incredible 
perseverance, at Salamanca and Paris, and then sought 
and found six companions who would join him in the con- 
quest of the world for Mary and her Son. They took three 
vows, poverty, chastity and obedience, and then offered themselves unconditionally to 
the Pope. The new order was, after much difficulty, recognized and sanctioned 
Ignatius was its first general, and 
Laynez, one of the six recruits, 
perfected its remarkable constitu- 
tion. This constitution was alto- 
gether unique. The general in 
Rome, commands the " provin- 
cials " or the commanders of the 
provinces, and these in turn com- 
mand subordinates in different 
ranks and degrees. The watch- 
word of the company is obedience. 
The members of the order are 
guarded vigilantly, and all the ties 
that bind them to the world are 
sundered. Candidates must serve 
a long probation, during which 
their qualities and inclinations are 
carefully studied, so that each 
one may be appointed to his 
proper work. Some are sent to the cloister, others trained to science ; some un- 
dertake the instruction of the young, the ablest subtlests are sent to courts and 
palaces, and those endowed with eloquence are used as preachers at home, or sent 
as missionaries to foreign lands. Privileged by the popes in a most extraordinary way, 
and enriched by donations and legacies, the Jesuits acquired a various and powerful 
influence. Their chief end was the overthrow of Protestantism and the suppression of 




SPANISH GALLEASS OF THE 16tH CENTURY. 



440 



THE MODERN AGE. 




o 
eh 
z 

< 

hi 



B 

EH 
El 
< 

B 

— 
Eh 



intellectual freedom. 
This they sought in 
different waj's ; by 
persuasion to bring 
the adherents of the 
new faith back to 
the ancient church, 
by the confessional 
in which they urged 
princes and influen- 
tial persons to oppose 
the Reformation, and 
to limit the freedom 
of belief; by educa- 
tion of the young, in 
which they sought to 
gain the rising gen- 
eration for their 
principles. But the 
order soon became 
the object of popular 
hatred, because it 

destroyed religious 
peace, and taught 

strange doctrines of 
morality. The teach- 
ing that "the end 
justifies the means," 
is not to be found 
just in those words 
among Jesuit max- 
ims, but the doc- 
trine that words and 
oaths when uttered 
have no validity, "if 
the mind thinks other- 
wise," was used by 



them in a most destructive fashion. 



5. The Age op Philip II., (1556-1598) and op Elizabeth (1558-1603). 

§ 353. Philip- II. of Spain was a morose and misanthropic prince, who had three 
aims : — the increase of his dominion, the extermination of Protestantism, and the destruc- 
tion of popular liberties and rights. To reach these, he sacrificed the happiness of na- 
tions, the welfare of his kingdom, the love of his people and of his family. His half- 
i57i. brother Don Juan, who conquered the Turks at Lepanto, was sur- 

rounded by the King with a web of falsehoods, trickery and espionage, so that all his 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



441 



undertakings were baffled and he himself hurried to his grave. Philip's son, Don 
Carlos, died in the dungeons of the Inquisition. By means of this terrible court, and 
his frequent autos dafe, he succeeded in destroying every trace of heresy in Spain and 
Naples, and robbing the people of their freedom. But he destroyed at the same time 
the greatness of both countries. When, however, he undertook to bend the Nether- 
lands to the same yoke, he provoked that memorable contest from which freedom rose 
triumphant. After a reign of forty-two years which was the grave of Spanish great- 
ness, Philip succumbed to a terrible disease. He left a land loaded with debt and 
wasted with cruelty. The Duke of Alba was a cruel instrument of his tyrannical 
commands. Master and servant have received the execration of mankind. 



a. Portugal United with Spain. 

§ 354. Portugal shared the fate of Spain. Both lands were oppressed by a pow- 
erful priesthood, supported by an absolute king. 
The rights of the people were destroyed, their in- 
telligence blunted, their heroism reduced to slavery 
and their prosperity brought to an end. A mourn- 
ful fate united Portugal to Spain. 

King Sebastian undertook a campaign against 

Sebastian the unbelieving Moors in North 

iss7-is7s. Africa. On a terribly hot day 
in August, he attacked the army of the enemy in 
the plains of Alcassar, and suffered a complete de- 
feat. Ten thousand Christian warriors were left 
upon the field of battle. Among the missing was 
King Sebastian, although his body could not be 
discovered. The crown of Portugal became vacant 
and Philip II. sent Duke Alba to make good his 
claim. The Portuguese favored Antonio, another 
claimant, but the latter was too feeble to maintain 
his pretended rights against the Spaniards. He 
was forced to fly, whereupon Lisbon and the 
whole land submitted to Philip. The Portuguese were under Spanish rule for 

ir.so-ioio. sixty years, and until the rich and influential Duke of Braganza 
acquired the throne. But meanwhile the Portuguese sea-power had fallen into decay 
and their foreign possessions passed to other hands. 




chamber of horrors. (Niirnburg.) 



b. The Fight for Freedom in the Netherlands, 

§ 355. The Netherlands had of old possessed important chartered rights and 
liberties. Among these was the right to determine their own taxes, to an indepen- 
dent judiciary, to a domestic army, and to native born officials. Charles V. had 
often violated these rights, but the fondness of the Emperor for the people of the 
Netherlands, among whom he was born and whose character he loved, warded off 
hostilities. Philip, on the contrary, was a haughty Spaniard who looked upon the 
Netherlands as a subject province, and frequently attacked their ancient privileges. 



442 



THE 'MODERN AGE. 



He appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma, a woman of masculine mind to 
issa. be regent in Brussels. He surrounded her with a cabinet council 

in which Cardinal Granvelle presided, and he marched a Spanish garrison into 
the land. But the Netherlander, many of whom inclined to evangelical teaching, 
were most outraged when the King, in order to preserve the ancient teaching, 
increased the laws against heretics and determined to create fourteen new bishops. 
This was a prelude to the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, and Gran- 
velle, who was to be the Metropolitan of all these sees, had already the title of 
" Grand Inquisitor." The patriotic paily with William of Orange and Count 
Egmont at their head, urged the King to respect the institutions of the land, to 
modify the laws against heresy, and to permit liberty of belief. But Philip answered 
that he would " rather die a thousand times than permit the slightest change in re- 
ligion." 

§ 356. The adherents of the new church were to be found among the common 

people only. The nobility clung to the old 
faith, but were nevertheless determined to 
oppose the Inquisition. Four hundred of 
them signed the so-called Compromise, and 
November, lses. petitioned for the suspension 
of the Inquisition. When they presented 
this to the Regent she was greatly dis- 
turbed. One of her counsellors said to her 
she should not be alarmed at these " beg- 
gars." The phrase was adopted as the watch- 
word of their league. They called them- 
selves beggars, (Gueux) and wore around 
their necks a medal with the likeness of the 
king, and the inscription " faithful to the king, 
though he make us beggars." The petition 
met with no success. The heretics were 
deprived of liberty, property, and life ; 
nevertheless the new teaching spread every- 
where. Psalms were sung ; the people went 
in throngs to hear the field-preachers ; 
monks and holy objects were hooted on the streets. And finally the people of Ant- 
ises. werp and Brussels broke into the churches and the cloisters, tore down 

crucifixes, and destroyed sacred images and pictures. Moderate men regretted these 
excesses, and aided in their punishment. Order was soon restored, and Margaret her- 
self advised gentleness and mercy. But her suggestions were despised. Philip de- 
Mba. termined to send the Duke of Alba with a Spanish army into the 

iset-1573. Netherlands and to compel the people by severity and force. 
§ 357. The news of Alba's arrival drove the Netherlanders to flight. William of 
Orange, a calm, sagacious man. resolute, energetic and silent, bent before the storm 
and retired to Germany. He sought in vain to persuade Egmont to do likewise. But 
Egmont trusted to his great services and remained. Alba was no sooner arrived, than 
he arrested Egmont and Count Horn on a charge of high treason, and beheaded them 




MOORISH KINGS. 




a. 



r. 

o 
o 



PS 

o 

&=) 

w 
w 

« 

C5 

O 

m 



444 



THE MODERN AGE. 



xsas. with eighteen other noblemen in the market place of Brussels. They 

were tried by "the Council of Insurrection," called by the Netherlauders the Bloody 
Council. This tribunal punished with incredible cruelty all who believed the new 
doctrine, and all who fought for ancient rights and institutions. The regent Margaret, 
indignant at these cruelties, resigned . her position and returned to Italy. But Alba 
erected a citadel in Antwerp, and maintained a reign of terror for six years. In utter 
disregard of law, he laid a tax upon the land, and distributed it so unequally as to cut 
the root of commercial prosperity. This oppression and the inhuman cruelties of the 
Spanish troops at last created such an uproar, that Madrid determined to recall Alba. 
The news that the sea-beggars had conquered Briel, that the northern provinces had 




THE CITIZEN'S GUARD VIEWING THE BEHEADED BODIES OF COUNTS EGMONT AND H0KN. 

{Louis Gallart.') 

is72. united together, and that William of Orange had been made Stadt- 

holder, convinced the Spanish court that Alba's methods were after all a failure. 
mt4.. When he left the Netherlands the nothern provinces established Cal- 

vinism as the religion of the country, accepted the Heidelberg catechism, and founded 
a university in the city of Leyden. 

§ 358. Alba's successors, Zuniga and Requesens, abolished the council of insur- 
is?3-is5«. rection, and sought to restore the authority of Spain hy milder meas- 
ures, but the hatred of the people for the foreign soldiers prevented reconciliation. 
mi*. Even the Spanish victory, in which the two brothers of Orange were 




the iconoclasts. (A. de Neuville.) 



(j>p. 445.) 



446 



THE MODERN" AGE. 



slain, produced no effect. Don Juan was now entrusted with 
task. But before he arrived the troops broke out in mutiny 
Orange was therefore able to unite all the provinces in a league 
for the expulsion of the Spanish army, and Don Juan was not able to 
restore the shattered power of his brother. Alexander Farnese of Parma, next 



1570-1578. 

the difficult 
and murder. 

157G. 




murder of the duke of guise. ( Vierge.) 

1578-1592. assumed command. Like Don Juan he sought to separate the 
southern from the northern provinces. Thereupon William of Orange united the 
1579. northern provinces in a closer union. This union was the foundation 

of the united states of the Netherlands. The southern provinces were so discordant 
that Parma succeeded in suppressing the insurrection in many places, and in bringing 
several cities to obedience. Philip now directed all his hatred against Orange. He 



THH HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



447 



declared him an outlaw, and offered great rewards and a patent of nobility to who- 
ever might deliver him alive or dead. Several attempts were made to assassinate him, 
and finally the ball 
of a fanatic named 
Gerard stretched 
him dead in the 
city of Delft. The 

1584. murderer 
was seized and ex- 
ecuted, and the 
northern provinces 
elected his son 
Maurice to take 
the place of Will- 
iam the Silent. 

§ 359. The hat- 
red of Catholics 
and Protestants for 
each other in the 
western states of 
Europe was now 
greater than ever. 
The Catholics 
placed their confi- 
dence in Philip of 
Spain, the Protes- 
ants were support- 
ed secretly or op- 
enly by Elizabeth 
of England. She 
sent Leicester with 
an army to the 
Netherlands, she 
supported the 
French Huguenots 
against the Catho- 
lic league and the 
Jesuits, and when 
issi. her own 
life was threatened 
by fanatics, she 
signed the death 
warrant of Mary 
Stuart. Philip 

now determined to chastise heretical England and its excommunicated Queen. He as 
sembled the invincible Armada, consisting of 130 war-ships, and sent it under 




448 THE MODERN AGE. 

the command of Medina Sidonia to subjugate England and the Netherlands. But 
the "Invincible Armada " was conquered by the storms of the sea, and by the skill 
and bravery of the English. What escaped the calamities of the channel was shat- 
tered on the shores of Scotland. 

It was a fatal blow. When Sidonia returned to Spain, Philip murmured, "I 
sent you against men and not against the storms and cliffs." Spain's superiority 
at sea was broken, and the independence of the Netherlands was secured. For, 
although the war lasted twenty years longer, the Spaniards were unable with all 
their bravery and skill to subjugate the land. Maurice of Orange proved to be a 
is»s. splendid leader, and the northern states fought successfully for their 

freedom. Shortly before his death, Philip transferred the Netherlands to his daugh- 
ter Clara, with the condition that if she died childless, the land should return to 
Spain. But the united states of Holland would not consent to the plan ; they con- 
iooo. tinued the war after Philip's death. Finally, Henry IV. of France, 

negotiated a truce that secured their independence, religious freedom, and their col- 
osal trade with the East Indies. But the independence of the united states of Hol- 
land was not formally acknowledged until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The 
southern provinces (Belgium) continued for a century witli Spain, and then passed 
to Austria. 

§ 860. Commerce, Constitution, Religion. Holland emerged from the struggle 
prosperous and powerful. The Dutch established their East India company in 1602, 
and opened up direct communication with India, at the same time depriving the , 
Portuguese of many settlements. Batavia, on the island of Java, became the center 
of their profitable trade. The constitution of the United Netherlands, which was 
perfected by their great statesman, Olden Barneveld, was that of an aristocratic 
republic. A general court composed of representatives of the seven provinces, 
constituted the legislative body. The high council with the Stadtholder at its head, 
conducted the government, but the army and navy were commanded exclusively 
by the Stadtholder. The arts and sciences prospered greatly, and philology, 
especially, was carefully studied at the Dutch universities, while the Dutch painters 
rivalled the great Italian masters. But Prostestant Holland did not escape re- 
ligious dissension. A quarrel about predestination and the relation of church and 
state, divided the country into two parties ; a strictly orthodox one, to which Maurice 
of Orange and his following belonged, and a moderate one, of which the champions 
were Olden Barneveld and Hugo Grotius. The latter would have subordinated the 
into. church to the state but the Synod of Dort decided in favor of the 

former. Olden Barneveld, in spite of his great services, died upon the scaffold ; and 
Hugo Grotius, the historian of the " War for Liberty," and the founder of international 
law, was sent to prison, from which he was rescued by the cunning and fidelity of his 
wife. 



France during her Religious Wars. 

§ 361. King Henry II., a stern adversary of the Huguenots, died from a wound 
Henry ii., received at a tournament in 1559. His weak and sickly son Francis 
x5±7-i559. II., succeeded him. He was married to the beautiful Mary Stuart, of 




29 



execution op heretics, xviTii century. (A. de Neuville.) (pp. 449.) 



450 



THE MODERN AGE. 



Francis n, Scotland, on which account her uncles, the Guises, had great influence 
isso-isoo. at court. They were zealous adherents of the pope, and they used 
their position to oppress the reformers. This enabled their rivals, especially the Prince 
of Conde, of the Bourbon family, and the Admiral Coligny, to strengthen themselves 
by an alliance with the Huguenots. Party hatred increased with every clay ; each 
sought to conquer by the help of the King. The Diet of Orleans was looked upon by 
both parties as the fitting moment for the execution of their plan. The Guises ob- 
tained the upper hand ; the Huguenot chiefs were already imprisoned, when the sudden 
death of the King changed the face of affairs. Catharine de Medici, the queen 
diaries ix. mother of Charles IX., was now supreme and the Bourbons recovered 
i5eo-is74. their influence at court. The Guises returned to Lorraine, and Mary 
Stuart sorrowfully and reluctantly set sail for Scotland. 

§ 362. This departure of the Guises brought toleration to the reformers. The 
Duke of Guise, embittered at this concession, formed an alliance with powerful noble- 
men for the maintainance of the ancient faith, and returned to Paris. As the Duke 
i56-i. and his train passed a barn in Vassy, they found some Calvinists 

engaged in worship. These they massacred without 
mercy. Instantly a cry for vengeance rang through 
the land. France was divided in two hostile camps 
that fought each other with the utmost bitterness. 
Horrible cruelties were committed, and the kingdom 
shaken to its foundation. The Catholics obtained help 
from Rome and Spain, the Huguenots were supported 
by England, and obtained soldiers from Germany and 
Switzerland . An indecisive battle was fought at Dreux ; 
1503. Duke Francis, of Guise, was murdered 

at the siege of Orleans. A short truce followed, in 
which religious toleration was secured for the Calvin- 
ists. But the truce was soon violated. The parties 
iset. again confronted each other, fully armed. But in spite of the bravery 

of the Huguenots at the battle of St. Denis, the Catholic party maintained control, 
because Catherine de Medici cast in her fortunes with the ancient church. Several 
bloody engagements took place in the vicinity of La Rochelle ; Cond^ was assas- 
isM>. sinated, and finally the treaty of St. Germain was agreed upon, in 

which the Calvinists were guaranteed the exercise of their religion. Oonde's nephew, 
Henry of Navarre, now joined the Huguenots, but the soul of the reform party was 
Coligny, who stood by Prince Henry's side as leader and counsellor. 

§ 363. After the peace of St. Germain Coligny became a favorite with the young 
king. The Admiral sought to persuade Charles IX. to make war upon Spain, and in 
order to establish a permanent reconciliation of the two parties, the King urged a mar- 
riage of his sister Margaret with the young prince Henry. This angered the Guises, 
who believed that Coligny had plotted the murder of Duke Francis of Guise, and 
they determined upoii revenge : as Coligny was returning home one evening a 
musket ball shattered his arm. The Guises now allied themselves with Catharine de 
Medici, and her third son, Henry of Anjou, and all three agreed to destroy the Cal- 
vinistic leaders at the approaching wedding. The Queen Mother, who was opposed to 




MARY STUART. 




assassination oe marshal d'ancre. (A. de Neuville.) (pp. 451.) 



452 



THE MODERN AGE. 



a war with Spain, and hated the Admiral, was quite willing to have Coligny removed. 
This was the origin of the massacre of St. Bartholemew, on the 24st of August, 1572. 
The signal bell was rung at midnight ; Coligny was the first sacrificed ; the assassins 
then scattered into all parts of the city, filling the houses and streets with corpses. 
The butchery lasted for three whole days, and was imitated in several cities. The 
lowest estimate places the number of murdered Huguenots at twenty-five thousand. 
The King, to whom the plan was communicated just before its execution, shot with 
his own hand at the fugitives that fled the palace. When the Guises were called to 
account for the bloody deed, Charles assumed the entire responsibility, and justified 
the horror with a story of a Huguenot conspiracy. Many Frenchmen abandoned 
their county in horror and sought protection in Switzerland, in Germany, and in the 
Netherlands. Henry, of Navarre, saved his life by a compulsory recantation. But as 
soon as he was in safety, he returned to his former faith. 

§ 364. Two years after the massacre, Charles IX. passed away, tormented by ter- 




^dP 5 



s. ^'MlfShW 



st. babtholbmew's night. (A. de Neuvitle.) 



1314. rible dreams. His brother Henry, who had been for a year the elected 

king of Poland, escaped secretly from the rough regions of the Vistula, in order to 
Henry in, obtain the crown of France. He was a weak and pleasure-loving 
i3T4-i5so. prince, without seriousness and without energy. He liked to shut 
himself up with his favorites and his lap-dogs inside his palace, and to forget the storm 
that raged without. And when the fear of judgment disturbed his conscience, he 
sought comfort in superstitious devotion, in pilgrimages and processions, and scourg- 
ings. That he might enjoy more undisturbed the pleasures of the capital, he granted 
to the Huguenots, religious freedom and equal rights with the Catholics. The latter, 
enraged at these concessions, formed the holy league under the leadership of Henry 

jtsre. of Guise, and in alliance with Philip II., of Spain. Priests and 

monks and Jesuits especially, worked zealously to obtain members for the new union. 
The vacillating and faithless King, now went over to the Catholic zealots, assumed the 
headship of the league, and abolished the religious peace. Henry HI., was childless ; 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



453 



its*. so too was his younger brother, the Duke of Anjou. This made the 

Bourbon Henry of Navarre, after the death of Anjou, the nearest heir to the throne. 
The prospect of a Protestant king alarmed Catholic France, and gave the league new 
strength. The King was compelled to proclaim the extermination of heresy, and to 
confirm all the doings of the union. At first the intention was simply to put aside 




CARDINAL LORRAINE RECEIVING THE HEAD OF COLIGNT. 

the Protestant claimant of the throne, but as Henry of Guise increased in power, he 
reached out his own hands for the scepter, claiming to be a descendant of the Carlings, 
and to have a stronger claim than the ruling family. A conspiracy was formed in 
xsss. Paris against the freedom and the life of the King, and when Henry 

attempted to protect himself with Swiss troops, the people broke into insurrection. 
They gathered about the Duke of Guise, erected barricades in the city streets, and 



454 



THE MODERN AGE. 



attacked the royal troops. The king abandoned his capital to the adversary, and 
Henry of Guise was now as powerful as the ancient major domus, but this did not 
isss. satisfy him. He convened a diet at Blois, intending to deprive the 

Bourbons of the throne, to exterminate Calvinism, to change the government, and to 
get all power into the hands of the Guises. In this crisis, King Henry III., ventured 
a bold step. He caused the Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal Louis, to be 




MURDER OF DAVID RIZZIO. 



iss9. assassinated, and the most influential leaders of their party to be impris- 
oned. This produced a terrible excitement throughout the kingdom. Paris renounced 
the God forsaken King ; the Pope excommunicated him ; revolutionary governments 
appeared in various parts of France, Henry III., abandoned and despised, saw no 
other way of safety than to ally himself with Henry of Navarre, and the Huguenots, 
Civil war flamed up anew, but the league was overthrown. Henry was besieging 
Paris and threatening to convert it into a pile of ruins, when the knife of a fanatical 




k |is''-'-'i,''.l 



456 



THE MODERN AGE. 



monk put an end to his life. He died on the first of August, 1589, after appointing 
Henry of Navarre to be his successor. 

§ 365. There was to be a weary struggle before Henr}^ IV. could reach the 

Hem-if iv. throne of France. Mayenne, the brother of the murdered Guise, as- 

isso-ieio. sumed the conduct of the league ; Philip II. made the most of the 

confusion and sent his famous general, Alexander of Parma, with an army into 

France. Henry won his famous victory at Ivry, and then besieged Paris. The city 

suffered all the horrors of starvation, but Henry was at last convinced that he could 

never acquire peaceful possession of the French throne by battles and victories. 

isoo. " Paris is worth a mass," he said, and entered the cathedral of St. 

Denis to swear allegiance to the Catholic church. This broke the power of the 

is»3. league. Paris opened her gates, and received the messenger of peace 




MAKY STUART INFORMED OF HER IMPENDING EXECUTION. ( G. V. Pilot y.) 



with joy. The Pope lifted the excommunication, the heads of the league made 
treaties with the King, and even Philip II. consented to the peace of Vervins. Henry 
isos. having established peace at home and abroad, issued the Edict of 

Nantes in which he gave to the Calvinists religious freedom, equality of civil rights, 
and many other advantages, such as exemption from episcopal jurisdiction, and the 
possession of certain strongholds. He then sought to heal the wounds of the war by 
encouraging agriculture, industry, and commerce. Through his friend and minister, 
Sully, he reorganized the administration and the system of taxation. He became ex- 
ceedingly popular, but fanaticism only slumbered. As Henry was planning to estab- 
lish a Christian empire in which all three confessions should be granted equal privi- 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



457 



10x0. leges, and by which the power of Austria might be broken, he was 

stabbed to death by the assassin Ravaillac. 

d. Elizabeth and Mary Stuart. 

§ 3fi6. England all this while was flourishing, under Elizabeth, in commerce and 
EUsahetn. industry, in navigation, agriculture and literature. The Queen op- 
tsss-iooa. pressed the religious inclinations of her people, and suffered no con- 
tradiction in Parliament, , 
but she possessed the qual- J 
ities of a great ruler. Hav- 
ing a strong mind and a I 
strong will, schooled by 
study, and by sharp experi- 
ence, she saw and chose 
what was best for her king- 
dom. She was surrounded 
with able counsellors, 
among whom Lord Bur- 
leigh took the first rank. 
She was economical and 
orderly in administration, 
but she loved dissimula- 
tion, intrigue and decep- 
tion. Her character was 
in sharp contrast with that 
of Mary Stuart, queen of j 
Scotland. The beautiful 
princess had passed her 
youth in happiness and 
pleasure. She was amia- 
ble, cheerful, and full of 
life, though not free from 
wantonness and immoral- 
ity, while Elizabeth was 
serious and jealous, tyran- 
nical and often morose. 
Mary held fast to the 
Catholic religion and to 
the papacy, in the midst of 
a people, who rejected the 
mass as idolatry. 

§ 367. Her second husband was the Scottish nobleman Darnley, but he behaved 
ises. so badly that the Queen encouraged the singer Rizzio from Turin, who 

was also her secretary. Urged on by his jealousy and by false friends, Darnley con- 
spired with several noblemen to murder Mary's favorite before her eyes. This filled 
the heart of the Queen with bitterness against her husband. She separated from him 




ELIZABETH SIGNING THE DEATH WARRANT. (A. Liezenmai/er.) 



458 



THE MODERN AGE. 



and gave her favor to Bothwell, a Scottish nobleman. Nor was she reconciled until 
Darnley fell sick ; then she nursed him with great devotion. But one night during 
her absence, the inhabitants of Edinburgh were awakened by a terrible explosion. The 
isar. villa of the King was shattered to pieces and Darnley's strangled 

corpse was found among the ruins. Bothwell was believed to be the perpetrator ; 
yet three months later he was Mary's husband. The Scottish nobility rose in rebel- 
lion. Bothwell fled to the Hebrides, and lived a pirate's life until he was captured by 
the Danes. Mary was led in triumph to Edinburgh, and then imprisoned in the island 
castle Loch Levin, where she gave up her crown and appointed her half-brother, Mur- 
1508. ray, regent during the minority of her son James. She escaped how- 

ever, recalled her abdication, gathered 
an army, but was conquered a second 
time, and would have been captured 
also, if she had not fled to England 
seeking the protection of Elizabeth. 

§ 368. Elizabeth declined to see 
her until she proved herself guiltless 
of her husband's murder, and as 
Mary would not recognize Elizabeth 
as her sovereign, and consent to a 
trial, she was detained in England. 
Her presence however threatened 
Elizabeth's safety. The Duke of 
Norfolk, who sought Mary in mar- 
riage, lost first his liberty and then 
is72. his life. The Dukes 

of Northumberland and West-more- 
land rebelled, hoping to set Mary free 
and to restore the Catholic Church. 
But Northumberland died upon the 
scaffold. Mary was suspected of 
complicity with his designs. She 
was placed under the strictest guard, 
and all attempts of foreign courts to 
procure her liberty were fruitless. 
The troubles in Scotland and the re- 
ligious wars of the continent appeared to make her imprisonment necessary. At this 
juncture Babington, who was supported by Spain, formed a conspiracy to murder 
Elizabeth, and to place Mary upon the English throne. The plot was discovered ; the 
guilty conspirators died upon the scaffold. And as Mary was proved to have knowledge 
of the conspiracy, she also was found guilty, and Elizabeth was petitioned by Parliament 
not to interfere with the course of the law. Elizabeth signed the death warrant : 
Feb. 7, i5S7. Burleigh saw to its swift execution. Mary was beheaded in the nine- 
teenth year of her imprisonment and the forty-fifth of her life. She died with forti- 
tude and true to her faith. Elizabeth complained that her ministers had executed the 
judgment against her commands, and punished her private secretary Davison with 




JAMES I. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



459 



SB 

z 



fine and imprisonment, because he had surrendered the death warrant to Lord Bur- 
leigh. 

§ 369. The Pope and Philip II. expressed great horror when they learned of 
Mary's fate. The . ' 

former hurled his 
anathema at the 
heretic Queen, and 
called upon the Cath- 
olic powers to avenge 
the death of Mary. 
The latter sent the 
" Invincible Ar- 
mada " to England, 
expecting to subdue 
the islanders and the 
Netherlanders at the 
same time, and to 
establish a Catholic 
empire in the north- 
west of Europe. But 
the destruction of the 
Spanish fleet in- 
creased the renown of 
England and her 
queen, and laid the 
foundation of the 
marine power and 
commercial greatness 
of the British empire. 
Industry and coloni- 
zation now began in 
earnest. The cele- 
brated navigator 
Francis Drake and 
other heroes of the 
ocean discovered the 
element which Britan- 
nia was to rule. Ire- 
land alone proved 
fatal to Elizabeth's 
enterprises. Henry 
VIII. had made of it 
a kingdom, and sub- 
jected it to the eccle- 
siastical laws of En- 
gland. But only the British settlers shared in the Reformation ; the native Irish and 




460 



THE MODERN AGE. 



their clergy remaining true to the papal system. Elizabeth tried to unite the island 
more closely in church and state to England. But she was opposed by the Earl of 
Tyrone, chief of a warlike clan, who obtained help from Rome and Spain. The Earl 
of Essex was sent by the Queen, whose favorite he was, to govern Ireland, but 
instead of defeating Tyrone, he made a disadvantageous treaty with him. This cost 
Essex the favor of the Queen, and when he entered into a plot with King James of 
Scotland to compel Elizabeth to name James as her successor, he was imprisoned and 
beheaded in the Tower. The death of her favorite and the loss of her popularity so 
embittered the last daj r s of the Queen that she passed many sleepless nights tossing 
upon the pillows, an in the seventieth year of her life ended her unhappy existence. 
On her death-bed she appointed James of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, heir to the 
English throne. 



Culture and Literature in the Century of the Reformation. 

§ 370. Civilization in the sixteenth centmy made rapid progress in all lands. 

Schools were improved, universities in- 
creased in number, art and literature 
cherished and supported. The works 
of antiquity, which were everywhere 
translated and explained, awakened new 
ideas and formed new tastes ; the intel- 
lectual activity, that resulted from the 
ecclesiastical and religious conflicts, 
furthered general culture and intensified 
literary culture ; the eager interest in 
intellectual treasures led to wonderful 
creations in art and science. Germany 
and Italy, especially, were nurseries of 
culture. 

(1.) Germany, in her numerous uni- 
versities, cultivated especially the study 
of antiquity ; and under the influence 
of Melanchthon established the classical 
school, which has spread through all 
copenucus, lands. Copernicus, of 
1473-1S43. Thorn, demonstrated 
the error of the Ptolemaic astronomy, 
and showed that the sun is the centre 
of the planetary system, and that the 
earth, like the other planets, not only rotates upon its axis, but revolves around the 
Kepier, sun. John Kepler, one of the greatest thinkers of all time, investi- 
/.-.;//«.*«. gated with the inspiration of a prophet, and the imaginative power of 
a poet, the laws of the solar system. But, misunderstood and persecuted by religious 
Gaiaeo, bigots, he led a wretched life and struggled for the means of subsist- 
i564-i64s>. ence. Galileo of Pisa, his great contemporary, fared no better. For 
he was brought before the inquisition, and compelled to abjure his belief in the motion 




COPERNICUS. 



462 



THE MODERN AGE. 



Newton, 
10J3-1I3J. 



of the earth. What Kepler and Galileo began, was continued by the 
Englishman, Isaac Newton, who discovered the law of universal 
gravitation. 

The Meistersingers were another product of the reformation period in Germany. 
Hans Sachs, a shoemaker, of Nuremberg, was the most distinguished of these poets of 
the people. Till Eulenspiegel was a master of burlesque and humorous lyric, while 
Br„,,at, Sebastian Brandt in his " Ship of Fools," John Fischart in his " Jesuit's 
mss-1521. Cap," and Thomas Murner in his " Rogue's Guild," brought satirical 
poetry to didactic power, chastising the faults and follies of the time with wit and 
righteous severity. " Reynard the Fox," the Low German epic of animal life, gives a 
vivid picture of court life, where flatterers rule and cunning is mightier than merit, 
duplicity worth more than virtue. 

Luther's translation of the Bible 
made him creator of German prose. 
And his spiritual songs made him the 
founder of German hymnology, but the 
latter received its more perfect form in 
Paul Gerhard, the hymns of Paul Ger- 
inou-imo. hard, of Saxony, in 
which the pious thought and cheerful 
confidence in God, that distinguished 
the German people, found simple and 
touching expression. 

(2.) Italy was as noteworthy for 

art and literature in the sixteenth as in 

ataciiiaveiu, the seventeenth cen- 

f*5s». tur} r . Machiavelli, of 

Florence, wrote his Florentine history 

and his " Prince," which even now 

excites universal admiration. In the 

" Prince " Machiavelli portrayed a 

tyrant, who founds his sovereignty and 

makes his will supreme law by sagacity 

and consistent conduct, without regard 

to morality, virtue, or religion. Freedom and civic happiness are no more considered 

than fidelity and righteousness. Sagacity alone was valued and success alone desired. 

Hence the statecraft, which rejects all considerations of morality and humanity, striving 

Ariosto, only for dominion and for wealth is called Machiavellism. Ariosto 

i*74-iss3. wrote the charming and numerous poem of " Orlando Furioso," and 

Tasso, f isos. the melancholy Tasso, in his " Jerusalem Delivered," immortalized the 

first Crusade in beautiful diction and in harmonious lines. 

(3.) Spain and Portugal also celebrated, in the sixteenth century, their 

Cervantes, golden age of art and literature. Cervantes in his humorous romance, 

1547-ieie. Don Quixote, sketched the portrait of a man who utterly mistakes 

the actual world because of the phantoms that fill his brain, and who fights for the 

cause that has captured his imagination, with such energy and skill, that the name 




SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 




GEOFFROY CHAUCER, 1340-1400. 



SIR PHILIP SIDNEY, 1554-1586. 











,v,u ' 1 








V 


vs ' | 






■*J 


ar^SS 




j* fra, 




i&M 








EDWARD SPENCER, 1552-1599. FRANCIS BACON, 1561-1626. 

EARLY ENGLISH AUTHORS. (pp. 463.) 



464 THE MODERN AGE. 

of Cervantes' hero has become a proverb in every civilized nation. Lope de Vega in 

vainer,,,,, his " Star of Seville," and Calderon in hisi '■ Life is a Dream," brought 

looo-iasi. the dramatic poetr} 7 of Spain to its highest achievement. The Port- 

camoens, uguese Camoens celebrated in his epic poem the glorious period of 

1524-1379. eastern discovery. This poem was saved by him from the shipwreck 

in which he lost all his fortune. Abandoning all else he swam with it to the shore. 

He became finally so poor that he had to beg for bread. 

(4.) England, however, produced the greatest poet of all times, William 
Shakespeare, Shakespeare, wonderful alike in tragic and in comic drama. Julius 
1504-1010. Csesar, Henry IV., Richard III., are founded upon historic events. 
Macbeth, Lear, Othello, deal with the fate and tragedy of individuals. The Summer 
Night's Dream and the Merry Wives of Windsor are among the best known of his 
comedies. Hamlet has been discussed by the critics of every generation and of every 
country. Shakespeare's sonnets reveal a world of feeling, and give us a glimpse in his 
changeful life. A sovereign of speech, Shakespeare easily found words for the sub- 
lime, the pathetic, the ridiculous, and the divine. 

(5.) France, in the sixteenth century, saw the romantic poetry of the 
Middle Ages displaced by the literature of Greece and Rome. Rabelais in his satiri- 
nabeiais, fiss3. cal romances mocked, with coarse humor and biting wit, the romantic 
poetry and its heroes. At the same time presenting in varied pictures the life of the 
state, the church and of the salon, pictures full of licentiousness and nude realities, 
Marat, fi544. but with a serious background. Clement Marot, a contemporarj' lyric 
poet, imitated Horace and Ovid; and Iodelle made the first attempt to introduce the 
drama into France. The Huguenot poet, Diibartas, wrote the "Week of Creation," 
which was used by Milton in his " Paradise Lost." 

(6.) The fine arts made great progress in the sixteenth century, in Italy 

and Germany. Sculpture and painting declared their independence of architecture, 

Michael Angela, and influenced by the antique, shaped themselves into freer and nobler 

i4ts-ise4. forms. In Florence, Michael Angelo became a master in all arts. In 

naphaei, Rome, the divine Raphael brought painting to a beauty of form and a 

14S3-15SO. nobility of expression that has never been equalled, both in oil 

Titian, i4i7-m7o. paintings, like the Sistine Madonna and the Transfiguration, and in 

jLeon. an. vinci, frescoes, like those in the Vatican. Titian, of Venice, founded a 

\isi9. school noted for its coloring. Leonardo da Vinci painted the 

corregio, renowned "Last Supper" at Milan, and Correggio, of Parma, dis- v 

tis3j. played a marvelous power to portray the inward life of men and 

paiestrina, women. Music also made great progress, especially through the 

1524-1504. creative genius of Palestrina. Germany, and the Netherlands were no 

itahens, less famous in these respects than Italy. Rubens, and Van Dyck, and 

1577-1040. Rembrandt, were all. renowned for their coloring and boldness of repre- 

Rcnbranat, sentation, while Teniers touched all the forms of common life with 

iooo-io<n. the glory of his genius. The Italian painters strove to represent 

uoibein, fisis. the ideal ; those of the Netherlands sought to present the actual and 

a. nurer, the real; the German school, on the other hand, Avas distinguished 

1471-isas. by its insight into nature, and its apprehension of character. The 




ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS, 15'fH TO 18TH CENTURIES. 



1. Pistolet. 18th century. 19. 

2. Carbine, 17tli century. 20. 

3. Espingole. 21. 

4. Matchlock Gun. 22. 

5. Gun Eest. 23. 

6. Mavrocain. 24. 

7. Flint Lock, 18th century. 25. 
8 Battle Axe. 

9. Hussite Mace. 27. 

10. Lance. 28. 

11. Hussite Mace. 29. 

12. Halberd. 30. 

13. Hussite Mace. 

14. Halberd. 31. 

15. Battle Axe. 

16. Uabasset, 16th century. 32. 

17. Italian Hat, 18th century. 33. 

18. Hessian Cap, 18th centurv. 34. 

SO 



Cabasset, 15th century. 

Polish Hat, 18th century. 

Dragoon Hat. 

Cossack Cap, 18tli century. 

Swiss Infantry Hat. 

English Cavalier Hat. 

26. Cavalry Casque, 15th 

century. 
Hussar Cap, 18th century. 
Chasseur Cap, 18th century 
Sappeur Cap, 18th century. 
Russian Grenadier Cap, 

18th century. 
French Headpiece, 15th 

century. 
Shako. 

Loading Shovel 
Wiper. 



35. 


Ramrod. 


56 


Danish Cannon, 1713. 


36. 


Priming Fork. 


57. 


Powder Cask. 


37. 


German 12-Pounder, 1650. 


58. 


Swiss Cannon, 15th century 


38. 


Herisson. 


59. 


English Howitzer, 18th 


39. 


Mortar, 16th century. 




century. 


40. 


Round Shot. 


60. 


Halberdier. 15th century. 


41. 


Shrapnel Shot. 
Fire Ball. 


61, 


62, 63. Swords, 15th and 16th 


42. 




centuries. 


43. 


Chain Shot. 


64. 


Bavonet. 18th century. 


A* 


Bar Shot. 


65. 


Armor, 15th century. 


45. 


Round Shot. 


66. 


Powder Flask. 


46. 


Hand Grenade. 


67. 


Bullet Mould. 


47. 


Bomb Shell. 


68, 


Powder Flask. 


48. 


Prussian Cannon, 18th 69, 


70, 71. Sword, 17th and 18th 




century. 




centuries. 


49 


Priming Rod. 


72. 


Sabre. 


50 


51. 52 War Kockets. 


73. 


Spanish Arquebusier, 16th 


53 


54,55. Storming Pikes. 




century. 



(465) 



466 



?HE MODERN AGE. 



It. Cra \ia?l:, 

14VZ-1553. 

JHurillo, 

lots-iesn. 

Iiasso, J1595. 



pictures of Holbein, Albrecht Diirer, and Lucas Cranach, are treas- 
ured still in German galleries. Murillo, of Spain, united passionate 
feeling with beauty of form and of color. In music Orlando 
Lasso, who was born in the Netherlands, but lived in Munich, was a 
worthy rival of the Italian Palestrina. 



III. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



1. The Thirty Years War (1618-1648.) 



§ 371. 




a. Bohemia, The Palatinate, Tilly, Wallenstein. 

ERDINAND I. and Maximilian II. maintained the religious peace 
Fe.riinaixi i., of Augsburg with righteous impartiality. The duke 
ir,.-,ti-i.-,tii. of Saxe Gotha, disturbed it for a brief moment, but 
Maximilian a., with this exception it endured until Rudolph II. be- 
is«4:-is?6. gan to rule. Rudolph was a zealous Catholic, but a 
i!,iti„ij,i, a., poor sovereign neglected the affairs of state to 
i.-.m.Kii-i. study astronomy, and to collect pictures and antiq- 
uities. He confided in the Jesuits, who strewed industriously the seeds of religious 
discord, and soon harvested in Austria and in the German empire, misery, confusion, 
iss3. and hatred. The Archbishop Gebhard, of Cologne, passed over to 

the reformed church, and introduced new doctrines into his diocese. He was de- 
posed from his seat by the Pope, placed under the ban by the empire, and deserted by 
the Lutherans. In Steyermark and Carinthia, the Archduke Ferdinand deprived the 
Protestants of their religious freedom, tore down their churches and schoolhouses, 
i5oe. burnt their Bibles, and drove all who refused to attend mass from the 

territor}-. The Protestant imperial city, Donauworth, was placed under imperial ban 
for disturbing a procession and deprived of Protestant worship. The Protestants pro- 
tested in vain; the weak and indifferent Emperor gave them no relief. The Elector 
ieo7. Palatine therefore formed a Protestant union of princes and cities. 

iaos. This was followed by the Catholic league, at the head of which was 

ieoo. Maximilian of Bavaria. The league formed an alliance with Spain. 

The union sought the support of Henry IV., and of the Dutch. A dispute between 
the Count of Neuburg, and the elector of Brandenburg, over the succession to the 
lei*. dukedoms of Cleve and Berg, produced the first collision. A long 

and wasting war gave one part of the inheritance (Cleve) to the Elector of Branden- 
burg, and the other part to the Count of Neuburg. 

§ 372. Rudolph's incompetency threatened to ruin the House of Hapsburg. His 

teos. relatives compelled him therefore to give Austria and Hungary to his 

brother Matthias. Bohemia, for which he greatly cared, and whose capital, Prague, 

was his residence, he secured to himself for a while by a grant of religious liberty. 

ieis-iei9. But this, too, he was finally obliged to surrender to Matthias. Yet 




THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 467 

"the latter had as little strength and capacity as Rudolph, and as he was old and child- 
less, he appointed his cousin, Ferdinand, to be his successor in Austria, Hungary, and 
Bohemia. This filled the Protestants with dismay, and when the building of Protes- 
tant churches was forbidden, the dismay 
broke into opposition. The defenders of Bo- 
hemia met together under the lead of Count 
Thurn, and called the imperial counsellors 
before them. And after a violent dispute, 
two of the most hated of the counsellors 
were thrown from the castle window. A 
new government was now proclaimed; the 
Jesuits were driven out, and an army was 
placed in the field. Count Thurn marched, 
this army to the gates of Vienna, just as? 
Matthias died. The deputies of the Protes- 
tants urged their way to the imperial castle, 
and required Ferdinand, with threats, to 
give them religious freedom and equality 
of rights with the Catholics. Ferdinand 
refused, in spite of his clanger, from which 
he was rescued by the sudden appearance of 
his armed horsemen. Unfavorable weather 
and want of supplies compelled Thurn and soldiers in the 30 years war. 

his army to retreat. 

§ 373. A few months later Ferdinand II. was chosen emperor, but before he 
Ferdinand n., could be crowned, Bohemia and Moravia declared their independence 
tex9-io37. of the House of Hapsburg, and chose Frederick V., Elector of the 
Palatinate, and the head of the Protestant union, to be their king. His wiser friends 
warned the Elector of the danger involved in his acceptance. But his haughty wife, 
Elizabeth, a daughter of King James, of England, and his Calvinistic chaplain, per- 
suaded his already willing mind. He accepted the Bohemian crown, hastened to his 
November, iexo. coronation at Prague, gave himself up to royal banquets and by his 
Calvinistic zeal soon offended both Lutherans and Hussites. Ferdinand was not so 
silly. He made an alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria, in which the latter agreed to 
send his able general, Till}', with an army into Bohemia. In the battle of White 
iego. Mountain Frederick's army was soon put to flight. A single hour 

determined the fate of Bohemia. Frederick himself, bereft of self-possession and of 
courage, fled to the Netherlands, pursued by the imperial ban which deprived him of 
his hereditary possession. Ferdinand tore in pieces the charter of Bohemia with his 
own hand. Seventy-two of the leading Protestant noblemen were beheaded ; the 
property of hundreds was confiscated and given to the Jesuits or other monastic 
orders. In a few decades the Catholics were completely triumphant, but 30,000 
families abandoned Bohemia. The union, which had looked on quietly at these pro- 
ceedings, was thereupon dissolved amid universal contempt. 

§ 374. Tilly now marched into the Palatinate. But at this juncture three 
brave men entered the field to defend the cause of the Elector and of Protestantism. 



468 



THE MODERN AGE. 



These were Christian of Brunswick, Ernest of Mansfekl, and George Frederick of 
1022. Baden. The latter two united and conquered Tilly at Wiesloch. 

But as the victors soon separated, Tilly attacked George Frederick in the battle of 
Wimpfen, and would have captured him, if his faithful guard had not covered the 
retreat. Tilly next at- 
tacked Christian of Bruns- 
wick, who was compelled 
to retreat toward the Neth- 
erlands and seek help from 
England. Heidelberg was 
the next to suffer. The 
library of the university 
was sent to Rome, and the 
town and vicinity ravaged 
by Tilly's soldiers. At the 
assembly of princes held 
1623. the next 

year in Regensburg, Max- 
imilian of Bavaria, received 
the Palatinate as his re- 
ward. 

§ 375. Ferdinand was 
now eager to restore the 
Catholic church, and to 
root out Protestantism. 
This alarmed the Protes- 
tants of other countries, 
especially England, Hol- 
162a. land, and 

Denmark. They furnished 
the Protestant allies with 

! , ,r , JOHN VON TZERCLAS, COUNT VON TILLY. 

money and troops, so that ' 

the three leaders reappeared, supported by Christian IV., of Denmark, who was en- 
ticed into the conflict, partly by religious zeal, and partly by the hope of acquiring 
new territory. 

The Emperor now determined to raise an army of his own. To this end Albert. 
i»2B. of Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman, offered his services. Im- 

mensely wealthy through inheritance, marriage and the purchase of confiscated 
estates, Wallenstein offered to maintain an army of fifty thousand men at his own- 
cost, if Ferdinand would give him the absolute command, and would compensate him 
from the conquered territories. Ferdinand hesitated at first, but then accepted, and 
created him Duke of Friedland, and an imperial prince. The war now spread into 
North Germany. Wallenstein with his savage throngs marched along the banks of 
i62«. the Elbe and formed a junction with Tilly. Mansfeld was defeated at 

the Bridge of Dessau, and compelled to retreat through Hungary and along the Lower- 
Danube, where he died. Christian of Brunswick soon followed him to the grave,. 




470 



THE MODERN AGE. 



and Christian IV. was defeated by Tilly, and driven back to Denmark. Wallenstein 
less. took possession of Mecklenburg ; Holstein and Schleswig were devas- 

tated by the imperial troops ; in 
short the entire North lay van- 
quished at the Emperor's feet and 
the Protestant princes and citizens 
trembled at their impending ruin. 
In this extremity Stralsund gave 

t«2s. a sublime example 

of patriotism and courage. The 
citizens refused to admit the im- 
perial garrison. Wallenstein then 
marched his troops to the city, and 
swore to take it, even though it 
were fastened to heaven with 
chains. But after a ten weeks' 
siege, and the loss of twenty thou- 

ie2o. sand men, he was- 

compelled to retire. This led to a 
brief truce ; Christian IV. received 
back his wasted lands but must 
promise to refrain from any future 
interference in German affairs. 

§ 376. The conquered and 
garrisoned countries were com- 
pelled to abandon Protestant 
worship, and to endure the return 
of the Catholic church. The Em- 

ieno. peror issued an 

Edict of Restitution, which 
restored to the Catholics all their 
confiscated property. The Cal- 
vinists were excluded from the 
peace, and the Catholic states 
were permitted to set about the 
conversion of their subjects. This 
edict filled Protestant Germany 
with terror, and prolonged the- 
unhappy civil war. Many princes 
and cities refused to obey the 
Edict of Restitution, and the Em- 
peror was compelled to maintain 
his soldiers under arms. But 
Wallenstein was no longer leader. 
At the diet of Regensburg the 
universal complaint of his devastations and 




io3o. princes made such 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 471 

barbarities, and Maximilian of Bavaria demanded so emphatically the removal of 
his domineering rival, that Ferdinand was compelled to retire Wallenstein from his 
army. The latter was deep in astrological studies when he received the imperial com- 
mands. He retired to his Bohemian estates where he waited quietly until he was 
again necessary. Tilly assumed command and marched against Magdeburg, which 




wallenstein. (In the background, representation of his assassination.) 

had refused to recognize the Edict of Restitution. But just at this crisis appeared 
suddenly a foreign hero upon German soil, the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus. 

b. The Intervention of Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein. 

§ 377. To protect Protestantism in Germany, to confirm the power of Sweden 
on the Baltic, and to arrest the extension of Austria into North Germany, Gustavus 



472 



THE MODERN AGE. 




Adolphus, the grandson of Gustavus Vasa, determined to interfere in the German 
war. He was supported by the sagacious Cardinal Richelieu, who was then supreme 
in France, and who watched with jealousy the increasing power of the House of Haps- 
io3o. burg. Directly Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania the old Duke 

of Pomerania gave over his devastated and outraged dukedom to the Swedes. The 

piety of Gustavus and the discipline of his 
soldiers, who gathered twice daily to worship 
God, were in striking contrast with Tilly 
and Wallenstein, and the people consequently 
greeted the Swedes, and their high-minded 
king, everj'where as saviours and deliverers, 
hot so the princes. They feared the ven- 
geance of the Emperor, and in an assembly 
1031. at Leipzig determined to 

preserve neutrality. The Electors of Bran- 
denburg and Saxony even refused the Swedes 
permission to march through the land, and 
while Gustavus Adolphus was thus dela) f ed, 
Magdeburg was conquered and destroyed by 
may so, Tilly and Pappenheim. The 
io3i. unfortunate city was given 

over to a three days' plundering. It became 
the scene of horrible cruelties, and was at last 
reduced to ashes. The cathedral in which 
the victors ordered a Te Deum to be sung, a cloister and a few fishing huts were all 
that remained of the once prosperous city. 

§ 378. The plunderer of Magdeburg now turned upon Saxony. In his terror 
the Elector made an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, to save his land from the 
Sep. 7,1031. murderous troops of Tilly. At the battle of Leipzig the imperial 
troops were utterly defeated. Tilly was obliged to retreat in haste to the South, while 
the king of Sweden inarched to the Main and the Rhine. Before the winter was over, 
a large part of South Germany was in the hands of Gustavus Adolphus, and he crossed 
the Rhine at Oppenheim where he drove back the Spaniards. In the spring 
he marched through Nuremberg seeking Tilly. He attacked him at the River 
Apia, io32. Lech. In the battle Tilly was mortally wounded. Augsburg was 
now entered by the Swedes and evangelical worship was restored. Gustavus Adol- 
phus, accompanied by Frederick V., then marched into Bavaria and entered Munich. 
But a fine, and the taking away of one hundred and fort}' cannon, was the onty punish- 
ment which the King inflicted upon the trembling Bavarians. 

§ 379. Wallenstein's expected opportunity had come. The Emperor, by his 
prayers and his concessions, induced him to put a new army in the field. He marched 
against Saxony, and then into Bohemia, and after a junction with the Bavarians, marched 
into Franconia where the Swedes were entrenched not far from Nuremberg. The 
hostile armies lay here idle for months, without a battle, until the land for seven miles 
round was converted into a desert, and even Nuremberg was threatened with famine. 
Gustavus Adolphus thereupon determined to attack Wallenstein's camp. But his 



royal costumes. (1625-1640.) 




death op gustavus adolphus at lOtzen. (A. de NeuviUe.) (pp. 47.?.) 



474 



THE MODERN AGE. 



daring soldiers were driven back by the terrible fire. The plan had to be abandoned, 

and the troups of Wallenstein retreated to Saxony. The Swedes followed them, and 

less. on a foggy November day forced on the battle of Liitzen, in which the 

Swedes were victorious, but their king was slain. Wallenstein was obliged to retreat 







gustavus adolphus. (A. Van Dyck.) 



with his beaten army to Bohemia. The Swedes dragged the mutilated corpse of their 
hero king, from piles of dead, and buried him in his native soil. 

§ 380. The Swedish chancellor. Axel Oxenstiern, an energetic and able man, now 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



475 



assumed the conduct of the German war. A number of evangelical princes and 
1933. cities, agreed in the treaty of Heilbronn, to persevere faithfully in the 

alliance with Sweden. The commanders of the allied armies were Bernhard of 
Weimar, and the Swedish general, Horn. France furnished money, and the war went 
on. Bavaria was chastised by the Swedes, who no longer refrained from plunder, and 
Silesia was so devastated by the Austrian troops that the prosperity of the land was 
entirely destroyed. But Wallenstein's career was nearing its end. His dilatory con- 
duct, and his incomprehensible stay in Bohemia, were used by his enemies to his ruin. 
He had become so great that they were afraid in Vienna that he might make peace 




death of waxlenstein. {Charles Piloty.) 



without regard to the imperial policy. He was accused of planning an alliance with 
the Swedes, in order to obtain for himself the throne of Bohemia. And the Emperor 
finally agreed to the overthrow of his too powerful commander. Treason was begun 
in Wallenstein's own camp ; his leading generals were first won over to the imperial 
plan, and then Wallenstein was deposed. The latter retreated with the remnant of his 
JF**. us, 1034. army to Eger, where he might be nearer to the Swedes. But he was 
murdered by the Irish general Butler, and other conspirators, and with him his most 
faithful adherents were also put to death. His estates and those of his friends were 
confiscated and given to his murderers. Wallenstein was a daring, enterprising man, 



476 



THE MODERN AGE. 



born to command, reticent and severe, haughty beyond measure and consumed with 
ambition. As his tall form, clad in a scarlet mantle, moved through the camp, bis war- 
riors, even the stoutest of them, shuddered at sight of his gloomy and resolute face. 

c. Result of the War. Peace of Westphalia. 

§ 381. The imperial army now marched into Bavaria and Bernhard of Weimar 




cardinal richelieu. (Ph. de Champagne.) 



se V . e, 103*. was defeated in the battle of Nordlingen. Saxony, and other states, 

thereupon concluded with the Emperor the peace of Prague ; the Emperor withdrawing 

Ma U , i63s. the Edict of Restitution. Wallenstein's adherents were hunted down 

and put to death. But the terrible war was far from ended. Richelieu who saw that it 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



477 



was a favorable time for humiliating Austria, and extending the French frontiers, 
promised the Swedes help in money and in men, and supported Bernhard of Weimar in 
his undertakings along the upper Rhine. The Swedish general Ban^r conquered Saxony 

1636. and Thuringia, and converted those fruitful regions into uninhabited 

deserts. When Ferdinand II. sank into the grave, the German people were burdened 

i-v-h. ».-.. mi:, with unspeakable misery. But Bernhard of Weimar was now suc- 

werainana in., cessful, and he was about to found an independent principality upon 

1637-1057. the shores of the Rhine, when he died suddenly in the prime of life. 

1639. Many suspected that he had been poisoned. The French took advan- 

tage of his death to hire his army and to occupy Alsace. The war was now carried 
into South Germany while the Swedes devastated once more unfortunate Bohemia. 

§ 382. Ban^r the Swedish general died 
in 1641, and was succeeded by Torstenson, a 
talented pupil of Gustavus, who, owing to 
his sufferings from the gout, was carried 
about on a couch, and yet was noted for the 
astonishing rapidity of his movements. He 

ig±2. defeated the imperial armies 

at Leipzig, invaded the Austrian dominions 
repeatedly, and caused Ferdinand III., to 
tremble for Vienna. He then appeared un- 
expectedly at the mouth of the Elbe occu- 
pied Holstein and Schleswig, and compelled 
the king of Denmark to a humiliating peace. 
Worn out by disease and fatigue, he surren- 
dered his command to the brave Wrangel. 
The latter in union with the French general 

i«*7. Turenne attacked Bavaria, 

put Maximilian to flight and established a 
truce, and was just about to enter Bohemia 
when the war was ended by the Peace of 
Westphalia. 

§ 383. The Peace of Westphalia was in process of negotiation for more than 
1943-ie-ts. five years. France acquired large possessions in Alsace, Sweden a 
part of Pomerania, Stettin, Wiesmar, Bremen, and other cities. Brandenburg obtained 
Magdeburg and Halberstadt. Bavaria was permitted to retain the electoral dignity 
and the upper palatinate, while the Rhine palatinate was handed over to the son of 
Frederick V. Switzerland and the Netherlands were recognized as independent states. 
The provisions of the Peace of Augsburg were confirmed and extended to Calvinists. 
The situation, as it existed in 1624, was to prevail touching the possession of ecclesi- 
astical property and the exercise of the Protestant religion. Further consequences 
of the Thirty Years War were the following: — First, an increase in the power of the 
princes, expensive courts, standing armies, and high taxes: second, an ecclesiastical 
orthodoxy which rested not upon religious experience but upon a rigid observance 
of the letter of the creed : third, the ruin of commerce and of industry. The pros- 
perity of Germany never returned. Many commercial cities were beggared ; the im- 




soldiers. (1630-1650.) 



478 



THE MODERN AGE. 



perial cities fell behind the royal capitals ; industry and wealth passed over to Holland 
and to England ; fourth, German art and literature perished. Manners, language, 
and poetry were borrowed from the French, and native productions were despised. 
The ancient German character succumbed to foreign influences. The two most im- 
portant authors of this period are Christopher of Grimmelshausen, and Philander von 
Moscherosch. Both found their material in the sorrows and changes of the thirty 

YEARS WAR. 



d. 



Sweden under Christina and Carl X. Constitutional Changes in Denmark. 
§ 384. The Swedish crown now passed to Christina, the daughter of Gustavus 

1632. Adolphus. During her mi- 

nority, an imperial council governed the 
realm, and made the most of their oppor- 
tunity to increase the privileges and the rev- 
enues of the nobles. When the queen her- 
self began to reign, she called to her brilliant 

16-14. court artists and scholars, 

from all the lands of Europe, and displayed 
great strength of mind and character. Her 
love of art and science found little nourish- 
ment in the Protestant North, and she felt 
herself a stranger in her native country. 
After a reign of ten years, she abdicated in 

ios-i. favor of her cousin Carl 

Gustav, retaining for herself a life pen- 
sion. Christina then left the land of her 
fathers, and in Innsbruck united with the 
Catholic church. She traveled through the 
Netherlands, France and Italy, and finally 
took up her residence in Rome. She died in 




NOBLEMEN. 



(1625-1640.) 

the year 1689, and was buried in the cathedral of St. Peters. 

§ 385. Carl X. was. a great warrior. He undertook a war of conquest against 
cm-i x.. Poland, formed an alliance with the great elector, Frederick William, 

les^-ieeo. of Brandenburg, freed Prussia from the overlordship of Poland, took 
possession of the western territory, and would have obtained the entire kingdom, 

tutu. lose. after the three days' battle of Warsaw, if an invasion of the Danes 
had not compelled him to return to Sweden. He hastened to the mouth of the 
Elbe, but the Danish army made no resistance, so that Schleswig and Jutland were 
soon in Swedish hands, except the fortified city of Fredericia. This, however, was 
toss. stormed by Wrangel, and in the middle of winter, the King marched 

his army over the frozen belt to Fuenen, and a few days later to Seeland. The Danes 
were so astounded by the sudden appearance of the enemy, that they had no thought 
of a defense, and immediately sued for peace. But Carl refused their offered sacri- 
fices, hoping to bring all three Scandinavian kingdoms under his control. But the 
citizens of Copenhagen made so stout a resistance, and the Dutch coming to the help 
of the Danes, the war was prolonged, until the sudden death of the Swedish king 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



479 



changed the whole situation. The Swedish council, who conducted the government 
during the minority of Carl XL, concluded the Peace of Oliva with the Poles, 
toeo. and the Peace of Copenhagen, with the Danes. In both treaties, 

Sweden obtained great advantage. Prussia's independence of Poland was recog- 
nized, but the Danish nobility had shown such selfishness and cowardice, that the 
court was able to overthrow the existing constitution. The elective monarchy was 
changed into an hereditary, and the monarch was given absolute power. The nobility 
lost their former independence, and were chained to the throne by titles and orders. 
cari xt., In Sweden also, the power of the nobility was broken by the stern 
1000-1007. and sagacious Carl XL, who demanded back the alienated estates of 
the crown, and required them without mercy, although he permitted the ancient insti- 
tutions to endure. 



2. The English Revolution and the Expulsion op the Stuarts. 

a. The Two First Stuarts. 

§ 386. James I., the son of Mary Stuart, was a pedantic prince, cunning, but nar- 
James i., row minded, and of perverted 
IG03-1C25. education. He had grown up 
amid the" quarrels of Presbyterian preachers, 
and was especially equipped with theological 
erudition, and took delight in ecclesiastical 
disputes. It pleased him greatly to pose as 
a great scholar, both in speech and in writing, 
and he composed several books ; although, as 
a ruler, he lacked prudence and sagacity. Lord 
Bacon, the most famous philosopher of his time, 
was his lord chancellor, but was impeached 
for bribery, and punished with fine, imprison- 
ment, and disgrace. James was timid enough 
to love peace, and preferred quiet to the honor 
of his country. But he was so lavish of his 
favor, that he was controlled, not unfrequently, 
by the most unworthy favorites. The most 
powerful of these was George Villiers, Duke 
of Buckingham, distinguished for his personal 
beauty. James had the loftiest ideas of royal authority, was convinced that it proceeded 
directly from God, and was unlimited, and for this opinion he sought proofs in the 
Old Testament. Accordingly, he hated the Presbyterian church of Scotland, because 
their principles made the king no more important than any other member of the con- 
gregation, and for the same reason, he loved the Episcopal church, in which the king 
was the head and source of all spiritual power. " No Bishop, no King," became 
therefore, the watchword of all the Stuarts, and the chief enterprises of the family 
were the introduction of episcopacy into Scotland, and the suppression of the Pur- 
itans in England. 

§ 387. Three events of James' reign are especially noteworthy. The gun-powder plot, 
the bridal-tour of the Prince of Wales, and the growing opposition in the Parliament. 




ENGLISHMAN AND FLEMING. (1640.) 



480 



THE MODERN AGE. 



James had promised toleration to the English Catholics, but the crown was 
hardly secure upon his head, when he began to collect from the Catholic non- conform- 
ists, a heavy poll-tax, in order to enrich his favorites, and to pay for his court festivals. 
This enraged the deluded Catholics. They formed a conspiracy to blow up the King 
and Parliament, and to change the government. A written warning, addressed to a 
loos. Catholic peer, led to the discovery of the plot, and the chief culprit, 

Guy Fawkes, was arrested and executed. The other participants fled and stirred up a 
rebellion, in which the most of them perished. All the Catholics of England were then 
compelled to pay heavy fines, and to swear an oath of allegiance to the King. 

James believed, in his pride, that his son was worthy of a king's daughter of the first 

degree, and, therefore, sued for the hand 
of the Spanish Infanta. This project was 
very unpopular among the English peo- 
ple, first because they wished no Catholic 
queen, and secondly because the long 
negotiations with Spain had prevented 
the king from supporting his Protestant 
son-in-law, Frederick V., of the Palatin- 
ate. The Pope, however, and the Span- 
ish court gave their consent, and there 
seemed nothing now to prevent the mar- 
riage. But the Duke of Buckingham 
persuaded Prince Charles to make a jour- 
ney to Madrid, and the King, who in his 
own youth had surprised his Danish bride 
in this fashion, encouraged the under- 
taking. They arrived in Spain under as- 
sumed names, and as soon as they were 
recognized, were treated with great dis- 
tinction. But Buckingham's frivolity 
excited displeasure. He quarreled with 
charles i. ( Van Dyck.) the Spanish court, and did his utmost 

to prevent the marriage. , Henrietta, of 
France, became the wife of Charles. 

Parliament had known but little freedom in the days of Elizabeth, but her talents 
as a ruler, and her economy kept the people satisfied. When James, however, in the 
consciousness of his royal almightiness, strode forward in the same path, limiting more 
and more the rights of Parliament, and laying export ?nd import taxes arbitrarily upon 
all commodities, Lords and Commons broke into violent opposition. The King threat- 
ened and dissolved Parliament repeatedly, and arrested the boldest speakers, but all to 
no purpose. Each new Parliament spoke the same language, and when James at last 
declared that their pretended rights were only privileges, granted them by the crown, 
mm. the Commons put on record a protest, in which they declared that the 

right to make laws and to lay taxes was an inheritance of all Englishmen, and that free- 
dom of speech and security of person belonged to every member of Parliament. The 
King stormed over this insolence, tore in pieces with his own hands the leaf upon which 




THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 481 

the protest was recorded, dissolved the Parliament, and arrested some of the deputies. 
But at this juncture, James was taken awaj% and Charles I. ascended the throne. 

§ 388. The new reign begun with a violent attack upon Parliament. Twice in three 
diaries i., years was the House of Commons dissolved. A war with France and 
lens-iGjo. subsidies for the German Protestants caused great expenditure. The 
king was very angry that Parliament was so sparing in its appropriations, and would not 
even grant him a tonnage tax or ship money, as had been customary. But the French 
war was unsuccessful. English blood and English honor were shamefully squandered. 
The third Parliament threatened to impeach Buckingham, and the King, in order to 
save his favorite, signed " the petition of right," in which he secured to Parliament its 
102s. ancient rights, and to every member freedom of speech, and safety of 

toss. person and of property. Shortly after this, Buckingham was murdered, 

whereupon the king chose Thomas Wentworth, an eloquent member of the opposition 
party, to be his counsellor, making him Lord Strafford and viceroy of Ireland. Went- 
worth was a man of great eloquence, extraordinary energy, and indomitable will. He 
set about to strengthen the authority of the crown, and advised the King to rule with- 
out a Parliament. The money necessary for current expenses could be obtained by 
collecting taxes, according to existing statutes, and in addition, excise duties were 
levied upon wine, salt, soap, and other articles of daily use. The King, moreover, re- 
vived ancient and forgotten claims of the crown, like the ancient ship monej'. At the 
same time, Charles thought to establish more firmly the Anglican church, and to put 
down the Puritans and Presbyterians. His chief instrument, in this enterprise, was 
Laud, of London, whom he afterward appointed arch-bishop of Canterbury. Laud 
reconsecrated the cathedral of St. Pauls, enriched the church with pictures and dec- 
orations, enlarged and beautified the ritual, deposed the Puritan preachers, revived the 
court of high commission, and the star chamber, whereby all were punished who ven- 
tured to oppose his innovations. Prynne, a Puritan writer, was condemned to the 
pillory, to the loss of both ears, and to life long imprisonment, because he had written 
a big book in which he condemned dances, masquerades, and the theatre. 

§ 389. These measures produced great excitement throughout the land. Joh» 
Hampden, a quiet, but determined man, refused to pay the " ship mone} r ," and de- 
fended himself so successfully before the court, that the wrongfulness of the govern- 
ment was as clear as day. The Puritan preachers went through the land, stirring up 
resistance, and declaring that Laud intended to restore the Catholic church. The 
seeds of hatred for court and clergy took root and grew. The King, however, per- 
sisted and determined to introduce episcopacy and the prayer book into Scotland. 
In the cathedral at Edinboro, when worship began, according to the new form, a 
jia v ie3i. tumult^ arose, in which the crowd exclaimed, " Pope ! Anti-Christ! 
Stone him ! " Stools were thrown at the clergyman, and he was driven from the altar. 
" The solemn league and covenant " for the protection of pure religion and the church 
against papal error and delusion was renewed; the bishops were driven out, Presby- 
terian worship restored, and the people summoned to arms. Charles now determined 
to break their resistance with an army, but his troops yielded to the believing Scotch, 
who marched to the field, singing psalms and praying to God. The Scotch crossed 
io4o. into England, and the King was compelled to call a Parliament, and to 

seek the help of the nation. 
31 



482 



THE MODERN AGE. 



§ 390. This Parliament is known in English history as the Long-Parliament. 
Hampden, Pym, Cromwell, Hollis, and other influential members, were opposed to ab- 
solute monarchy, and to episcopacy. But during their struggle against the King and 
the bishops, they divided among themselves. The most violent adopted gradually 
democratic principles, and sought to establish a republic ; the more conservative de- 
sired only a reform of the existing state and church. The hostility of the new par- 
liament to the royal wishes was soon manifest in their determination to put "grievance 
before supply; " and in their determination, rather to support the Scottish rebels, than 

to furnish money for their suppres- 
sion. Strafford, " the great apostate," 
and Arch-bishop Laud were impeach- 
ed. The King conceded the demands 
of the House, in order to save them : 
Strafford defended himself for seven- 
teen days with dignity and convinc- 
ing power, and finally the impeach- 
ment proceedings were abandoned, 
and a " bill of attainder " substi- 
tuted. This bill declared them botli 
guilt} 7 of attempting to destroy the 
liberties of England. It was passed 
in both Houses, and signed by the 
King, who sacrificed his most faithful 
servant to appease the rage of the 
people. " Put not your trust in 
princes," exclaimed Strafford, when 
told of the King's conduct. Strafford 
bore himself with great composure 
Diny a, io4i. upon the scaffuld ; 
Laud, his companion in sorrow, re- 
mained in prison three years, and 
was then beheaded. The Court of 
High Commission, the Star Chamber, 
and the Council of the North were 
abolished, and the bishops were ex- 
battle of marston moor. (Emil Bayard.) eluded from the House of Peers. 
§ 391. Suddenly England was startled with the news that the Protestant settlers in 
Ireland had been attacked and murdered by the Catholic inhabitants The Queen espe- 
cially was accused of having formed a conspiracy of papists, bishops, and courtiers, for 
the destruction of the freedom and the faith of the Protestants. The struggle became 
much fiercer. Parliament became more exacting, attacking the royal authoiity, and 
demanding that all the members of the royal council, and the generals of the army 
should be subject to their control. The adherents of the King were known as " cav- 
aliers," and consisted for the most part of noblemen and officers of the army ; the 
supporters of the Parliament were nicknamed " Roundheads," from the manner in 
which they wore their hair. An attempt of the King to arrest five leaders of the 





assassination of the duke of Buckingham. (Emil Bayard.) (pp. 483.) 



484 



THE MODERN AGE. 



opposition miscarried. Those marked for destruction escaped, and were brought back 

to the ' House of Commons ' in triumph by the people, on the following clay. The 

King, in a rage, retired to York, and determined upon war. The Queen fled to Hoi- 

civil war, land, seeking foreign help, but all continental Europe was then 

10^2-10-te. engaged with the Thirty-Years' War. Charles was without money, and 




OLIVER CROMWELL. 

his army consequently without supplies, while the Parliament was in possession of all 
the revenues and liberally supported by private contributions : families brought their 
silver, women their jewelry to the help of the popular cause, and the taxes and 
contributions that had been stubbornly refused to the King were willingly paid to the 
Parliament. Nevertheless the small but disciplined army of the King was greatly 
superior to the parliamentary troops which were comm.anded by the Earl of Essex. 




charles i. in the battle of naseby. (Emil Bayard.) {pp. 485.) 



486 THE MODERN AGE. 

Prince Ruprecht, the King's nephew won two victories with the royal cavalry. In 
the second year of the war Hampden died, but Oliver Cromwell, an earnest Puritan, 
formed his regiment of Ironsides from his God-fearing friends, and with these irre- 
sistible soldiers he soon changed the face of affairs. The battle of Marston Moor 
July s, i«44. was lost by Ruprecht's impetuosity. Cromwell's gloomy but determ- 
ined squadrons did not yield an inch. Cromwell's name soon acquired great im- 
portance, and the Puritans seized their opportunity to remove the Book of Common 
Prayer from the church service, and to replace the Episcopal church government by 
the Presbyterian system of John Calvin. Pictures, organs, and decorations disap- 
peared from the churches, the painted windows were broken, the monuments destroyed 
and festivals prohibited. 

§ 392. But discord soon prevailed in the camp of the victors. The Independents 
were dissatisfied with Presbyterian church government. They desired the complete 
independence of each congregation in religious matters, and were unwilling to recog- 
nize the decrees of the synods as universal laws. The moderate Puritans or Presby- 
terians, and the Radicals or Independents were now involved in violent quarrels. The 

Feb. io45. latter succeeded in passing the self-denying act. according to which no 
member of either House could hold office in the army or in the state. This compelled 
Essex to give up his command, and Fairfax a talented officer was now placed at the 
head of the Parliamentary army. But Cromwell was the real commander, and also 
the head of the Independents. He had been one of the most earnest supporters of the 
self-denying act, and proceeded to the army to place his resignation in the hands of 
Fairfax. But Fairfax declared to Parliament that Cromwell was indispensable ; he 
alone could lead the cavalry, for where he with his Ironsides fought in the name of the 
Lord, there was victory. Parliament consented: the civil war waged with increasing 
j«ne«, io45. bitterness. But the battle of Naseby destroyed the last hope of Kii g 
Charles. He retreated with a remnant of his army to Oxford. Cromwell and Fair- 
fax were prepai'ing to beseige the town when the King with two companions escaped in 
disguise to the Scottish camp, hoping to find fidelity and allegiance among his fellow 
countrymen. But they held him under the strictest guard, compelled him to listen to 
the long sermons of their preachers, and when it was found impossible to induce the 
King to subscribe to the solemn league and Covenant they sold him to commissioners of 
Parliament, by whom he was imprisoned in a strong castle. 

§ 393. The rupture between the Presbyterian and the Independents, now made 
itself distinctly felt. The former controlled Parliament, the latter the army. Crom- 
well kept his plans adroitly concealed. While he was playing the part of the mediator, 
a Puritan colonel with a squadron of cavalry carried off the imprisoned King and 

June ta-ti. brought him to the army. Cromwell then marched to London in order 
to overawe Parliament. Charles meanwhile escaped to the Isle of Wight and for a 
while Presbyterians and Independents both struggled to bring him over to their side 
and to make peace with him separately. But Charles trusting to foreign aid, behaved 
ambiguously and treacherously and thereby lost his last opportunity for a peaceful solu- 
tion of his troubles. The army at the instance of Cromwell, seized the person of the 
King and brought him to a lonely castle on the sea-coast. Colonel Pride under the 
same inspiration, surrounded the House of Commons with his troops and carried off 

»ec, itt*s. eighty-one of the Presbyterian members. Pride's Purge, as it is called, 




execution of Charles i. ( 0. Maillard.) 



( pp. 48?. ) 



488 



THE MODERN AGE. 



being completed, Cromwell occupied the ro3 r al apartments in White Hall, for he was 
now lord "and master, and the Rump Parliament, consisting of Independents, was his 
willing instrument. An extraordinary tribunal was created, before which the King was 
accused of treason, because he had carried on war against Parliament : Charles Stuart 
was arraigned four times and condemned to death as traitor, murderer and enemy of 
his countrj*. Three days were given him to prepare for his death and to take leave of 
his children. He was then led to White Hall where he was beheaded. An enormous 
crowd looked on silently at the horrible tragedy. Not until the executioner seized the 
Jan. 3o, leio. bloody head by the hair and held it up exclaiming " Behold the bead 
of a traitor ! " did the people give expression to their sorrow by a hollow moan. 

b. Oliver Cromwell. (1649—1658.) 

§ 394. The news of the King's death created a terrible excitement in Scotland 

and in Ireland. The Prince of 
Wales, then residing in Holland, was 
called into Scotland, and proclaimed 
king as Charles II., although he was 
first required to sign the Covenant 
toso. and to join the Pres- 

byterian church. Ireland also ac- 
knowledged the new King and took 
up arms in his favor. Thereupon 
Cromwell who had erected in En- 
gland a republican government in 
which Milton, the blind composer 
of " Paradise Lost," had a part, 
marched against the disobedient 
island. His way was through blood 
and over corpses, but it led to vic- 
tory. And when he left the country 
to carry his sword into Scotland 
other republican leaders followed in 
his footsteps. The insurrection was 
suppressed in three years, but at the 
end of that time Ireland was depopu- 
lated, or inhabited bj*- beggars. In 
Scotland also the republicans were 
victorious. The Scotch army was so 
well intrenched that Cromwell could not reach them. Hunger and disease so 
diminished his forces that he was thinking to retreat. But the preachers in the 
Scottish army grieved at the war-like spirit and the good cheer of the King 
persuaded the Scottish commander to assume the aggressive. When Cromwell 
saw the oncoming Presbyterian army, he exclaimed, "The Lord has delivered them 
into our hands ! " The battle of Dunbar decided against the Scots, Cromwell con- 
sent, a, iaso. quered Edinboro and marched into the heart of Scotland. The Lord 
of Hosts, who was invoked by both Presbyterians and Independents, was with the strong 




JOHN MILTON. 



490 



THE MODERN AGE. 



and brave battalions. Suddenly now Charles entered upon a daring enterprise. He 
marched with his troops across the English frontiers, and called to his support the ad. 
herents of the kingdom. But very few answered, and on the anniversary of the battle 
se V t. a, 1051. of Dunbar the royal army was utterly defeated at Worcester. Charles 
became a homeless fugitive upon whose head Parliament placed a price. Amid a 
thousand dangers he escaped in disguise to France, and Scotland was reduced to sub- 
jection by the Republican general, Monk. The Commonwealth now became in- 
volved in a war with Holland. In this they were as victorious by sea as they had 
been hitherto by land. The Dutch admirals, Tromp and De Ruyter, distinguished 
themselves by their intrepidity and skill, but Admiral Blake and General Monk car- 

oet. 1651. ried off the victory. The Dutch were obliged to accept a disgraceful 
peace, while England passed her navigation acts, according to which foreigners could 
only bring their own products in their own ships to England. This gave to English 
commerce a new impulse nt the cost of the trading Dutch. 

§ 395.' Cromwell 
meanwhile had quar- 
reled with the House 
of Commons, and had 
determined to dis- 
solve the Long Par- 
liament. Surround- 
ing the house with 
troops, he entered the 
hall, delivered an ex- 
citing speech and 
drove the members 
present from the 

April io53. room 
with the help of his 
soldiers, crying to the 
one " Thou drunk- 
ard," to another, 

" Blasphemer " and to a third "Adulterer." A council of state presided over by 
Cromwell then undertook the creation of a new Parliament. Lists of God-fearing 
people in the various districts were made out, and from these representatives 
from the three kingdoms were chosen. This assembly was called in mockery, 
" The Barebones Parliament," from the name of one of its members, the leather dealer 
Praise God Barebones. The biblical baptismal names of most of its members were 
significant of their religious feelings. (Habbakuk, Ezekiel, Slaysin, Stand-fast-in-the 
faith.) But Cromwell could not get along so easily with these remarkable people as 
he had hoped, and as they wished to introduce several drastic laws which would have 
produced great changes, he availed himself of the public discontent to dissolve the 
"Barebones Parliament" with his soldiers. General Lambert now sketched a new 

nee. i»53. constitution, which was adopted. A Parliament of four hundred mem- 
bers constituted the legislative power. Cromwell, as Lord Protector, possessed the ex- 
ecutive authority and the command of the army and navy. As Protector, Cromwell 




DUTCH MAN OF WAR, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



491 



ruled with strength and renown. His strong will and his great ability as a ruler 
made him respected abroad; his pure home and his simple manner of life created con- 
fidence among his own people. Yet there were many to envy and to oppose him, re- 
publicans as well as royalists ; and these embittered the evening of his life and pre- 
vented a quiet continuance of his authority. His last days were full of suspicions and 
of fear, for he lived always in the shadow of assassination. He died on the 3rd of 




CHARLES II. 

sept, s, less. Sept. 1658, the anniversary day of his victories at Dunbar and Wor- 
cester. 

§ 396. Richard Cromwell, the Protector's son, was too weak to maintain his in- 
herited dignity of Lord-Protector. Accordingly three powers soon confronted each 
other, the Protector, the Parliament and the army. The military power under Monk 
n>> u /«.,». and Lambert, soon conquered. Parliament was dissolved, the old 
Rump Parliament convened again, and Richard Cromwell compelled to abdicate. But 



492 THE MODERN AGE. 

the Rump Parliament was soon forced to yield to the soldiers, and a committee of 
safety, under the lead of Lambert, undertook the conduct of affairs. Men gradually 
began to feel that nothing but the restoration of the monarch}' would re-establish 
civil order. And General Monk entered into negotiations with Charles Stuart, then 
living in the Netherlands, though carefully concealing his purpose and his plans. He 
arrested Lambert, dissolved the committee of safety, and convened a new Parliament. 
The latter, consisting mostly of royalists, arranged with Monk the restoration of the 
Stuarts. Pardon and liberty of conscience were the only concessions that Charles was 
jiiau »», ioeo. required to make, in order to enter triumphantly into London, where 
he was received with the shouts of the people. But even these conditions he did not 
fulfill. The regicides, those who had taken part in the trial of Charles I., were sen- 
tenced to death, and ten of them were executed. But this triumph of the royalists 
was greatly diminished by the steadfastness with which the regicide Puritans main- 
tained their principles. Cromwell's corpse was taken from the grave and hanged on a 
gallows. The Episcopal church was restored and the Presbyterian clergy once more 
deprived of their livings. 

c. The two Last Stuarts— Charles II, (1660-1685. ~) James II, (1685-1688.) 

§ 397. The reign of the frivolous and licentious Charles II. was a fatal period 
for England. Neither the ruin of his father, nor his own trials instructed him or gave 
him warning. The Plague and the Fire might destroy two-thirds of London, and fill 

ices. all hearts with sorrow, but the royal court lived merrily. As debts 

increased, and money became scarce, and Parliament refused to be generous, Charles 
sold Louis XIV., of France the honor and the welfare of his country and his own 
religion. At that time it was counted, especially in France, a sign of culture to pass 
over from the Protestant to the Catholic church. This fashion found imitators in 
England, also. The Duke of York the King's brother, made a public profession of the 
Catholic religion, and Charles was himself a Catholic in heart, although he held out- 
wardly to the English Church, and showed only at his death his real conviction by tak- 
ing the sacraments from a Catholic priest. But the people adhered to the faith of 
their fathers. They ascribed the great fire to the Catholics, and immortalized this 

ig73. charge on a monument : they forced Parliament to pass the Test Act 

according to which only members of the English Church and confessors of Protestant 
doctrine could be members of Parliament, officers of the state, or hold commissions in 
the army. As long as Clarendon, the historian of the English rebellion, was at the 

*ee:. head of the ministr} r , the King was moderate and law-abiding. But 

when Clarendon fell into disgrace and became an exile, Charles allowed himself all 
manner of arbitrary and illegal conduct. He formed a ministry of talented and un- 
principled statesmen known as the Cabal, which conducted the government according 
to the King's wish without regard to the rights of the people. Bribery ceased to be 
disgraceful when the King himself received annuities from Louis XIV., for supporting 
the French in their war against Holland. A new conflict arose between King and Par- 
liament. The more the King sought to be absolute, the more the Parliament sought to 
maintain the rights of the people and the religion of the country. They even demanded 
the exclusion of the Duke of York from the royal succession, and Charles was com- 
pelled to send his brother away, and to form a new ministry in which the Earl of 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



493 



ieto. Shaftesbury was prime minister. Under his administration the Habeas 

Corpus Act, the sacred law of personal freedom, was brought into being. According 
to this law, no one may be arrested without a written warrant stating the grounds for 
the arrest, and every prisoner must have a judicial hearing within three clays of his 
taking into custody. The two political parties of Tories and Whigs originated in these 
conflicts. The Whigs (Liberals) regarded the state constitution as a contract be- 
tween the king and the nation, and demanded for the nation in case of its violation 
the right of active resistance. The Tories (Conservatives) denied that the vojal 
authority proceeded from the people, and required from the subjects a passive obedi- 
ence. During the last years of Charles J I., the Tories acquired a majority because the 

Court took advantage of a 
conspiracy against the life of 
the King and of his brother 
to destroy the chiefs of the 
Whig party. Lord Russell 
and Algernon Sidney, two of 
the noblest and best-beloved 
men in the realm, died upon 
the scaffold. Shaftesbury fled 
miss. to Holland, 

the Duke of York re-entered 
into all his rights and offices, 
and when Charles died with- 
out lawful heir he ascended 
the English throne as James 
II. 

§ 398. James II. was 
hardly seated 
upon t h e 
throne when Monmouth, the 
natural son of his brother 
Charles, sought with the help 
of the Whigs to deprive him 
of his kingdom. The attempt 
miscarried. Monmouth died 
upon the scaffold, and his adherents and defenders were prosecuted with terrible 
cruelty. The name of Judge Jeffries, who traveled through the counties with his 
troops of executioners, is written in bloody letters in the annals of England. His easy 
victory and the fear of the people created in the King the hope of restoring the Catho- 
lic church. He made the hated Jeffries Lord Chancellor, gave many offices and mili- 
tary commissions to Roman Catholics, and to those who had recently passed over to 
Catholicism, and intended by an edict of toleration to abolish the test acts. But 
Parliament would not consent to the edict of toleration. James therefore declared 
that the crown could dispense with the law. The English people for a time made no 
resistance to the King, hoping for speedy relief since the aged monarch had no male 
children and his two daughters were married to Protestant princes ; the elder, Mary, 




J a nit's II., 



1985-1988. 



JAMES II 



494 



THE MODERN AGE. 



to William of Orange, and the younger, Anna, to a Danish prince. But the unex- 
pected birth of a Prince of Wales destroyed this hope, and the people determined to 
help themselves with the assistance of William of Orange. Scores of dissatisfied 
Britons passed over to the Hague. The Whigs made an alliance with William and 
promised him the help of the Protestant nation. James did not perceive the storm 
that had gathered about his head, until William with his army landed on the British 
coast. The King appealed in vain to his army and his people, and promised the aboli- 
tion of his unconstitutional measures. The ground on which he stood was under- 
mined with treason, with hypocrisy and perjury. For the Stuarts had taught the 
nation little else. A part of the army went over to William. The voice of the people 
spoke against James. The King thereupon sent his wife with the Prince to France, 
z>ec. less. threw the royal seal into the Thames, and fled from the land of his 
fathers. He lived for the future in St. Germain supported by a pension from 
Louis XIV. 

§ 39J. The flight of James enabled the English people to declare the throne 

vacant. The}' excluded the Catholic line of 
the Stuarts from the succession, and gave 
the crown to William and Mary, but in- 
structed by past events they established in 
Fei>. iaso. the Bill of Rights the an- 
cient privileges of the people, without how- 
ever attempting to undermine the royal 
authority. The Scotch recognized the new 
order, and received back their Presbyterian 
system. But the Catholic Irish supported 
by France and by James II., were not sub- 
dued until the blood}' battle of the Boyne, 
where the aged Marshal Schomberg led the 
forces of William against King James himself. 
After the death of Mary, William reigned a 
short period alone, but he died childless in 
early manhood, and James II., did not long 
^inie, survive him. Mary's sister 

i702-i7i4. Anne now became the Queen 
of England, and during her reign Scotland 
and England were united so that Scottish representatives voted in the English 
Parliament. The Scottish Parliament was abolished, but the Scottish judicial system 
no?. and the Scotch law were left in force. Anne died without issue. She 

survived her husband and all her children, and after her death the English crown fell 
to George the Elector of Hanover, the grandson of Elizabeth, wife of the unfortunate 
Frederick V., so conspicuous at the beginning of the Thirty Years War. Two at- 
tempts of the Stuarts to overthrow the House of Hanover, and to get possession of the 
English throne ended in disaster. 

3. The Age of Louis XIV. 
a. Richelieu and Mazarin. 
% 400. When Henry IV. was murdered in 1610, his son Louis XIII., was but 




FRENCH NOBILITY IN COURT COSTUME. 

(17th Century.) 




CINQ MARS AND DE THOU LED TO EXECUTION. (A. de Neuville.) ( pp. 495. ) 



496 



THE MODERN AGE. 



Louis xiii., nine years old. During this minority, his mother, Marie de Medici- 
1010-10*3. was regent, and her Court was filled with Italian favorites who en- 
riched themselves with French property, and offended by their insolence the national 
pride. The French nobility took arms and filled the kingdom with insurrection. 
When Louis XIII. assumed the government, he permitted the foreign favorites to be- 
iers. murdered and executed, and even banished his mother from the court. 

But the people were not a whit better off. The new favorites were no more virtuous- 
nor talented than the old. Hence the nobles of the realm and the injured Huguenots 
rose once more against the government and plunged the land into confusion. This- 
gloomy condition of affairs did not come to an end until the Cardinal Richelieu entered 
103*. the royal council, and began to exercise an almost absolute authority. 

Yet the King never loved him, 
the Queen and nobility in- 
trigued continually to accom- 
plish his overthrow, cabals and. 
conspiracies were constantly 
created to destroy him. But 
the greatness of his intellect- 
conquered all obstacles, and he 
worked steadfastly to increase 
the power of France abroad, 
and to strengthen the power of 
the kingdom at home. To ac- 
complish the first he sought to 
weaken the House of Hapsburg, 
and entered into alliances witli 
the enemies of the Emperor in 
Germany and in Italy. He 
kept alive the Thirty Years 
War, although he oppressed the 
Huguenots under his own 
authority. He broke the power 
of the nobility and of the bu- 
reaucracy, and overcame the 
Huguenots, who in the south and 
west of France had acquired 
an almost independent position, 
with their fortresses, their militia and their great privileges. He conquered in three 
wars the most important of the Huguenot cities, and deprived them of their fortifica- 
tions. He then besieged Rochelle for four months, and at last captured this bulwark 
lezo. of the Calvinists, robbed them of their political privileges and their in- 

dependence, but granted them religious freedom and equal rights with Catholic sub- 
jects. This disarming of the Huguenots took from the rebellious grandees, their strong- 
est support ; as a consequence they soon succumbed to the power of the Cardinal. 
The boldest of them were executed or exiled ; even the Queen mother and her second 
son, the Duke of Orleans, were obliged to leave the country and the Duke of Mont- 




CONDE. 




CARDINAL RICHELIEU AND FATHER JOSEPH. (A. de Neuville.) (pp. 497.) 



498 



THE MODERN AGE. 



morency, who belonged to one of the most renowned families of France died by the 
hand of the headsman. A like fate destroyed the Count of Cinq Mars, who formed 
with the Queen and many nobles a conspiracy against the mighty Richelieu. The 
Capuchin Father Joseph, a man of great intelligence and diplomatic skill, was the 
Cardinal's chief agent at home and abroad. The French Parliaments which laid claim 
to a peculiar sovereignty, were supplanted by extraordinary courts of justice. The 
officers in the province, were weakened and limited by the appointment of royal in- 
spectors,- who were dependent only upon the government. 

§ 401. In the year 1642 Richelieu died, hated and feared by the nobility and the 

nee. 4, ie-ts. people, but admired by many contemporaries and by posterity. Louis 
XIII., a Prince without virtues and without crimes, dependent alike upon his favor- 
ites and his foes, soon followed him to the grave. Anna of Austria, the haughty 
domineering sister of the King of Spain, now became regent. She gave her confidence 
to the Italian Mazarin, the disciple of Richelieu, 
and consequently found violent opposition 
among the nobility, and in the Parliament which 
sought to recover its former power and posi- 
tion. The people longing to escape the burden 
of taxation, and led by the brilliant Cardinal 
De Retz supported the opposition, in order to 
drive Mazarin from the court, and to compel 
the adoption of a new system. This led to the 

io-ts-ios3. violent civil war known as the 
war of the Fronde. Mazarin was compelled to 
leave the country, but the confidence of the 
Queen was so unshaken, that he ruled France 
from Cologne as unconditionally as he had 
ruled it in Paris. His exile moreover was of 
short duration. Louis XIV. reached his major- 
ity in 1651. Turenne the leader of the royal ? 
troops conquered his adversary, the great Conde, 

in the suburbs of Paris, and Mazarin returned „ . . . , . . . 

' _ _ nobleman and officer. (17th Century.) 

triumphant, proclaiming by his return the vic- 
tory of absolute monarchy. For six years longer Mazarin enjoyed the respect of 
France and of Europe. Cardinal De Retz was obliged to keep away from France, first 
however atoning for his rebellion in the dungeon of Vincennes. Conde after brave 
but fruitless struggles, sought safety in Spain but was recalled by the young King and 
granted back his estates. Mazarin's nieces were endowed with French wealth and 
married to conspicuous noblemen. Parliament abandoned its resistance, after the 
King appeared before them in hunting costume and whip in hand, demanding their 
obedience with the declaration "I am the state" ("L'etat c' est moi"). The peace of 
xov. v, »«.-»». the Pyrenees between France and Spain was the last work of Mazarin. 
He left behind him an immense fortune, a valuable library and many art treasures, 
splendid palaces and gardens. His death came opportunely, for Louis was beginning 
to grow weary of him and longing to take the reins of government into his own 
hands. 




THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



499 



b. Louis XIV. and His Wars of Conquest. 

§ 402. After Mazarin's death, Louis 
XIV. appointed no prime minister, but 
surrounded himself with men who ac- 
complished only his will, and had no 
other aim than to increase the renown 
and the splendor of their King. In his 
choice of these men, Louis displayed the 
insight of a great ruler. Colbert was 
the great promoter of French industry 
and commerce, and his generals Turenne, 
Conde, and Vauban exceeded in talent, 
knowledge and skill, the statesmen and 
warriors of all other countries, as much 
as Louis XIV. himself excelled in 
kingly authority and the qualities of a 
statesman all princes of his time. The 
age of Louis XIV. is the golden age of 
the French monarchy, and the court 
of Versailles, where the royal residence 
was established, was every where praised 
and admired as a model of good taste 
and of fine culture. But, as the King US 
was chiefly concerned with his own 
pleasure and renown, hts government 




LOUIS XIV AT THE AGE OF 41. 



became the grave of freedom, of morality, and of manly character. Court favor was 

the aim of all effort, and flattery was the surest 
road by which to acquire it. Virtue and merit 
found at the last but little recognition. 

§ 403. Louis XIV. wished to cover his 
name with the glory of war, and at the same 
Spanish war. time to increase the territory of 
ieo7-ittos. his kingdom. The death of the 
Spanish king, Philip IV., gave him the oppor- 
tunity to set up a claim to the throne, and to 
invade the Spanish Netherlands. An alliance 
of England, Holland, and Sweden compelled 
him to shorten the campaign, and to give up the 
mayiaas. greater part of the conquered 
territory. Yet a number of Flemish cities were 
annexed to France, and converted by Vauban 
into invincible fortresses. As the victorious 
course of the haughty King had been arrested 
principally by the exertions of Holland, Holland 
was made to feel his revenge- He brought 

OFFICER AND MUSQUETEER OF THE FRENCH wrta " muc S 5 

guard, over Sweden to his side, purchased the triend- 




500 



THE MODERN AGE. 



ship of the English king by annuities and mistresses, and made an alliance with 
the Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Minister. He then began a second 
war which was directed at first against Holland, but which lasted seven years 
and involved nearly all the European states. The French army marched rapidly into 
war. wuh the heart of 

Hoiiana. Holland. 
16I2-/C79. The leaders 
of the republic had paid 
more attention to their 
navy than to their army, 
and their great cities 
fell almost undefended 
into the hands of their 
enemies. French dra- 
goons approached with- 
in ten miles of the capi- 
tal. The frightened 
Dutch begged humbly 
for peace but were not 
heard. But while the 
French arm}' was besieg- 
ing the Dutch fortresses, 
the ruling party, to 
whom the whole calam- 
ity was ascribed, were 
overthrown by the pop- 
ular party of Orange. 
John and Cornelius De 
Witt were murdered, 
to™. and the 
government transferred 
to the soldier and states- 
wiiiiam in. man, Wil- 

io-i2-ito-z. liam III., 
of Orange. This able 
general immediately 
awakened courage and 
patriotic enthusiasm 
among the Dutch. They 
broke down their dikes, 
and made their inundated land inaccessible to the French. The walls of Groningen 
defied the attacks of the enemy, and the daring march of the French across the frozen 
waters to attack Amsterdam was suddenly arrested by a thaw. This saved Holland : 
for now the great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, came to the rescue and 
induced the Emperor Leopold to enter the war. The French were compelled to divide 




CAPTURE OF AUSTRIAN BATTERIES AT LANDAU. ( Vierge.) 



502 



THE MODERN AGE. 




THE GREAT ET-ECTOR. 



1074. their forces and to send their main army along the Rhine. The Span- 

iards also joined the alliance against France. 

§ 404. But the strength of the French increased with the number of their foes. 
Turenne devastated the Palatinate, then 
crossed the Rhine and ravaged Franconia. 
The German princes were disunited. The 
Austrian minister of war was in the pay of 
the French king and betrayed the plan of 
the campaign to the enemy. The Austrian 
generals were incompetent. If the Great 
Elector had not saved the honor of Germany 
the triumph of France would have been 
complete. Louis XIV. had induced the 
Swedes to invade Brandenburg, but before 
the Swedes were prepared for an attack, 
June as, io75. the energetic Frederick Wil- 
liam broke in upon them, and in the battle , | 
of Fehrbellin inflicted upon Sweden a crush- 
ing defeat. This battle was the beginning 
of the greatness of Prussia. A month later 
Turenne, the greatest general of his time, 
jrHiynv. was killed at Sassbach, and 
the French compelled to re-cross the Rhine. The war lasted three years longer and 
was especially destructive to the lands along the Moselle and the Saar. When, how- 
ever, the English Parliament required their king to withdraw from the French alliance 

and to support the Dutch, Louis determined to 
bring the war to an end. In the peace of Nym- 
io7o. wegen the Dutch recovered all 

their lost lands and cities. Spain however, was 
required to give up the Franche Comte and many 
fortified places. The German Empire lost the 
city of Freiburg and the dukedom of Lorraine, 
and the Great Elector was compelled to surrender 
to Sweden the territories and the cities in Pomer- 
ania, that he had conquered with such difficulty. 
The high-minded prince yielded to the hard neces- 
sit3 r , with the prophecy that an avenger would 
proceed from his loins. 

§ 405. The timid submission of the German 

princes increased the pride and the greed of Louis 

XIV. He claimed that a number of districts, which 

had belonged at one time to the territiries ceded to him in the peace of Nym wegen, 

ioso. were also included in the treaty, and he seized a multitude of cities, 

villages, castles and mills, in a word whole districts on the left bank of the Rhine, and 

sent. test. at last took possession of the free city of Strasburg. The free citizens 

were disarmed and compelled to take the oath of allegiance to their foreign monarch 




GEORGE DERFLINGER.. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



503 



on their knees ; the Strasburg Minster, the glorj' of German architecture, was given 
over to Catholic worship. Italy also suffered from the violence of the King, especially 
Truce ofuegens- Milan and Genoa. Austria, Spain and Germany yielded without re- 
hut-a- sistance to these outrages, and made a twenty years' truce with the 

A.u a . is, tea*. French king, on condition that he would make no more reprisals and 
attempt no further extension of his frontiers. 

e. Austria s Extremity and Victory. 

§ 406. During all this time the Emperor Leopold was kept busy in the east of his 
kingdom. In Hungary, the oppression of the Protestants, the quartering of soldiers 
upon the people, and the acts of violence against certain noblemen had produced dan- 

*oe,t. gerous insurrections, and the Turks had renewed their former plans of 

conquest. The Austrian authorities hoped by their severity to put down the rebellion : 

iG7t. they executed the leaders and __ 

violated the chartered rights of the nation. - - ' ------ _ 

But these arbitrary proceedings exasperated 
the Hungarians all the more, provoking their 
love of freedom and their warlike impulses. 
Emmerich Toekoeli, an energetic nobleman, 

1074. whose estate had been confis- 

cated, raised the standard of rebellion, and was 
soon at the head of a powerful army with 
which he drove the Austrians from Hungary. 
Louis XIV. furnished him assistance, and the 

ios2. Porte, which recognized him as 

the tributary king of Hungary, sent a great 
army to his aid. Devastating all before them 

1683. the Turks approached the walls 

of Vienna. The Court fled to Linz : the 
capital of Austria seemed lost: but the courage 
of the citizens, and the incompetency of the 
Ottomans in conducting a siege, enabled the 
city to withstand all attacks for sixty days 

sept, is, ios3. until the army of Charles of Lorraine united with the Polish army 
under the heroic king John Sobieski, and relieved the distressed city. The Turks were 
defeated in a bloody battle at the gates of "Vienna. They retreated hastily^, leaving 
enormous booty in the hands of the victors. Hungary was then conquered, Toeko- 
eli compelled to fly, and Ofen, which had been in the hands of the Turks for 146 years, 
was taken from them. The Hungarian nobility were deprived of their ablest leaders, 

ios7. and a reign of terror established in the land. The Emperor Leopold 

then abolished the elective monarchy and overthrew the Hungarian constitution. Hun- 
gary was converted into a hereditary possession of the Hapsburgs. The Turks made 
great efforts to recover what they had lost, and the blood of Christians and of Turks 
flowed in streams about the walls of Belgrade. But Charles of Lorraine, Prince Eu- 
gene and Louis of Baden, the Austrian commanders held aloft the standard of victory. 




JOHN SOBIESKI. 



504 



THE MODERN AGE. 



1099, By the treaty of Carlowitz, Transylvania and all the land between the 

Danube and the Theiss were surrendered to Austria. 

d. The Orleans War. {1689-1697.) 

§ 407. To assist the Turks in their war against Austria, Louis XIV. provoked the 
so-called Orleans war. When the Elector Carl died without male heirs, and his land 
passed over to the Catholic line of Pfalz Neuburg, Louis XIV., in the name of his 
brother, the Duke of Orleans (who had married the sister of the Elector) laid claim to 
all his estates; and when his claim was not allowed, lie sent his armies to the Rhine. 
To make an invasion of France impossible, he commanded the regions of the Rhine to be 











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PRINCE EUGENE BEFORE BELGRADE. 



devastated, so as to put a desert between the two kingdoms. The wild hordes set fire 
to the prosperous villages, to the rich cities along the Rhine, and ravaged all the 
southern portion of the Palatinate. The ruined tower of the castle at Heidelberg is a 
silent witness of this barbarism. At Mannheim, the inhabitants themselves were com- 
pelled to lay violent hands upon their fortifications and their homes. At Heidelberg 
rune, ie89. the bridge across the Neckar was blown to atoms, and a part of the 
city destroyed by fire. Another cause of this war, in which the Netherlands, Spain, 
and Savoy, were soon involved, was the appointment to the archbishopric of Cologne. 
Louis XIV. had, by bribery, compassed the election of his friend William of Fursten- 
berg, but the Pope and the Emperor refused to confirm the election. The war lasted 
eight years, and in spite of the superior numbers of his enemies, the French monarch 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



505 



was victorious, because of the ability of his generals, In Italy, in Holland, in the 
sorely afflicted German}'', and in Northern Spain, the French fought with great success. 
mot. And yet Louis, in the peace of Ryswick, which closed the war, was far 

more moderate than he had been in the peace of Nymwegen. The Germans were the 
chief losers as Strasburg, and all the districts, annexed by the French, were retained 




DESTRUCTION OF HEIDELBERG. 



by King Louis. But the clause in the treaty, according to which Catholic worship 
must be tolerated in all Protestant districts which the French had occupied during the 
war, became, for the Protestants of the Palatinate, a source of many sorrows. Louis 
XIV. foresaw the coming vacancy of the Spanish throne, and hence made a hasty 
peace, that his hands might be free for his great opportunity. 



50tf 



THE MODERN AGE. 




nobleman. {Middle of 17th Century.) 



Court Life, Literature, Church. 

§ 408. The age of Louis XIV. is spoken of, in the obsequious histories of his 

time, as "the golden age" of France. Com- 
merce and industry prospered greatly under 
Colbert's care. The weaving of wool and of 
silk, the manufacture of stockings and of fine 
cloth, all of which were cultivated in the cities 
of the south, brought great prosperity. Sea 
trade increased rapidly, colonies were planted, 
and commercial companies carried the products 
of France into all the regions of the earth. 
The French Court revealed a hitherto unknown 
splendor. The castles of Versailles, with its 
columns, its fountains, its avenues of trees, and 
its decorated gardens, was a model of taste for 
all Europe. Festivities of all sorts, operas and 
dramas, to which the first mind of France con- 
tributed, followed each other in fascinating 
alternations. Poets, artists, and scholars vied 
with each other, to celebrate a prince that re- 
warded their efforts, to give him pleasure, or to 
increase his renown with the utmost generosity. 
Splendid structures, like the Hotel Des Invalides, precious libraries, invaluable books 
and manuscripts, academies of science and of art, increased the glory and the fame of 
the grand monarch. The easy 
manners of the nobility and of 
the court, and their grateful 
sociability, conquered Europe 
more effectually than the French 
army. French fashions, French 
language and literature, pre- 
vailed in the circles of high 
society everywhere. The foun- 
dation of the French Academy, 
by Richelieu, led to the perfec- 
tion of the French language and 
of the French style, and made it 
the language of diplomacy and 
of societ3 r , of conversation and 
of correspondence. Dramatic 
poetry reached its climax in 
cornetiie, Peter Corneille, 
■\ies4. in Jean Racine, 
Badne, fi«»». and in Moliere. 
itroiiere. f io7s. Corn.eille's 
"Cid" was the first great pro- moliere. 




THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



507 



duction of the French tragic drama. Racine's Iphigenia and Phaedra were attempts 
to rival Euripides, while in his Tartuffe, his Miser, and his Misanthrope, the comedian 
Moliere showed himself to be thoroughly acquainted with the weaknesses of human 

Boiiettu, -fi7ii. nature. Boileau, in his 
odes and satires, imitated Horace. 
zafontaine, Lafontaine, in his fables 
itao*. and stories, produced a 

book for children that yet holds a place 
in all cultivated families. Fenelon, in 
Feneioit, fi«s. his Telemachus, gave a 
charming treatise on education, which 
was translated in all the languages of 
Bossuet, fuo4. Europe. Bossuet was 
a master of eloquence in the pulpit and 
in theological controversy ; the Hugue- 
Bayie, fxroo. not Bayle elaborated, 
with wonderful ability, the inbilosophy 
of doubt ; and the provincial letters of 
rascal, fisea. Pascal belonged to the 
most brilliant and most powerful pro- 
ductions of controversial literature. 
The Society of Jesus has never re- 
covered from the blows inflicted upon 
them, by this mighty adversary. 

§ 409. . But the stain upon the glory of Louis XIV. is his persecution of the 




MADAME DE MAINTENON. 




PERSECUTION OF THE HUGUENOTS. 



Huguenots. The French king believed that the unity of the Church was inseparable 
from the unity of the monarchy. He therefore oppressed the Jansenists, a Catholic 
party, which was at first opposed by the Jesuits, and afterward by the Pope. And for 



508 



THE MODERN AGE. 



the same reason he persecuted the Calvinists, till they fled the kingdom, or returned to 
the Catholic church. Colbert, who thought highly of the Huguenots as industrious 
and inventive citizens, for a long time prevented violent measures. But the influence 
of the royal confessor, La Chaise, the zeal of Madame de Maintenon, and the stub- 
born cruelty of Louvois, the minister of war, finally determined the King to his destruc- 
tive course. The number of Huguenot churches was diminished, and their worship 
was limited to a few cities. Every time Louis was attacked with a fit of repentance 
or of devotion, the Calvinistic heretics suffered the consequences ; for bj' their con- 
version, he hoped to atone for his own sins. The Huguenots were gradually excluded 
from offices and dignities, from all positions of honor, and all rights in the guilds. 
Converts were favored; the poor were bribed; the conversion of children was de-dared 
valid; families were divided; children taken from their parents and brought up 
in the Catholic faith; and a return to Huguenot worship was punished as a crime. 
Court and clergy, the eloquent Bishop Bossuet at their head, did their utmost to es- 
tablish the ecclesiastical unity of France. When all these measures failed, the drag- 
onnades were tried. Dragoons were sent into the south, and quartered upon the 
Huguenots. The outrages of these booted and spurred "converters" who left the 
houses of apostates, and crowded into the dwellings of the steadfast, were mightier 
than all the inducements of the Court, and all the temptations of the priests. Thous- 
ands fled to foreign countries, that the}' might enjoy their faith in peace. Last of all 
oetober, toss, came the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Calvinistic worship was 
__ .... _ - ^i ■ " - - forbidden; their churches were 

:-/fBJ? W° ■■" :■' » I . ii: torn down; their schools closed; 

their preachers exiled; and when 
the emigration increased so enor- 
mously as to frighten the govern- 
ment, it was prohibited, under 
penalty of galley-slavery and con- 
fiscation. Yet, in spite of these 
threats and prohibitions, half a 
million French Calvinists carried 
their industry, their faith, and their 
hearts into Switzerland, Prussia, 
Holland and England. These fugi- 
tive Huguenots taught to foreign- 
ers the art of weaving silk fabrics, 
and of knitting stockings. Flat- 
terers might praise the King as an exterminator of heresy, but the courage of the peas- 
ants in the Cevennes mountains, and the great number of the Huguenots who were 
satisfied with family worship, soon proved that religious oppression had failed of its 
purpose. For when the persecution reached the mountain valleys where the Waldenses 
preserved their simple worship, the pursuers met with desperate resistance. A terri- 
ble war filled the peaceful valleys of the mountains. Fugitive priests, in the gloom 
of the forests, excited their evangelical brethren to enthusiastic conflicts, until the per- 
secutors grew weary of the fight. Two million Huguenots were left by the Edict of 
Nantes without civil rights and without worship. 




FRENCH INFANTRY IN BATTLE. 




REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES. (A. de NeUVille.) (pp. 509.) 



510 



THE MODERN AGE. 
IV. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



§ 410. 



1. The Spanish War of Succession (1701-1714). 




J HE last Hapsburg in Spain was approaching his end. Exasperated 
by the European powers, who, during his life time, had agreed 
upon a division of his land, the childless king, Charles II., made 
a secret testament, in which he excluded Austria from the Spanish 
throne, and named a grandson of Louis XIV., Duke Philip of 
Anjou, as heir to the Spanish dominons. 
Charles died in the last year of the seventeenth century, and Louis 
moo. XIV., after some hesitation, determined to accept the testament. 

True, his exhausted kingdom needed rest, but his cabinet and Madame de Maintenon 
were not afraid of war. " There are no Pyrenees any longer," exclaimed the eager 
£eopoM j., monarch. But kings are notal ways prophets. The Emperor, Leopold, 
lesi-mos. took up arms to defend the inheritance of his second son Carl. With 
him stood the princes of Germany, especially the Elector Frederick of Brandenburg, 
and the Elector of Hanover. England and Holland also came to the support of Aus- 
tria ; Holland because she feared the growth of France, and England because the 
mot. French king had recognized the pretender, James III., as the king of 

England. Only two German princes took the side of France, the Elector of Bavaria 
and his brother, the Elector of Cologne. Spain 
was divided. The Eastern provinces were for 
Austria ; the rest of the land was for the Bour- 
bon king, Philip V., who was, by his mother's 
side, a Spaniard and a Hapsburger. 

§ 411. This time Austria and England 
conquered ; for their armies were led by the two 
greatest generals of their time, Prince Eugene 
of Savoy, and the Duke of Marlborough. 
Prince Eugene, who had acquired great renown 
in the war with the Turks, made a masterly 
march into Italy, driving back the Spanish 
arm}', and bringing the Duke of Savoy to the 
side of Austria. Marlborough was the head of 
mot. the Whig party in England, 

which under Queen Anne conducted the gov- 
ernment, and was therefore given almost un- 
limited power. The Duke of Savoy, by his alliance with Austria, brought his 
dominions into great distress. Piedmont was conquered, and also Lombard)*. 
mo.?. But the brave Tyroleans drove back the Bavarians, and prevented a 

junction of the Spaniards with their German allies. The Elector of Bavaria was 
obliged to abandon the Tyrol, and to unite with the French army. Prince Eugene 
and Louis of Baden now bore down upon them. Marlborough executing a masterly 
movement along the Rhine and the Mosselle, formed a junction with them, and in the 




PRINCE EUGENE. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



511 



Aug. i3, lroi. battle of Blenheim, the French and Bavarian army were utterly 
routed. The French were, for the most part, taken prisoners; their ammunitions and 
Joseph i., supplies fell into the hands of the enemy. Bavaria was abandoned to 
nostra. the Austrians, and cruelly oppressed. The Elector and his brother were 
put under the impe- ^ 

rial ban by Leopold's 
successor, Joseph I. 

§412. The French 
were defeated like- 
wise in the Nether- 
lands and in Italy. 
Marlborough over- 
threw completely the 
incompetent Mar- 
shal Villeroi in the 

May 23, 1700. battle 

of Ramillies. As a 
consequence, the 
Spanish Netherlands 
recognized the Aus- 
trian claimant as the 
king of Spain. In 
Italy Prince Eugene 
in the battle of Turin, 
sept, t, noo. routed 
the French army, and 
occupied Milan, Lom- 
bardy, Lower Italy, 
and Sicily. Only in 
Spain could Philip of 
Anjou maintain him- 
self against the Eng- 
lish and Austrian 
armies. 

Barcelona, Valen- 
cia, and other import- 
ant cities however re- 
fused to acknowledge 
his authority, while 
the English acquired nothing except Gibraltar, which they hold to this day. Philip 

iroj. V., who soon prevailed, threatened dire punishment to his rebellious 

cities. Valencia was devastated, and her brave citizens, who were determined to suffer 

no?. death rather than to submit to the hated Gastilians, set fire to their 

own houses, and were buried under the ruins. The conquests of Saragossa and Lerida 
broke the resistance, and the axe of the headsman destroyed the lives of the boldest 
leaders. Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia lost the last remnants of their rights, and 




THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH AND HIS WIFE. (E. Roiljat.) 



512 



THE MODERN AGE. 




LOUIS XV. AND FRENCH GENERAL (1715.) 



were governed henceforth hy the laws of Castile. Yet Barcelona persisted in her 
resistance, till the close of the war. 

§ 413. In 1708, Eugene and Marlborough 
juiy ii, i?os. increased their renown, by a 
great victory at Oudenarde, on the river 
Scheldt. Louis XIV. now despaired of suc- 
cess, and startled at the exhaustion of his peo- 
ple, he even wished for peace. But Eugene, 
Marlborough, and the Dutch statesman Hein- 
sius, succeeded in forcing upon him hard con- 
ditions. He was asked to give up not only all 
claim to the Spanish monarchy, but Alsace and 
the city of Strasburg, and he would have con- 
sented, if his enemies had not insisted also that 
he should help to drive his own grandson out 
of Spain. This was too- much for the French 
court, and the war continued. In the terrible 
sept, ii, moo. battle of Malplaquet, the French 
lost more men than at any previous defeat, 
and were read^y for almost any terms. But the 
victors did not know the day of their oppor- 
tunity. 

§ 414. The wife of Marlborough quarreled with Queen Anne. A Cabal drove 
the Duchess from the English court, and the Whig ministry gave place to the Tories. 

Bolingbroke and the new cabinet wished 
for the end of the war, so as to do without 
i7io. Marlborough, and began 

negotiations with France. These were soon 
completed, especially as Joseph I. died with- 
out male issue, and his brother Carl, the 
mi. claimant of the Spanish 

monarch, inherited the Austrian crown. It 
cnri tj., was certainly not the interest 
i7ii-i74o. of the foreign powers to 
enlarge Austria by the annexation of Spain, 
and thus to establish the superiority of 
the House of Hapsburg. A truce was 
agreed upon, between England and France. 
Marlborough was accused of speculations, 
and deprived of his dignities ; and when the 
truce expired, the treaty of Utrecht was 
framed. Spain and the A merican possessions 
were given to the Bourbon king, Philip V., 
upon condition that the French and Span- 
ish crowns should never be united. England received from France, Nova Scotia and 
other possessions in North America, and from Spain, Gibraltar, with certain commercial 




French abbe. (Early 18.h Century.) 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



513 



advantages. The Duke of Savoy obtained the island of Sardinia, with the title of 
Apia 11, 1713. king. The Emperor of Germany would not sign the treaty of Utrecht, 
and continued the conflict for some time. 

But Carl was soon convinced that he could not prosecute the war successfully 

alone. He therefore agreed to the peace of Rastadt. Austria obtained the Spanish 

March., 1114. Netherlands, together with Milan, Naples, and Sicily. The Electors 

of Bavaria and of Cologne were restored to their possessions, and the title of the King 

of Prussia was universally recognized. 

§ 415. France. Louis XIV, died in the following year. He was tired of life, 

sept. io, ins. and bowed down by affliction. Within two years he had lost his son, 

Louts xv., his grandson, his great-grandson, and his brilliant wife. His succes- 

iiis-in*. sor, Louis XV., was but five years old. During his minority, Philip of 




JAMES WATT DISCOVERING THE POWER OP STEAM. 



Orleans xegent, Orleans was regent of France, and Cardinal Du Bois, his former teacher, 

nis-1723. became his prime minister.. Regent and minister alike were brilliant 

and talented, but highly immoral, despising virtue and religion, and wasting the 

revenues of the state, to satisfy their love of luxury and of pleasure. During the 

regency, the Scotchman, John Law, established his celebrated bank, which promised 

immense gains, especially from a speculation in Louisiana. This created an incredible 

excitement in France, which the regent and his companion made the most of. Law's 

bank was made a ro3'al institution, and the coin of the realm was exchanged for paper 

ii2o. money. An immense number of bank notes were issued, until at last 

the bank broke, ruining thousands, while the greedy nobles became immensely wealthy. 

§ 416. Spain. The Spanish king, Philip V., was a weak prince, governed by 

33 



514 



THE MODERN AGE. 



George II., 

1127-1700. 

George III., 

1700-1S20. 




CZAR AND BOYARS. 



Philip v., women, tormented by melancholy, and by his ambitious second wife, 
noi-fi-to. Elizabeth of Parma. With 
the help of an Italian named Alberoni, Eliza- 
beth obtained for her oldest son Charles, 
Naples and Sicily ; and for her second son 
Philip, the dukedom of Parma. When 
Philip died, he was succeeded by his son 
Ferdinand vi., Ferdinand VI., but he too 
n-ie-1759. was afflicted by incurable 
melancholy, which was charmed away by the 
singer Faranelli, who obtained great influ- 
ence at court. 

§ 417. England. George I., II., and III., 
George i., were kings of the House of 
Hanover. The two former 
were almost strangers in the 
realm, and consequently ex- 
ercised but little personal in- 
fluence upon the course of 
events. English constitutional liberty be- 
came so firmly established, however, that the 
responsible government thought mainly of 
the well-fare of the realm, and the greatness 
of the nation. 

in the government of the state, but in the 
main the law prevailed, and freedom was 
secure. Commerce and industry were 
constantly extended, and the land was ex- 
tremely prosperous. In the year 1769, 
James Watt constructed the steam engine, 
which created a new epoch in human de- 
velopment, and about the same time, Ark- 
wright invented the spinning-jenny and the 
power loom, for the weaving of wool, cot- 
ton and flax. In the reign of George I., 
the pretender, James IJI., with the help 
iri5-i7i7. of dissatisfied Tories, 
sought to obtain the English throne, but 
his enterprise failed, and brought upon 
his adherents a great disaster. In the 
days of George II., Charles Edward, the 
son of James, ventured a second attempt. 
With the help of France, he landed in 
Scotland, where he obtained a numerous 
following among the daring highlanders. 
His early successes encouraged him to invade England, but the bnt- 



(17lh Century.) 
The first two Georges permitted themselves occasional interferences 




boyars and lady. (17th & 18th Centuries.) 




LANDING OF EDWARD THE PRETENDER. 



(pp. 515.) 



516 



THE MODERN AGE. 



tie of Culloden destroyed forever the hopes of the Stuarts. Charles Edward, like 
Charles II., was saved in a romantic fashion by the friends and adherents of his 
house. But they were fearfully punished for their devotion. Executions and con- 
fiscations went on without end ; the prisons, from Edinburg to London, were filled 
with Jacobites. 



2. Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter the Great of Russia (1700-1718.) 

Siveden and Russia. 

§ 418. In the beginning of the 18th. century, Sweden reached the pinnacle of 

her power. Charles XI. 
increased the royal es- 
tates, and filled the state 
treasury by his sagacity 
and his economy. 
Arm} 7 and fleet were 
maintained in good con- 
dition. The shores of 
the Baltic, with the rich 
cities of Stralsund, Stet- 
tin, Riga, Wismar, and 
the mouths of the Oder, 
the Weser, the Dwina 
and the Dnieper, were 
Swedish territorj'. The 
present city of St. 
Petersburg was at that 
time a swamp on Swed- 
ish soil, and the Swedes 
were equal to any peo- 
ple of Europe, in valor 
and in military skill. 
But when the Russians 
were united under the 
House of House of 
nonmiioff, Romanoff 
1013-1130. they be- 
gan to extend their 
frontiers in all direc- 
tions. Alexis Romanoff 
Aiex-is, acquired 

peter the great. (Godfrey Kneller.) ' „«.,«». Smolensk 

and Siberia, compelled the Cossacks to acknowledge Russian authority, and furthered 

Feoao,-. industry and the cultivation of the land. Feodor Romanoff was 

io->e-ms2. the creator of the absolutism of the Czar, as he destroyed the 

family register, upon which the noble families based their claims. 

§ 419. Peter the Great. What his ancestors had begun, was brought to com- 







THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



517 



peter the Great, pletion by Peter the Great. He made great journeys through Europe, 
leso-tms. acquainting himself with the institutions of 
cultivated nations, and with the advantages of organized 
government. He thereupon determined to transform the 
Russian empire from an Asiatic to a European state. To 
this end he promoted the immigration of foreign artisans, 
sailors, and officers, notwithstanding the prejudices of his 
own countrymen. He studied ship-building in Holland 
and in England, visited the workshops of artists and of 
manufactures, and studied the construction of mills and 
machines. An uprising against the innovations and the 
foreigners was suppressed and skillfully used by the Czar, 
to transform his military system. The guilty were terribly 
punished, being hanged or beheaded or broken on the wheel, 
and as the Czar participated in person in these executions, 
it was manifest, that the new culture had not readied his heart. He compelled his 
subjects to wear the European costume, but he himself remained a barbarian in 




JOHN S0B1ESKI. 




polish winged cavalry in battle. ( W. Camphausen.) 



morals, opinions, and methods ; abandoned to drink, savage in his passions, and terri- 
ble in his wrath. 

§ 420. Poland under Frederick Augustus the Strong. While Russia was growing 



518 



THE MODERN AGE. 



Frederick niighiter, Poland was nearing the edge of ruin. When John Sobiesk 

At,gust n. (king) died, there ensued a violent contest for the crown, which ended 

109J-U33. in the election of Frederick Augustus of Saxony, a prince famous for 

his gigantic strength, and for his dissolute life. He was proclaimed king of Poland 

i6»j. after he had gone over to the Catholic chnrch. But the Polish 

nobility had so diminished the authority of the crown, that the state was rather an 

oligarchy than a monarchy. The nobles alone possessed civil rights, the peasants were 

serfs, and the artisans and merchants were in everything subordinate to these feudal 

lords. And the elected king was nothing more than the administrator of the decrees 

of the nobles. 

§ 421. Charles XII. was but sixteen years old when he ascended the Swedish 

diaries xn. throne. Accordingly, the rulers of Russia, Poland, and Denmark 

ieo7-i7is. thought it would be easy to deprive Sweden of her conquered land. 

Peter the Great, 
wished to establish 
himself on the Bal- 
tic ; Augustus the 
Strong wanted Livo- 
nia ; and the Danish 
king, Frederick IV., 
sought to acquire 
Schleswig. They 
concluded an alliance 
with each other, and 
llll Frederick Augustus 
' marched with a Saxon 
army to the frontiers 
of Livonia, while the 
Russians besieged 
Narva, and the Dan- 
ish king attacked the 
Duke of Holstein. 
But the young King, 

indignant at the unrighteousness of his enemies, crossed with his brave army to See- 

i->oo. land, beseiged Copenhagen, and so frightened the Danes, that Frederick 

IV. gave up his allies, and promised to compensate the Duke of Holstein. Charles now 

1101. turned upon his other enemies. With 8,000 men he defeated 80,000 

Russians at Narva, captured many cannons and much ammunition. He then marched 

into Poland, defeated the Saxon and Polish armies, conquering one state after the other. 

The citizens of Warsaw surrendered with trembling hands the keys of their capital, 

iio2. and paid the contributions that he levied upon them. The fruitful 

regions of the Vistula, and the Polish cities of the Baltic were soon in the power of 

the Swedes. Charles required the Poles to set aside their king, Frederick Augustus, 

and to choose another. They struggled desperately against this decree, but Charles 

compelled them to obey, and the choice fell upon Stanislaus Lesczinski. 

§ 422. Campaigning in the south of Poland was difficult, on account of the 




CHARLES XII. RELIEVING NARVA. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



519 



swamps and the poverty of the country, yet Charles XII. succeeded even there. He 
then marched across Silesia into the heart of Saxony, which suffered terribly from the 
ravages of the Swedish army. The inhabitants of the plains fled into the cities, and 
the royal family sought protection in the neighboring kingdom. Augustus, to save 
his land from ruin, gave up the Polish crown, renounced the alliance with the Czar, 

sept. noa. and surrendered the Russian ambassador Patkul to the Swedish king. 
Charles had Patkul broken on the wheel, and in spite of the peace, occupied Saxony 
for a whole year, the land suffering terribly from his exactions, and at the same time 
from the extravagance of the court at Dresden ; for while the estates of the realm 
consented grudgingly to the enormous taxes, and the wretched peasant was starving, 
Augustus the Strong was maintaining a splendid court, and spending enormous sums 
upon his festivals. Charles XII. was a strong contrast to the dissolute Elector. 
Charles was every inch a soldier ; he drank no spiritous liquors, and shared with the 
common soldier all the hardships of the cam- 
paign. He ate common food, wore common 
clothing ; the same dress in summer and win- 
ter ; a long military coat, and great cavalry 
boots. He loved the sound of the battle, the 
whistling of balls, and the neighing of the 
war-horse. He cared nothing for operas and 
concerts and court festivals. 

§ 423. While Charles XII. was wasting 
time in Saxony and Poland, Peter the Great 
was planning to conquer the Swedish posses- 
no3. sions on the Baltic. He built 

the fort at Cronstadt, drained the marshes on 
the Neva, and laid the foundations of St. Peters- 
burg. Moscow and other cities were compelled ._„ 
to furnish noblemen, merchants, and artisansi^ 
for the new capital. And even foreigners were g^ 
induced to emigrate thither. Charles XII. now »/ 
determined to attack Moscow, and to press 
into the heart of Russia. It would have been P0LISH LANCER and armored cavalryman. 
far wiser to have marched to the Baltic, and to have exterminated these new crea- 
110s. tions. But the Swedish king choose the way to Smolensk. No Rus- 

sian army opposed him, as he waded, with his army, through the deep rivers, and 
traversed the pathless swamps. In an evil hour he determined not to wait for his 
general Lb'wenhaupt, who was on the way to him with fresh troops and supplies, but 
allowed himself to be persauded by the old Cossack, Mazeppa, to march into Ukraine. 
Liiwenhaupt, attacked by the Russians, escaped only by the loss of all his artillery and 
his supplies, and with great difficulty united the remnant of his army with the forces 
of the King. The autumn rains were followed by a terrible winter ; many of the 

juiy s. no». veterans perished by cold, and thousands lost their hands and feet. 
Finally Charles beleagered Pultowa, but his cannon were not heavy enough to reach 
the city, and Peter arrived with a great army. The battle of Pultowa followed, in 
which the Swedish army was utterly routed. All their supplies and ammunition were 




520 



THE MODERN AGE. 



captured by the enemy, and the surviving leaders and soldiers were taken prisoners. 
Charles XII., the proud conqueror of three kings, became a helpless fugitive, who, 
only after desperate efforts in the shelterless and famine stricken Steppes, escaped 
with two thousand companions into Turkish territory. LO'wenhaupt collected the 
rest of the fugitives ; but retreat was impossible, for lack of food and artillery ; so 
he surrendered with sixteen thousand men. Not a man of them ever saw his home 
again. They were scattered through the empire, and died either in the mines of 
Siberia or as beggars on the highways. 

§ 42i. Charles XII. was honorably treated by the Turks. In his camp at Ben- 

1110. der, he was 
maintained in sover- 
eign state, as the guest 
of the Sultan. But the 
thought of returning 
home vanquished, and 
without his army, was 
unendurable to his 
proud soul. He tried 
to induce the Turks to 
make war upon Russia, 
and spent time and 
strength, and exhausted 
f every means to gain the 
Turks for his plans. 
But meanwhile, his 
three antagonists re- 
newed their former al- 
liance. Frederick Au- 
gustus took possession 
of the Polish kingdom : 
Peter the Great extend- 
ed his conquest to the 
Baltic, and the King of 
Den m a r k occupied 
Schleswig. Prussia and 
Hanover also joined the 
alliance, and invaded 
the German territories 
of Sweden. Only with 
difficult)^ was it possible 
for the brave general 
Stenbock, with his small army of peasants, to defend the fortified coast cities ; but 
mi. finally Charles XII. seemed about to achieve his wishes. A Turkish 

army entered Moldavia, and surrounded the Russian czar, forcing him almost to sur- 
render. But his wife Catharine, (once a slave of his minister Menschikoff), managed 
to bribe the Turkish Vizier and, by his help, to conclude a peace. Charles XII. 




CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. 




PETER THE GREAT AFTER THE BATTLE OF PULTAWA. ( fp. 521.) 



522 



THE MODERN AGE. 



foamed with rage at this failure of his cherished plan, yet he persisted in his purpose, 
and remained at Bender until the Sultan withdrew his support, and commanded him 
to leave the Turkish dominion. He took the money given him for his journey, and 
remained at Bender nevertheless. . Finally the Janissaries stormed his camp, set fire 
to his tent, in which he defended himself with leonine strength, and finally took him 
prisoner. He remained ten montfis in captivity, and consumed his strength in childish 
obstinacy. Not until he was told that his German possessions had fallen into the 

November, tit*, hands of his enemies, did he abandon Turkey, and set out for . 
Stralsund on horseback, where he arrived after fourteen days' continuous riding. 

§ 425. Stralsund was defended by the brave Swedes, with the utmost courage. 
nee, ins. But at the end of a year, the city was compelled to surrender, where- 
upon all Pomerania and the island of Riigen came into the hands of Prussia. But 
the obstinate king, Charles, would make no peace. He coined copper dollars to pay 

the expenses of new equipments, and without 
waiting for the result of negotiations with the 
Russian emperor, he invaded Norway to chas- 
tise the King of Denmark, for his violation of 
the treaty. One of his armies perished with 
cold, hunger, and fatigue. With the other, the 
King marched to the south ; but at the siege of 
ins. Friedrichshall, he lost his life. 

The Swedish nobility now usurped all authority. 
They excluded the rightful heir, Frederick of 
Holstein, and conferred it upon the younger 
mo. sister of Charles XII.,' Ulrica 

Eleanora, and her husband Frederick, of Hesse 
Cassel. Sweden was no longer a monarchy, 
except in name. All power lay in the hands 
of the imperial council of nobles. Baron von 
Goersz, the minister of Charles, was cruelly 
executed, and a number of treaties speedily 
confirmed, in which Sweden gave up all her 
foreign possessions, except a small part of 
Pomerania. 

§ 426. But Russia emerged from the struggle a mighty European power. The 
acquisition of Esthonia and Livonia, and other Swedish provinces, was for Russia the 
beginning of a new epoch. So long as Moscow was the capital, the eyes of the Czar 
were directed to Asia, with whose inhabitants and customs the Russians had greater 
sympathy than with the European. But now that Petersburg had become the seat of 
government, and had been adorned by great buildings and parks, Russia had become a 
European empire. The restless activity of the great Czar, produced a complete trans- 
formation. Commerce and navigation were promoted b}' the building of highways, 
canals, and harbors. Manufactures and mining were especially favored, and an acad- 
emy of sciences was founded. The internal administration, especially the police sys- 
tem, assumed new form, so that the imperial power was increased, and that of the 
nobility diminished. One of the most important innovations of Peter the Great, was 







TURKISH PASHA AND NOBLEMAN. 

(16th & 17th Centuries.) 



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524 THE MODERN AGE. 

the abolition of the patriarchal dignity, and the creation of the Holy Synod as the 
supreme authority in church affairs, to which the Czar himself gave direction. 

§ 427. But Peter remarked with sorrow, that his only son Alexis, was opposed 
to these innovations, and was surrounding himself with friends of the old order, evi- 
dently intending to return to Moscow as the capital of the empire. The Czar sought 
to bend the defiant spirit of his son, and to make him friendly to European culture. 
Alexis refused to be conciliated, and finally escaped from the kingdom. Peter, con- 
cerned for the continuance of his institutions, had his son brought home, and then 
condemned to death. Whether lie was executed or died before the judgment could 
ms. be carried out, is uncertain. When Peter died, he was succeeded by 

Catharine i., his wife Catharine I. Under her and her successor, Peter II., Meu- 
«2s-isaj. schikoff conducted the government ; but just as he hoped to many 
peter n., his daughter to the young emperor, he was overthrown, and banished 
1121-1730. to Siberia. The empress Anna who succeeded Peter II., gave her 
Anna, confidence to the energetic Germans, Ostermann, and Muennich; the 

1730.1110. former was her minister of state, and the latter her minister of war. 
Elizabeth, But when the youngest daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth, was 
i7-ti.i}«2. elevated to the throne by a palace revolution, all the favorites of 
Anna were banished to Siberia. The infant Ivan, whom Anna had named as her suc- 
cessor, was thrown into prison, and suffered to grow up like a brute. Elizabeth aban- 
doned herself to a dissolute life, and the government to her favorites. 

§ 428. The riotous life of Frederick Augustus the Strong, was transferred from 
Dresden to Poland, and destroyed the little remnant of moral power left in the Polish 
nobility. New vices were blended with the old. Vanity, flattery, and religious big- 
otry were more at home in Poland than ever. The Jesuits succeeded in depriving the 
mi. Polish dissidents of their ecclesiastical and civil rights. This led to 

an uprising in the Protestant city of Thorn, and to the execution of ten of its chief 
iisj. citizens. The principal church was given over to the Catholics, and 

the city deprived of its charter. To complete the ruin of the nation, the war of suc- 
cession broke out in 1733. Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had fled from Poland after the 
battle of Pultowa, and who had married his daughter to King Louis XV., of France, 
renewed his claims to the throne, and relying upon French help, had set out for War- 
1733. saw. But Russia and Austria favored Frederick Augustus III., of 

Saxony. Stanislaus, although acknowledged by the Polish people, was compelled to 
fly to Konigsberg, and thence to France, when the Russian troops entered Poland. 
Frederick Augustus III., known as King August II., was a weak and inactive mon- 
arch, under whose reign Poland rapidly neared her dissolution. Stanislaus, however, 
1738. became the possessor of Lorraine, and lived twenty-nine years in 

Nancy, a friend of the poor, and a patron of the arts and sciences. 

3. The Rise oe Prussia. 

§ 429. Frederick William the Great, Elector of Brandenburg, greatly increased 
Elector F,ea- his territory by successful wars, and secured to his kingdom an influ- 
ertck wiiiiam, ential position by the founding of a great army. He encouraged 
lGio-ittss. prosperity and culture at home, by favoring the immigration of for- 
eigners, especially of French Huguenots. He was followed by his son, the Elector 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



525 



FrexerM m. Frederick III., to whom the splendor of Versailles seemed to be the 
King highest triumph of earthly majesty. He looked with envy upon the 

Freaerich i., Electors of Hanover and Saxony, because they were called kings ; 
tess-ni3. and great was his joy, when the Emperor Leopold rewarded him for 
his support in the War of the Spanish Succession, by acknowledging him as king of 
jn,i. is, 1101. Prussia. He was solemnly crowned in Ku'nigsberg, placing the crown 
upon his own head and that of his wife, and then entered Berlin in triumph, as king 
Frederick I. He adorned his capital with palaces and monuments, collected distin- 
guished Prussians about him in Charlottenburg, and with the help of Leibnitz, the 
philosopher, founded academies of sciences and arts in Berlin, and established the 
University of Halle, to which he called a number of distinguished scholars and phil- 
osophers. 

§ 430. But these expenditures brought heavy taxes. The splendor of the new 

monarchy seemed about to become pernicious 
to the state. Fortunately, the extravagant 
Frederick I., was followed by the economical 
Frederick Frederick William I. Lux- 
wauam i., ury was banished from the 
1713-H40. court ; the retinue of ser- 
vants was greatly limited ; the royal table 
became quite simple ; the Queen and her 
daughters busied themselves with domestic 
affairs ; raiment and furniture were of the 
most unpretentious character. Instead of a 
circle of philosophers, Frederick William 
and his good friends formed their tobacco 
college, where each member told his doubt- 
ful story, and smoked his strong tobacco. 
Christian Wolf, the philosopher, received 
orders to leave Halle within four and twenty 
hours. Nevertheless the King made things 
easier for the peasants, and encouraged in- 
dustry. He forbade the import of foreign 
i72o. manufactures ; he gave a home to the exiled Protestants of Salzburg ; 

and he compelled judges and officials to perform their duty. The only luxuiy 
he allowed himself, was the enormous sum he spent upon his Potsdam guard. 
He spared no expense to get " tall fellows " from all the land of Europe, — not a few 
being kidnapped, and brought by stealth into his dominion. At his death he left 
£8,000,000 in cash, a great treasure in silver ornaments and utensils, a well-organized 
revenue s} r stem, and a splendidly organized army. 

§ 431. His great son, Frederick II., struck out a different path. While his father 

Frederic* it., was hunting or surrounded by his rude companions, the talented prince 

bom ran. 24, was busy with French writers, and with the flute, which he passion- 

1712,- ately loved. Father and son had little sympathy with each other. 

aied ii so. Frederick was repelled by his father's cruelty, and the father was 

angry that the son pursued a path of his own. Finally, Frederick arranged a plan to 




FREDERICK THE GREAT. 



526 THE MODERN AGE. 

escape paternal authority, by flight, But a letter of Frederick's to his confidant, 
Lieutenant Von Katte, revealed the secret. The king foamed with rage. He impris- 
ii±o. oned his son at Fort Kuestrin, and ordered Von Katte to be hung up 

in front of Frederick's window. All who were in the secret were terribly punished 
by the enraged monarch. Not until Frederick besought his father's forgiveness was he 
released from prison and given back his sword and his uniform. Soon afterward he 
was married to a princess of Brunswick. B ut he seldom saw his wife, especially after his 
father gave him for his own the town of Reinsberg, where he carried on a gay life in the 
circle of his cultivated and free-thinking friends. He read the works of the ancients 
in French translations, he greatly admired French literature, and became so enamored 
of Voltaire, that he wrote him flattering letters, and subsequently invited him to his 
court. Frederick invited also a number of French authors, who had been banished 
from France, to take refuge with him ; and when he ascended the throne, he recalled 
Wolf to Halle with the well-known expression that " In his dominions everyone might 
go to heaven in his own fashion." 

4. The Age of Frederick II., and of Maria Theresa. 

a. The Austrian War of Succession. (1740-1748.) 

§ 432. The Emperor, Karl VI., a good-natured, but by no means distinguished 
mo. prince, died shortly before Frederick II. ascended the throne. Just 

before his death, he concluded with the Sultan the shameful peace of Belgrade. He 
bad no male heirs, so it was his chief concern during his reign to secure the succession 
Maria Theresa, of the Austrian hereditary dominions to his daughter Maria Theresa. 
1740-iiso. To this end he purchased, through great sacrifices, the acknowledg- 
ment by all the Courts of the " pragmatic sanction." According to this, the Austrian 
hereditary lands were to remain undivided, and, should a male line fail, were to pass 
to the female line. Hardly had the Emperor closed his eyes, when Karl Albert, Elec- 
tor of Bavaria, laid claim to the Austrian dominions. Karl was too weak and too 
extravagant to make good his claims witli the slender resources of his own exhausted 
land, but the French court, in spite of its recognition of the " pragmatic sanction," 
supported him with money and with troops. The French were anxious to have their 
hands free, to extend their kingdom along the Rhine and in the Netherlands. But 
Frederick II. now laid claim to Silesia, and also favored the Bavarian Elector in his 
claims to Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia. Saxony too started for a share in the 
booty; even the indolent Frederick Augustus II. laid claim to Moravia, and thus- 
brought unspeakable misery to his unhappy land. 

§ 433. A few weeks after the death of Karl VI., the army of Frederick marched 

oct. *©, 17*0. into Silesia. The King himself was with his arm) - , rather to learn war 

than to command in person. His two generals, Schwerin and Leopold Von Dessau, 

Apra, 1141. managed his army witli great skill and success. They won the battle 

of Mollwitz, and occupied the greater part of Silesia. The French army now invaded 

Karl vii., German} 7 , and occupied upper Austria and Bohemia, Karl Albert was 

i74i-i7i3. acknowledged Duke at Linz, and received in Prague the Bohemian 
crown. He was now at the pinnacle of his success. He was chosen emperor, and was 
preparing for a splendid coronation in Frankfort. 

§ 434. In her extremity, Maria Theresa turned to Hungary. She appeared (so 




(p]> 527 .) MARIA THERESA BEFORE THE ASSEMBLY. (P. PhilUppoteCLUX.) 



528 THE MODERN AGE. 

the story goes) with her infant son Joseph in her arms, at a diet in Pressburg, and by 
her eloquent appeals, and her promises of favor, produced such enthusiasm among the 
Hungarian magnates, that they broke forth in the cry " Vivat Maria Theresa rex ! " 
The Tyroleans likewise exhibited their ancient fidelity. A might}*- army soon marched 
to the field, drove the Bavarian and French troops before them, and marched, plunder- 
j««. sj, nig. ing and ravaging, through Bavaria. While Karl Albert was being 
crowned emperor at Frankfort, the Austrians were invading his capital, Munich. They 
robbed him of Ids possessions, and compelled him to take refuge with the French. 

§ 435. At the same time an Austrian army invaded Bohemia, and attacked the 
j-uitf, 11*2. French. To deprive them of the assistance of Prussia, Maria Theresa 
ceded Silesia to Frederick II., and in a short time the largest part of Bohemia was in 
the hands of the Austrians. The French commander Belle-Isle, with a considerable 
army, was shut up in Prague. But the French Marshal, by a daring movement, 
escaped to Eger in the middle of winter. In the following spring Maria Theresa was 
crowned in Prague, and at the same time she obtained a powerful ally in George II., 
of Hanover and England. The French were driven across the Rhine, and Saxony 
came over to the side of Austria. 

§ 436. The victory of the Austrians, at the battle of Dettingen, alarmed Fred- 
jiuie hi, ii4:3. erick II., and he began the second Silesian War against Maria Theresa. 
As ally of the Emperor, he invaded Bohemia, while Charles VII. recovered Bavaria 
and re-entered Munich. But only to die. His son, Maximilian Joseph, renounced all 
claims to the Austrian succession, and gave his vote in the election of emperor to the 
husband of Maria Theresa, who was crowned emperor in Frankfort as Francis I. 
Meanwhile Frederick II. had lost nearly all Silesia to the Austrians. But his splendid 
June 4, ii45. victoiy at Hohenfriedberg restored to him his advantage. He and his 
generals won repeated victories ; the old Dessau defeated the Saxons ; Frederick 
marched into the abandoned Dresden, and Maria Theresa consented at last to the peace 
of Dresden, in which she once more ceded Silesia to Frederick, the latter acknowledg- 
ing her husband, Francis I., as German emperor. 

§ 437. But though the war was ended in Germany it continued in the Nether- 
lands. The French were under 'the lead of the talented Marshal Saxe, and acquired 
complete possession of the Austrian Netherlands. They made conquests in Holland 
also, but, exhausted by the war, all longed for peace, and finally the treaty of Aix la 

Oct. 1148. Chapelle was concluded, in which the Austrian hereditary lands were 
given to the Empress Maria Theresa, except Silesia and some Italian possessions. The 
former fell to Prussia, and the latter to Philip of Parma. The other states returned to 
the old conditions, and France obtained from the expensive war nothing but military 
glory. 

b The Seven Years' War. (1756-1763.) 

§ 438. Maria Theresa, smarting from the loss of Silesia, used the eight years of 
peace that now ensued, to form alliances with other European powers. Elizabeth of 
Russia, angered by Frederick's mockery, and eager for the Prussian possessions on the 
Baltic, was easily won. Augustus III. of Saxony was also ready to punish the great 
King, who spoke of him always with contempt. But the masterpiece of Austrian 
diplomacy was wrought out by the Austrian minister, Kaunitz, at Versailles. For he 



530 



THE MODERN AGE. 



induced France to give up its ancient policy of weakening the House of Hapsburg, and 
to unite with Austria against Prussia. Louis XV. had given himself up completely to 
his lusts and to his favorites. The proud and virtuous Maria Theresa condescended 
so far as to send a flattering letter to the Marquise De Pompadour, the King's all-power- 
ful mistress. The Pompadour and her creatures brought about an alliance between 
France and Austria, which was intended to deprive Frederick of his possessions, and 
to reduce the King of Prussia to the rank of an Elector of Brandenburg. 




SEYDLITZ AT ROSSBACH. 



§ 439. Frederick, apprised of all these movements, determined to anticipate his 
enemies. He invaded Saxony, occupied Leipzig and Dresden, and established a Prus- 
Auguat, 1750. sian administration. The taxes and revenues of the land were con- 
fiscated, ammunition, arms, and artillery, carried off to Magdeburg; and to justify 
his undertaking, Frederick published documents, in which he exposed the plans of his 
enemies. The Saxon army were forced to surrender at Pirna on the Elbe. Frederick 

October. compelled fourteen thousand prisoners to enter the Prussian service, 
but at the first opportunity they fled to Poland. As Frederick continued to levy 
money and recruits in Saxony, war was declared upon him by the German empire. 




MARSHAL BAXE IN THE BATTLE OF FONTENOY. (A. de NeilVllle.) (pp. 531.) 



532 



THE MODERN AGE. 




And the aristocrats of Sweden joined their foroes to crush him. England alone, be- 
cause threatened by France in America, and anxious about Hanover, supported 
Frederick. A few German states, Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse Cassel, and Gotha also 
adopted his cause. 

§ 440. The next spring Frederick marched 
with his main army into Bohemia, while his-allies 
attacked the French, who- were between the 
may o, ns7. Rhine and the Weser. The battle 
of Prague was, for Frederick, a dearly purchased, 
but a brilliant victoiy. The fruits of it however 
June s. were lost the next month, by a 

defeat at Kolin, which the Prussian King suffered 
at the hands of the Austrian Field marshal Daun. 
And to make matters worse, the French won a 
■rteitf. great victory at Hastenbeck, over 

Frederick's allies, and proceeded to take up winter 
quarters in Saxon}-. The Prince of Soubise, a 
favorite of the Pompadour, had already advanced jp 
to the river Saale, when Frederick attacked him 
• »ov. s, « S9 . suddenly, and defeated him in the ™ EDER1CK william vox seydlitz. 
battle of Rossbach. The imperial army fled at the first encounter, and the French 
soon followed. Seydlitz, the leader of the Cavahy, had particularly distinguished 
2>ec. s. himself. A month later Frederick defeated Daun in the battle 

Leuthen. But the war great!}- dis- 
tressed all Germany. Hanover, 
Brunswick, and Hesse Cassel suffered 
especially from the forced contribu- 
tions of the Duke of Richelieu. 

§ 441. William Pitt had now 
become the ruling spirit in the Eng- 
lish ministry, and Frederick, after 
the battle of Rossbach, had become 
the idol of the English people. Pitt 
determined therefore to support him 
generously with money and with 
troops, and to give him the choice of 
a commander. Frederick appointed 
Ferdinand of Brunswick who, in 
liss. early spring, drove 

the French across the Rhine, and 
secured North Germany from their 
invasions. Meanwhile the Russians 
had marched to the Oder, and as 
Bestuscheff had behaved mysteri- 
ously during an illness of the Czarina Elizabeth, he was banished, and his command 
given to Fermor. The latter occupied East Prussia, and then invaded Brandenburg. 




WILLIAM PITT. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



533 



Frederick thereupon executed a masterly movement to the Oder, and defeated the 
August as. Russians in the murderous battle of Zorndorf. He then started to 

relieve his brother Henry in Saxony, but was surprised by Daun's superior army, 
October 1*. and lost all his artillery and many soldiers. Nevertheless he formed a 

junction with Henry, and drove the enemy once more out of Silesia and Saxony. 

§ 442. But his strength was nearly exhausted. With difficulty he filled up the 

gaps in his army, and found money and supplies to continue the war. Maria Theresa 

on the other hand was constantly receiving armies and subsidies from Russia and 




BATTLE OP LEUTHEN. 

France. To prevent a junction of the Russians and the Austrians, Frederick marched 
auo- l*, I?™- to the Oder; but after defeating the Russians, he was himself utterly 
routed by the Austrians, under their able general Loudon. "All is lost," he wrote to 
his minister, " save the royal family ; farewell forever." Dresden and nearly all of 
Saxony was lost to Prussia, but the discord between Austrians and Russians prevented 
their making use of their victory. Meanwhile the allies, under Ferdinand of Bruns- 
Aug. i, i75o. wick, had defeated the French army at Menden, driven them across 
the Rhine, and saved Westphalia and Hanover. 



534 



THE MODERN AGE. 



§ 443. Frederick was now compelled to act on the defensive. The loss of able 
officers and veteran soldiers could not even be supplied by Frederick's military genius. 
And to obtain money, he was obliged to debase the currency and to collect oppressive 

rune, t?eo. taxes. The Austrians now oc- 
cupied Silesia. ' Wheieupon Frederick aban- 
doned Saxony, and b} r his victory at Liegnitz, 
recovered Silesia. But the Austrians and Rus- 
sians* is. sians occupied Berlin, and de- 
vastated Brandenburg. Daun entrenched him- 
self upon an eminence not far from the Elbe, 
and resolved to pass the winter in Saxony. 
Frederick attempted to storm his camp, and in 
jrov. 3, i7oo. the battle of Torgau, he con- 
quered Saxony, and was able to make his winter 
quarters in Leipzig. But this victory over 
Daun cost him fourteen thousand of his bravest 
soldiers. 

§ 444. In the year 1761 Frederick seemed 
lost. For when George III. ascended the Eng- 
lish throne, the English refused to continue 
the war. Silesia seemed lost to Austria, and 
the province of Prussia to Russia. But in the 
hour of Frederick's extremity, the Czarina 
jran. 5, lses. Elizabeth died, and her nephew 
Peter III., a passionate admirer of the Prussian king, obtained the Russian crown. 
This transformed the situation. Peter made a treaty with Frederick, and the Rus- 
sian army joined the Prussian forces. The alliance however did not long endure. 

Peter's innovations in church and state pro- 
voked the Russians, and his treatment of his 
wife Catharina provoked her to a comsjjiracy. 
jhjj; ii, ilea. The Czar was murdered, and 
Catharina II. usurped the throne that belonged 
to her son Paul. The new Czarina recalled her 
troops from Prussia, but she confirmed a treaty 
of peace that had been made with Frederick. 




AUSTUIAN GENERAL AND OFFICER. 

(1760-1775.) 




Illll And the Russian general, before his departure, 
^11=' helped the Prussian King to another victor}-. 

§ 445. The German jieople were now in 
desperation; their lands were wasted, their 
»-«>»., iio2. industry had perished, their 
prosperity was gone. Even Austria was so 
shattered, that Maria Theresa no longer op- 
posed the termination of the war. A truce 
was agreed upon, and in the next February the 
long desired peace was agreed upon, in Hubertsburg. Bj- this treaty 
Silesia was secured to Frederick, and Canada given to England. For the French 



HANS JOACHIM VON ZIETHEN. 



Feb. IS, 1103. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



535 



had been defeated in Quebec by the brilliant and heroic achievements of General 
Wolfe. 

o. The German Umpire and Frederick's old age. 

§ 446. The German empire had sunk into disrepute, and was not even represented 
in the negotiations at Hubertsburg. The authority of the empire was a mere shadow, 
and the income of the emperor but a few thousand guldens. Four hundred and fifty 




GEORGE IIT. 

hereditary or elective princes and republican municipalities ruled in German) 7 , and left 
to the emperor nothing but the confirmation of agreements and the determination of 
rank. In war, German princes were frequently with the enemy, Bavaria almost always 
taking part with France. The Diet, which held its sessions in Regensburg after 1663, 
had lost all respect, as the sessions gave rise to nothing but debates,* and these debates 
even were more concerned with trivial matters, than with the interests of the people. 
The judicial system of Germany was no better than the imperial administration. The 



536 



THE MODERN AGE. 




HUSSAR OFFICER AND CAVALRY GRENADIER. 

(Prussia, 1760.) 



imperial court in Wetzlar was so slow, that years elapsed before a case could be de- 
cided. And while the archives accumulated, 
the parties often died. ■ The judges were 
open to bribeiy, and every attempt of the 
Joseph n. emperor to improve the sys- 
ijco-ijoo. tern, met with the success- 
ful resistance of those immediately con- 
cerned. The lower courts made it almost 
impossible for the common man to obtain 
justice; the poor and the weak were help- 
less against the injustice and the oppression 
of the cunning and the strong. It was the 
golden age of lawyers and advocates. 

§ 447. But while the empire was sink- 
ing, Prussia was rising 'to greater power 
and prosperity. The wounds of the Seven 
Years' War were healed by the King as 
rapidly as possible. He subsidized the 
farmers and the manufacturers in Silesia and 
in Brandenburg, remitted their taxes for a 
number of years, and relieved the lot of the 
peasant. He furthered the cultivation of 
the land, the care of forests, and the opening 
of mines; established colonies in waste places, and did his utmost to encourage in- 
dustry and commerce. In his court expenses he was simple and economical, and the 

finances were so well regulated, that the 
treasury was soon relieved. Not until his 
later life, did Frederick adopt oppressive 
and severe measures. He then made a 
monopoly of coffee, tobacco, and salt, and 
in order to hinder smuggling, he appointed 
a multitude of French custom house officers, 
whose insolence made them hated by citizen 
and peasant. Church and school received 
the least attention from the King. The 
schools of smaller places were given to the 
veterans of his army, while the high-schools 
were frequently in the hands of French- 
men. . He cared but little for church and 
Christianity, although he established toler- 
ance in his dominions. His nephew and 
Fretierickir.il., successor, Frederick Wil- 
itso-110-i. liam II., was a pietist, and 
issued an "edict of religion" which forbade 
the clergy departing a hair's breadth from the 
symbolical books, and which greatly limited 




HUSSAR AND INFANTRYMAN. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 



537 



freedom of doctrine and of belief. The judicial system however was the object of 
Frederick's earnest solicitude. Torture was abolished, and all cruel and unusual 
punishments. Procedure was simplified, and the laws improved. The new code, now 
known as the Prussian common la.w, breathes the free mind of the great king. 
Frederick himself personally attended to the administration of justice, spurring on 
the indolent, and punishing the unscrupulous. Actively at work, from early morning 
till late at night, he was acquainted with all the circumstances of his kingdom, and as 
he did not hesitate at times to use his cane, he terrified the lazy and the unjust. In 
literature, Frederick was certainly unpatriotic, writing his letters and his works in the 
French language. In fact the character of this nation excited his constant admiration 
and imitation. French adventurers by the hundred found hospitality in Prussia, and 
all the regions of Germany were alive with the merry children of France. Parisian 
barbers and dancing-masters and swindlers 
were not seldom preferred in the appoint- 
ments to positions at court, and in the state 
service. 

§ 448. In his old age, Frederick was 
compelled to go to war again with Austria. 
In 1777 the Bavarian line of the house of 
Wittelsbach expired with Maximilian Jo- 
seph, and the electorate passed to the next 
heir, Carl Theodor, of the Palatinate. This 
prince had no lawful children, and had no 
love for Bavaria. He was easily persuaded 
by Joseph II. to recognize the claims of 
Austria to lower Bavaria, and to surrender 
these lands, upon the guarantee of certain 
advantages for his illegitimate children. 
Frederick II. tried to prevent this, at the 
diet of the empire ; and when this failed, he 
lits-i-iso. marched an army into Bohe- 
mia. This led to a war, in which the fight- 
ing was chiefly on paper, for both parties 
tried to prove themselves in the right, by learned treatises. Finally Maria Thersa 
3iay is, mo. agreed to the peace of Teschen, in which the difficulty was peaceably 
adjusted. But some years after her death, Joseph II. made a second attempt to get 
possession of Bavaria, offering Belgium in exchange. This too Frederick sought 
to prevent. He established an alliance of princes to which most of the princes of 
Germany belonged. This alliance greatly increased the authority of the Prussian 
king. 'Meanwhile the empire neared its dissolution. Every prince was struggling 
for unlimited power ; every one had his little court, in which he imitated Versailles 
in splendor and expenditure, in morals and manners, in language, literature, and art. 




OFFICER OF THE GUARD AND GRENADIER. 



d. The Intellectual Life of the German People. 

§ 449. If the division of Germany into small principalities was disadvantageous 
to its political power, it was beneficial at least to the development of German art and 



538 



THE MODERN AGE. 



science. Many princes were patrons of literature and culture, inviting able men to 
their capitals and universities, and encouraging poets and scholars to great achieve- 
ment. In the second half of the eighteenth century, at a time when Germany was 
losing its political significance, literature, poetry, science and intellectual life in gen- 
eral readied a high degree of excellence. This was especially true of poetry. 
uniiet; «a». Haller, in his didatic poem, " The Alps " described the scenery and 
Magedoin, 1354. the people of his native country. Hagedorn, in his political " Nar- 
cfeiieit, neo. ratives," and Gellert, in his " Fables and Stories," imitated the ele- 
gant ease of the French, while they likewise revived the old German hymns. 

Klopstock, Klop- 

1124-1S03. StOCk 

wrote his Messiah, 
and by his odes, 
awakened in the peo- 
ple a feeling for 
Christianity, and a 
love for freedom. 
What he did in 
poetry, his great 
contemporaries, Se- 
Bach, iiso. b a s t i a n 
Hanaei, liso. Bach and 
George Frederick 
Handel, did in music. 
Handel's Oratorio 
"The Messiah" can 
be called a great 
Christian epic in 

Leasing, " tones.' 

1120-iisi. Lessing 
the great thinker and 
critic, revealed, in 
his " Hamburg Dra- 
maturgy " the weak- 
ness of the French 
dramatic literature, 
and showed, by his own plays, " Minna von Barnhelm," " Emilia Galotti," and 
" Nathan the Wise " the path to genuine dramatic art. At the same time, he pointed 
out. in his Laocoon, the true relations of poetry and of plastic art. His contem- 
porary, John Winkelman, reached the same result by different 
methods. Not the least of Lessing's contributions to modern 
his controversial writings, touching the Wolfenbiittel fragments. 
Herder, a man of great brilliancy and poetic eloquence, discussed 
the origin of language and of poetry, pointed out the beauties 
of oriental lore and the deep significance of popular songs, among the differ- 
ent races. He published also his " Ideas toward the Philosophy of Human His- 




GOETHE. 



Winkelman, 

culture were 

Jfei'fler, 

im-iso3. 



THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN AGE. 



539 



wieiand, tory," Avhich gave a mighty impulse to further investigation. Wie- 
u33-isis. land, in his romances, taught, in easy language, a wise enjoyment of 
life, a doctrine especially grateful to the higher classes. At the same time, he renewed 
in his " Oberon " the romantic poetry of the Middle Ages. These three writers trans- 
formed the prose language of Germany. Lessing contributed strength, precision, and 
lucidity ; Herder, inspiration and imagination; Wieland, ease and grace. And these 
aoetne, three were followed by the greatest genius of the century — Goethe, 

ii4o-is32. in whose creations are mirrored, not only his own intellectual life, but 
the mental movements of the German people. In the seventies, when the youth of 
Germany were despising the rules of art and of traditional morality, and praising the 
products of unbridled genius ; when they were adoring the songs of the people, and 
worshipping Ossian and Shakespeare, the " Sorrows of Werther," a romance in letters, 
and the dramatic picture " Gotz von Ber- 
lichingen," aroused a storm of enthusiasm. 
After Lessing and Winkelman had awak- 
ened in Germany a taste for antique art, 
Goethe produced his classical dramas 
" Tasso " and " Iphigenia," composed in 
antique spirit and form, and alive with 
the impressions that he had received in 
use. his journey to Italy. His 

tragedy of " Egmont " reveals his nature 
and his powers in a different manner, 
especially in its pictures of popular life. 
His idyllic poem " Hermann and Dorothea" 
touches the exciting period of the French 
revolution and the sufferings of the emi- 
grants. His romance of "William Meis- 
ter " which portrays the life of the theater 
and his novel of " Elective Affinities " 
both belong to the new romantic time, 
which found delight in the miraculous 
the mysterious, and the supernatural. £CHILLERINHIs30th YEAR - (L.vonSimonavoitz.) 
In his " Truth and Poetry " Goethe pictured the course of his own life and cul- 
ture. And in his collossal dramatic poem "Faust," he gave to posterity a picture 
of his innermost soul. The mighty storms that passed through the political world, 
schaier, directed the thoughts of men to history. Frederick Schiller produced 
175B-1SOS. his historical dramas, in which he represented the stormy periods of 
domestic and foreign history, and by his enthusiasm for freedom, countiy, and human 
happiness, he struck the chord that responds most surely in the popular heart. His 
three first tragedies, " The Robbers," "Cabal and Love," and " Fiesco," belong to the 
stormy period of his youth. With " Don Carlos " he began a new and nobler period. 
During his residence in Jena, as professor of history, he busied himself with the 
" Thirty Years' War," with the " Revolt of the Netherlands; " and with his Eulogy of 
" Wallenstein." He also wrote the "Song of the Bell," a charming picture of human 
life, in its joys and sorrows. In the days of his illness and misfortune, he composed 




540 



THE MODERN AGE. 



" Maria Stuart," "The Maid of Orleans," the "Bride of Messina" and his splendid 
drama "William Tell." Schiller and Goethe became intimate friends, in spite of the 
differences of their natures ; and their united activity marks the highest point in the 
achievements of German poetry. 

§ 450. But theology, philosophy, history, the science of education, all shared this 
powerful impulse. Protestant theologians investigated the Bible, and expounded the 

ificfifer. Christian doctrine, each according to his bent. Some, like Lavater of 

i7j*-tsoi. Zurich, sought to maintain the world, in the strictest belief, and to 
establish the conviction that man could reach God only by prayer. Others, like 

mcoiai, 'Nicolai, desired to make the human mind the supreme judge in divine 
1733-isa. things, and declared everything contrary to reason to be mere super- 
stition. The farmer were called supernaturalists, the latter rationalists. A third party, 

Stolhevu, 
17SO-1S19. 

ter of feeling, 

Rant, 

112-1-1709. 

Fielite, 
17G2-181J,. 



of which the philosopher Jacobi, and the poet, Count Stolberg, were 
the leaders (like the mystics of the Middle Age) made religion a mat- 
But the greatest revolution was wrought in philosophy. Kant, the 
great thinker of Konigsberg, in his " Kutick " expounded a system 
that soon made its way into all sciences, and excited and dominated 
the learned world of Germany. His disciple, Fichte, passed from the 
critical idealism of Kant, to pure idealism, declaring, in his "Doc- 
trine of Knowledge," that the ME or the EGO was first and original. In his system 
of morality, Fichte made freedom and self-activity the aim of moral effort, and by his 
" Addresses to the German Nation" he became renowned among his contemporaries, 
sciieiiing, and to posterity. Fichte's pupil, Schelling, blended his idealism with 
natural philosoph}', and Hegel, in his dialectics, created a S3'stem that 
exercised a powerful influence upon the intellectual development of 
Germany. Spittler wrote history with precision and clearness, and 
John Mueller, of Switzerland, began a new era of historical composi- 
tion, by his learning and his artistic skill in presentation. Basedow, 
inspired by Rousseau of France, was the forerunner of Pestalozzi and 
Froebel. He established a model school at Dessau, and was followed 
by Campe and Salzmann, who expounded and improved the methods 
of teaching, upon which Pestalozzi founded his system of education 
and of school life. 



177S-1S5-1. 

Hegel, 1770-ls.ll. 

Spittler, 

1752-lSlO. 

yjtiellei; 

1752-1S09. 

Base€low, 



1723-1790. 
Pestftloszi, 
1746-1827. 





\ 7fv /< 




J KANT. 



J. H. PESTALOZZI. 



J. G. FICHTE. 




(541) 




{pp. 542.) 



BATTLE OF I SLY. (1844.) 




A. THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 



5 451. 



I. THE LITERATURE OF ENLIGHTENMENT. 




►RANGE in the course of the eighteenth century, was 
shaken to its foundations by the prevailing litera- 
ture. 

Men of genius and of great endowments yet 
full of prejudice attacked religious belief and the 
institutions of the church, with sharp and skeptical 
criticism; assailed the medieval constitution of the 
state, and declared the existing conditions and 
forms of society to be antiquated abuses. Starting 
with the actual wrongs in the church, in the state, in the 
administration of justice and in social arrangements, they 
gradually undermined organized society and rendered 
unstable all laws and traditional usages; seeking to destroy 
^^ the prescriptions, privileges, and prerogatives of rank and, 
to ntake room for freedom and personal merit, they weakened also reverence for 
ancient maxims and rights and for legitimate authority ; fighting against supersti- 
tion, prejudice, and traditional opinion, they confused both faith and conscience, 
destroyed in the hearts of men their reverence and regard for sacred inheritance, and 
expected to see the happiness of the world bloom forth amid the ruins of the existing 
order. This was especially the case with Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau. For 
their writings, adorned as they were with the magic of beautiful diction and poetic 
form, were read by the whole of civilized Europe. Their paths were different but led 
them to the same results. 

§ 452. Voltaire, a writer of great genius, who had distinguished himself in all 
the forms of literature, attacked with the weapons of sharp wit and keen intelligence, 
all prevailing opinions and existing institutions without inquiring what should take 
their place. In his dramatic and epic poems (Mahomet, The Henriad, The Maid of 

(543) 



544 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Orleans), in his satires and romances, and in his historical and philosophical works, 
(" Essays upon the Morality and the Intelligence of Nations " " The Age of Louis 
XIV," "The History of Charles XII") he set forth his views and doubts, his thoughts 
and criticisms, his investigations and experiences. Religion and Church, Priesthood 

and popular belief were attacked 
most violently, and although his 
mockery and wit destroyed men a 
prejudice and superstition, revealing 
the imbecility of the Church in all 
its nakedness, yet it robbed many of 
their religious feeling, planting in 
many souls doubt and unbelief, and 
voitaire substituting for the 
' 1094-ins. law of Christ, cold 
calculation and selfish egotism as the 
highest guides for human conduct. 

Montesquieu, a more serious 
writer, pointed out what was faulty 
in the existing order, in the hope of 
its timely transformation. In the 
•• Persian Letters " he attacked the 
church creed and the whole educa- 
tional and governmental system of 
France in the mocking manner of 
Voltaire, and ridiculed in the same 
fashion the manners and social con- 
ditions of his contemporaries. In 
his " Considerations of the causes of 
the greatness and the decay of the 
Roman State," he sought to prove 
that patriotism and self-reliance make 
a state powerful, while despotism 
leads it to destruction. His third 
exhibits the constitution of England 




VOLTAIRE. 

work " The Spirit of Laws 



ItXoHtestiit ie K 

xoso-i75s. as the best form of government for the people of to-day. 

Jean Jacques Rousseau, son of a Genevese watchmaker, attacked existing con- 
ditions with enchanting pictures of a different society. After a youth of poverty 
and mistake, revealed with startling frankness in his "Confessions," he came, in 
writing a prize essay upon the " Influence of the Arts and Sciences upon Morality," 
to the fundamental proposition of all his thinking to wit: Refinement is the cause of 
all misery and all crime ; nature produces only what is good but all degenerates in 
the hands of men. Hence the cry must be, " Back to Nature." Shaking from them 
the fetters of culture, education, and custom, men will soon return to happiness and 
health, to prosperity and righteousness. His writings are distinguished more for their 
feeling and power of representation than for depth and truth. The romance entitled 
«' The New Heloise " contrasts the charms of a natural life with the restraints of 



THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION". 



545 




.MONTESQUIEU. 



actual society; "Emile"is an attempt to base rational education upon nature and 
parental love, and is an atonement for sending his own children to the foundling 
asylum. The " Confession of a Savoyard 
Vicar,'' in which he contrasted a religion 
of the heart with the prevailing system, 
brought upon him condemnation and 
exile. In the " Social Contract," he 
expounded the equality of. all men as 
the indispensable condition of every 
stable government : and an absolute 
democracy, with legislative popular as- 
semblies, as the perfect political system. 
His writings contain, in spite of their 
fundamental errors and their paradoxes, 

Boussein many golden truths. 

iti2-i7rs. His words are the ex- 
pression of a deep inward feeling; and 
hence produced immeasurable results. 
The places trodden by his foot or 
visited by him in the days of his exile, 
were reverenced by the next generation. 
He re-awakened in France the feeling for nature, for simplicity and home ; but also 
a yearning for the primeval state of liberty and equality, that could be stilled only 
by the destruction of existing institutions. 

§ 453. The influence of these 
men throughout Europe was the 
greater because at that time Paris 
gav^ the key-note in everything, 
and the French literature and 
language were exclusively read 
and spoken in the higher circles. 
Princes like Frederic the Great, 
Gustavus III. of Sweden, Charles 
III. of Spain, Catharine II. of Rus- 
sia, the greatest statesmen of all 
lands, and many influential per- 
sons were in correspondence with 
Voltaire and his like-minded con- 
temporaries. Among these latter 
were the famous mathematician 
D'Aiembei-t and philosopher 
1717-17S3. D'Alembert and 
the versatile and equally renowned Diderot. They were the crea- 
tors of thee Encyclopedia, which gave a eurvey of all human knowl- 
edge, at once clear, magnificent, and free, yet hostile to every nobler aspiration 
because it subordinated soul to sense. Quesnay, the court phvsician, published at the 
35 




D'ALEMBERT. 



Diderot 
1713-17S4. 



546 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

same time his physiocratic doctrine, in which he attacked the hitherto prevailing mer- 
cantile system, and set forth the culture of the soil as the source of national wealth. 
The " Children of Light " were speedily victorious in all the lands of Europe. Tol- 
eration in Religion, the disappearance of superstition and prejudice, the reforms of 
Regents and ministers, the abolition of the order of the Jesuits, were all indications 
of a nobler time. 

The Company of Jesus, (§ 352) whose chief object was to hinder the enlighten- 
ment of the people and who opposed all reforms and innovations, could no longer exist 
in a period, in which the whole civilized world cared more for humanity and brotherly 
love than for correctness of creed. When therefore Pombal, the Portuguese minister, 
i7s». closed the Jesuit colleges and sent the members of the order to Rome, 

and when all the Bourbon rulers of Europe followed his example, Pope Clement XIV., 
a sagacious pontiff, abolished the society. This compelled even Maria Theresa, who 
t7r3. had long maintained the company in Austria, to consent to its dissolu- 

tion, and the other Catholic lands of Germany obeyed the papal mandate. 

All obeyed the Pope except the Jesuits themselves. To counteract their influence 

Adam Weisshaupt, Professor in Ingolstadt, founded the secret society of the llluminati, 

i77i. the purpose of which was popular enlightenment. But their attacks 

upon the ex-Jesuits, monks, and clergy were soon arrested by the legal prosecutions 

begun against them by the Bavarian government. 

2. Reforming Princes and Ministers. 

§ 454. French Philosophy and Literature exercised the greatest influence upon 
princes and governments. The productions of French authors were read and admired 
in the higher circles of European society, and the young noblemen of Europe were 
sent to Paris to complete their education. No man of importance could expect rec- 
ognition, until he had visited the intellectual circles of the French capital. The princes 
and statesmen of Europe eagerly sought the favor and friendship of French writers 
and philosophers. It is not wonderful therefore that what was set forth as true in speech 
and writing, should be applied in actual life. There was consequently an earnest 
effort to transform old institutions and forms, old customs and privileges. The spirit 
of the time showed itself in religious affairs, in the principle of toleration, in the 
abolition of the Society of Jesus, and of the Inquisition ; and in the modification of 
those maxims and institutions that were especially dangerous to fraternal love and to 
human rights. But the new epoch was especially manifest in the humanizing of the 
judicial system ; in the establishment of the equality of all men, with the consequent 
abolition of the privileges and burdens which had originated in the Middle Age. 
Serfdom was abolished in many lands ; the claims of feudal service were abandoned; 
oppressive and dishonorable conditions were removed. New legal codes abol- 
ished the cruel punishments of former times, such as torture, mutilation, break- 
ing upon the wheel, etc., and even criminals were conceded some few rights. 
In political economy the French writers set forth new principles, which were applied in 
man)' lands. According to these principles, money is the lever of political power. As 
a consequence, the wise governor will seek, by industry, and the use of natural forces, 
to produce the greatest possible money income. Agriculture, mining, woodcraft, were 
therefore encouraged ; commerce, manufactures, and useful inventions promoted. But 



THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION". 547 

on the other hand, the system of taxation was made exceedingly oppressive ; royal 
monopolies were created, indirect taxes levied, lotteries established, and paper- money 
issued. 

About the same time Adam Smith, of Glasgow, published his " Wealth of Na- 
Aaam smith, tions," a work that created a new epoch in political economy, by main- 
f i79o. tabling that the source of national wealth was the free development 

and movement of human energy. 

§ 455. Portugal. The first to reconstruct a state, according to these princi- 
liso-im. pies, was Pombal, in Portugal, the all powerful minister of Joseph 

use. Emmanuel. 

An attempt to murder the King, which was ascribed to the Jesuits, let to the ex- 
pulsion of the members of this order from Portugal, and to an attempt to educate the 
people by means of new schools and a circulation of books. The activity of this pow- 
erful minister extended to all parts of public life ; he employed a German general to 
reorganize the army ; he furthered agriculture and industry, striving to lift the people 
Nov. lias. from their filth and ignorance. And when the Lisbon earthquake de- 
stroyed 30,000 houses, he worked heroically to heal the effects of the great disaster. 
Bold and resolute, Pombal was also cruel and arbitrary ; the dungeons were filled with 
his opponents. So when these acquired their freedom, under the reign of the weak 
Maria ■fisie. Maria, they united to overthrow the minister, and of course the 
wretched conditions of the earlier time soon returned. 

§ 456. Spain. Aranda, the liberal minister of Charles III. in Spain, made sim- 
ilar attempts to transform both church and state. And when the Jesuits opposed his 
Charles in., . innovations, he arrested five thousand of them in a single night, hurried 
1159-H88. them on shipboard without distinction of age or rank, and transported 
them as criminals to the papal states. Their property was confiscated, their schools 
march, hoi. closed ; the government then adopted measures for the education of 
the people and to improve the system of administration. German colonists were 
brought into the land, to cultivate barren sections of the country, and founded the 
colony called La Carolina. But in the later years of Charles III., the clergy and 
the Inquisition regained their influence, and destroyed or modified the new insti- 
tutions. 

§ 457. France. Choiseul, the French minister, was also a friend of advance- 
ment and of progress, but during the reign of the licentious king, Louis XV., reforms 
were impossible. When, however, Louis XVI. ascended the throne, he called into his 
ministry two men, who had both the will and the energy to heal the distresssed State, 
by thorough-going changes. These two famous ministers were Turgot and Males- 
liie. herbes. They proposed a new sytem of taxation. Nobility and 

clergy were to be no longer exempted, and the feudal relations were to be abolished 
or transformed. Civil rights were to be granted to all, without respect to person, 
rank, or religion. But their plans were wrecked, by the selfishness of the nobility 
and the clergy, and the blindness of the Court. 

§ 458. Denmark. Struensee, a German physician, acquired the absolute favor 

christian vii., of Queen Caroline Mathilda, the wife of Christian VII., of Denmark. 

tinn-isos. The Queen, who was a sister of George III., of England, raised 

Struensee to the rank of count and of prime-minister. He was given such complete 



548 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

authority, that all orders signed by him had the same validity as those signed by the 
King, and the all-powerful minister was thus enabled to establish many regulations for 
the relief of the citizens and of the peasantry, for the diminution of the power of the 
nobility, and for the improvement of judicial procedure. But he was, after all, a man 
without firmness, without courage, and without great intellectual power. His relation 
to the Queen was evilly interpreted, his introduction of the German language offended 
Danish pride, and the cowardice that he displayed, during an insurrection, made him 
contemptible. At a court ball Juliana, the stepmother of Christian VII., forced her 
way to the King's apartments, and induced him to sign his name to a number of war- 
rants of arrests. Struensee and his friend Brandt were then hurried to prison, and 

1771. after a summary trial, were found guilty of high treason, and beheaded. 

Caroline Mathilda was divorced from the King, and died in prison, where she suffered 

1775. three sorrowful years. Juliana acquired the regency, and abolished 

all the innovations. But when the Crown-prince Frederick came of age, he governed 
in the name of his father, and called to his assistance a man of great ability and in- 
tegrity, Count Bernstorff. 

§ 459. Sweden. Adolf Frederick, of Sweden, was so good-natured, that the 

Aaoif Frederick, oligarchy of the nobility acquired absolute control. The royal council 

i75i-i77i. conducted all the affairs of state ; and these people sold themselves to 

foreign powers, and served the courts that paid the largest price. The honor and the 

welfare of the land was to them of little moment. The two parties among them were 

known as the " hats " and " caps ; " the " hats " were in the pay of France, and the 

" caps " in the pay of Russia. They hated each other bitterly, and the royal diet was 

often the scene of hostile attacks. The King had neither power nor authority. But 

cmstavus in., when the popular Gustavus III. ascended the throne, he brought over 

1771-1792. the Swedish army and the people to his side, and compelled the diet, 

by force, to consent to a change of the constitution. The executive authority was 

given back to the crown, and the council was reduced to a consulting body. The 

King was made commander-in-chief of the arm}', and given the appointment of all 

civil and military officers. Tax levies, declarations of war, and treaties of peace, 

i7ss. required the consent of the Estates ; but after some years, Gustavus 

freed himself from these limitations, and acquired absolute authority. But he used 
it at first to make great reforms in the administration of the state and of justice, 
and to advance the welfare of his people. Many of his creations were due, it is 
true, to a fondness for French customs, and a love of splendor. The founding of 
an academy, the erection of theatres and opera houses, and the like, caused the 
impoverished land great expense. His popularity decreased, for his love of the 
people was vanishing. Finally he made the manufacture of whisky a royal monop- 
oly, and compelled the Swedes to buy from the royal distilleries. He undertook 
eustavus in., also a useless and expensive war against Russia, and was thinking of 
f march, i7B2. a war against France, when a conspiracy was formed, in consequence 
of which, he was mortally wounded at a masked ball, and died twelve days after. 

§ 460. Kaunitz, the enlightened minister of Maria Theresa, of Austria, abolished 
many abuses, and introduced many reforms. The military system was reorganized, 
and the judicial sj'stem was greatly improved. New schools were established, and the 
finances regulated. But the Empress proceeded cautiously, sparing carefully the 



THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 549 

national religion, national rights, and traditional usages. But her noble minded son, 

Joseph II., in his enthusiasm for freedom and humanity, acted with more speed, and 

Joseph ix., less sagacity. He undertook a number of reforms that offended the 

hso-hoo. clergy and the zealous friends of the Church, injured the privileged 
nobility, and disturbed the national prejudices of the races over which he ruled. He 
introduced toleration, giving to the confessors of the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Greek 
doctrines the free exercise of their religion, and equal civil rights with the Catholics. 
He then diminished the number of monasteries, using the money thus acquired for the 
improvement of schools and the erection of public institutions. He limited pilgrim- 
ages and processions, and hindered the intercourse of his clergy with Rome. Pope 
ns3. Pius VI. even made a journey to Vienna, to dissuade the Emperor 

from these undertakings. Joseph received him with honor, but persisted in his plans. 
His reforms in civil relations were equally important. He established personal freedom 
by the abolition of serfdom, and civil equality, by the introduction of uniform taxation 
and equality before the law. His purposes were noble, but he paid too little regard to 
existing relations, usages, and prejudices. His enemies were able therefore to cast 
suspicion upon his actions, and to deprive him of the fruit of his reforms. When he 
attempted to introduce them into the Austrian Netherlands, when he erected a supreme 
court in Brussels, and sought to transform the University, insurrections broke out, 
usi. which led to a refusal to pay taxes. The Austrian government was 

driven from the country, and the Netherlands were declared free and independent. 
This insurrection was the work of the clergy and the nobility, and a like movement 
woo. occurred in Hungary also. This broke the Emperor's heart, and 

hastened his death. The germs of his disease had entered his system during the 
Turkish war, when, as the ally of Russia, he marched with his army, to the unhealthy 
regions of the Danube. Joseph's restless activity, the readiness with which he granted 
access, as well to the lowest as to the highest, and the severity with which he'restrained 
the arbitrary conduct of his subordinates were never appreciated by his contempor- 
aries. But posterity has learned to reverence his name, and to recognize the nobility 
xeopoia ii.. of his purposes and of his efforts. Leopold II., his brother and suc- 

1100-110%. cessor, restored the old conditions, and gradually pacified both Belgium 
and Hungary ; the republicans of the Netherlands were reduced to obedience, at the 
point of the bayonet. 

§ 461. Catherine II. had a long and splendid reign, during which even unculti- 
catiiefine n„ vated Russia also felt the spirit of the age. She conducted a corres- 

nesi-iioe. pondence with Voltaire and his companions, called Diderot to St. Peters- 
burg, and furthered the sciences and the arts. She improved the administration of 
justice, and founded academies and schools. But most of her reforms were mere illu- 
iisi. sions. Her famous journey to the Taurus, where artificial villages and 

cunningly arranged flocks and festivals along the route, gave the impression that the 
land was rich in products and in people, is a picture of her entire reign. She was a 
woman of violent impulses and excitable senses, who followed, in her private life, the 
wanton manners of the upper classes. St. Petersburg was conspicuous for an immor- 
ality, an extravagance, and a sensuality even worse than that of Paris. Gregor Orloff, 
one of the murderers of her husband, obtained both Catherine and the kingdom as his 
reward. But he was followed by a long line of other lovers, who were all loaded with 



550 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

honors a^.d riches. The office of favorite was given by the Empress like any other 

potemktn, fitot. court position. Potemkin remained in favor longer than any other. 

For sixteen years he conducted the affairs of state, living during that time in fabulous 




CATHERINE II. OF RUSSIA. 



splendor, and openly parading an enormous wealth. He was a man of tremendous 
energy and boldness, who spared neither money nor human life. The Empress loved 
him for his barbarous strength, and was little concerned about the sufferings of the 




OF THE REVOLUTION. 551 

i«5. people. The insurrection of Pngatscheff, who gave himself out for 

Peter III., was soon suppressed. He was betrayed by a bosom friend, beheaded, and 
then hacked to pieces. 

3. The Partition of Poland, and the Wars Between Russia and Turkey. 

§ 462. The elective monarchy of Poland was the ruin of the land. Eyery time 
the throne became vacant, the nation was divided into parties, bribery prevailed, and 
the nobility acquired such privileges, that organized government became impossible. 
The crown was powerless. The royal diet became a byword because of its quarrels ; 
and all power was in the possession of the armed unions. The nobleman alone was 
free, and had the right to use arms ; the peasants were serfs and the slaves of abject- 
ignorance. Commerce and trade were in the hands of avaricious Jews. Foreign 
powers now began to look, with greedy eyes, upon the helpless Polish kingdom. After 
F,ed. Aug. in., the death of Frederick Augustus III., Stanislaus Poniatowski, a former 
fi7»3. lover of the Empress Catherine II., was chosen king, amid the clash 

poniatowsky, of Russian sabres. Poniatowski knew literature better than he knew 
liei-wos. men, and could choose pictures better than he could govern a kingdom. 
f«»s. He was only a plaything in the hands of the Russian minister at Warsaw. 

§ 463. But the Polish dissidents, Protestants, Socinians, and Greek Christians, 
now demanded the restoration of their civil and religious privileges. Their demands, 
although supported by Russia, Prussia, and most of the Protestant governments, were 
rejected by the Polish nobility. The dissidents thereupon united with the liberals 
ite7. and the discontented, to form the " Confederation of Radom." They 

sought the help of Russia, and compelled the Polish Diet to grant them religious tol- 
eration, a share in the offices, and their confiscated churches. Surrounded by Russian 
troops, the members of the diet gathered beneath the portrait of the Empress Cath- 
erine, and signed the " act of toleration," and to complete their humiliation, they 
agreed that no change should be. made in the existing constitution, without the con- 
sent of Russia. These proceedings outraged the feelings of Polish patriots, and aroused 
ires. the hatred of the Catholic zealots. These formed the " Confederation 

of Bar " in order to emancipate Poland from Russian authority, and to deprive the dis- 
sidents of their restored privileges. France supported them with money and officers. 
The conflict between the two confederations was hot and bitter. But the Russian 
armies decided it in favor of the dissidents. Bar and Cracow were stormed, and the 
Catholics driven into Turkish territory. The Russians pursued them beyond the fron- 
tier, and did not refrain from murder, conflagration, and plunder, even in a foreign 
country. 

§ 464. These outrages provoked Turkey to declare war upon Russia, and for six 
mrst Turkish years, eastern Europe' suffered terribly. The Russians conquered 
war. Moldavia and Wallachia, and stormed Bender, while the Turks devas- 

nes-1714. tated Greece with fire and sword, so that whole districts were covered 
with ruins and with corpses. The Turkish fleet was set on fire and destroyed; Moscow 
was desolated by a pestilence, and Poland, bj' the raging civil war. The impotence 
and discord of Poland led finally to its partition. Frederick II. and Joseph II. con- 
ferred together in person, and Prince Henry of Prussia then visited St. Petersburg to 
,i«». .?. «». make terms with Russia. A treaty of partition was agreed upon, by 



552 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

which each of these three kingdoms annexed a part of Poland. The diet protested, 
and proved easily that the pretended rights of the three powers were of no value. The 
nobles protested, solemnly, before God and the world, against the outrage ; but Rus- 
sian soldiers compelled them to consent. The fruitful regions along the Vistula passed 
over to Prussia. Galicia, and the rich mining regions of Wilieka, went to Austria ; 
and the lands along the Dwina and the Dnieper went to Russia. The establishment 
of a " Perpetual Council," under the influence of Russia, robbed the Polish king of the 
last remnant of authority. The Russian ambassador in Warsaw was, from this time 
on, the real ruler of Poland. Shortly after the partition, Russia made peace with Tur 

jui u 21, 1114. key, acquiring a free passage through the Dardanelles, and the pro 
tectorate of Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Crimea. 

§ 465. But Russia was not yet satisfied. She next compelled the Khan of Tar- 
ii83. tary to lay down his authorit} r , and Potemkin conquered the Crimea 

and the other lands on the Black Sea. He then colonized the barren Steppes with 
Germans, and created the commercial city of Odessa. But the happiness and the 
prosperity of the inhabitants disappeared with their freedom. The once splendid 
Canvas cities had become gypsy camps, and the stone houses and palaces had fallen to 
ruins. 

§466. But this proximity of Russia alarmed the Porte. In a short time another 

terrible war occurred between Russia and Turkey. The Emperor Joseph joined the 

Russians, in order to share in spoils of conquests, and the Russians were again 

second victorious. In the midst of winter, Potemkin and Suwaroff continued 

Tuikisii war, their bloody and terrible triumph. The way to Constantinople was 
lisi-iioi. open before them, when England and Prussia suddenly assumed a 

nee. 23, noo. threatening attitude, and Gustavus of Sweden attacked the Russians 
by sea and land. Poland also thought the time propitious to reconquer her liberty. 

may 3, 1191. They dissolved the " Perpetual Council," changed their elective mon- 
archy into a hereditary kingdom, and framed a new constitution, according to modern 
ideas, in which executive, legislative, and judicial powers were kept distinct and sep- 
arate. 

§ 467. This constitution was greeted with the applause of all Europe. Frederick 
William II. congratulated the Poles, and even Catharine of Russia concealed her vex- 
ation ; but party spirit and selfishness soon destroyed the good work. Many of the 
grandees were dissatisfied with the change. They formed a party for the preservation 
of " Polish freedom " as thej' called the old constitution, and sought the protection of 
the Russian Empress. Catharine, having just concluded the peace of Jassy with the 
.ran. 1192. Turks, was glad enough to march her armies into Poland. The patri- 
ots now appealed to Prussia, but the Prussian cabinet preferred an alliance with Rus- 
sia, to an alliance with the Poles, especialty as the new constitution was marked with 
French political ideas and forms. But the Poles did not despair. Thaddeus Kosci- 
uszko, who had fought in America under Washington, placed himself at the head of 
the patriots, and marched against the Russians. But discord, treason, dissension, and 
indecision, baffled all his undertakings. The King, who had hitherto been an enthu- 
siastic supporter of the new constitution, lapsed into his old weakness, and, alarmed 
by a letter of the Empress, forbade all further hostilities against the Russians. The 
patriots were compelled to lay down the sword, and to abandon their native country 



THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 



553 



in order to escape the cruel mockery of their enemy. The "Perpetual Council" and 
the old constitution were restored. 

§ 468. But now came a new chapter of violence. In April, 1793, Prussia and 
ii»3. Russia declared that they felt compelled to confine Poland to narrower 

limits, in order to bridle the excitement which had spread from France among the 
Poles, and in order to preserve the neighboring states from the contagion of democ- 
racy. The Polish diet protested in vain against this new partition. But Russian 
suiy it, 1103. troops surrounded the place of their assembly, arrested their boldest 
speakers, and suppressed all opposition. 

The deputies acquiesced in 
sullen silence, and bowed to the 
will of the great powers. By 
this second partition of Poland, 
the most important districts of 
Oct. 14, 1793. the East fell to 
Russia, and the two cities of 
Danzig and Thorn, together 
with greater Poland, were an- 
nexed to Prussia. The rem- 
nant of the monarchy com- 
prised only about one-third of 
its former territory. 

§ 469. Russia and Prussia 
now garrisoned the partitioned 
land, and Catharine's ambassa- 
dor, the harsh and brutal Igels- 
trom, ruled in Warsaw with 
defiant insolence. But the Pol- 
ish national spirit awoke once 
more. A secret conspiracy 
spread its branches over the 
entire land. Kosciuszko, and 
the exiled patriots, returned 
and took the lead of the move- 
ment, of which Cracow was the 
centre. As absolute commander 
of the national forces, Kosciuszko issued a proclamation to the people, in which he set 
forth the purposes of the conflict, namely — the restoration of the independence of Po- 
land, the recovery of the stolen territories, and the establishment of constitutional 
April lr, inn. government. The insurrection soon reached the capital. On Palm 
Thursday, the Russian garrison in Warsaw was attacked ; partly slain and juartly cap. 
tured. Igelstrom's palace was set on fire, and four of the aristocratic adherents of 
Russia were hanged on the gallows. The whole land followed the example of the cap- 
ital. The King sanctioned the uprising of the outraged nation, and everything prom- 
ised a successful issue. The Prussians, who had marched to the vicinity of Warsaw, 




554 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



were compelled to a hasty and disastrous retreat by the brave generals Kosciuszko, 
Dombrowski, and Joseph Poniatowski (the King's nephew). 

§ 470. But the success of the Poles, sharpened the enemies' appetite for ven- 
geance. In accord with Austria and Prussia, Catharine sent her most dreaded gen- 
eral, Suwaroff, to Poland. Kosciuszko was compelled to yield to the superior force of 
Oct. 10, i7o<t. his bold antagonist. In an unsuccessful battle he fell from his horse 
with the cry, " This is the end of Poland ! " and was led away a prisoner. Upon the 
4th of November, the suburban city of Praga was stormed by the Russians. Twelve 
thousand non-combatants were slain or drowned in the Vistula. The cries of the 
wounded and of the murdered terrified the inhabitants of the capital, and made them 
ready to surrender. On the 9th of November, Suwaroff entered Warsaw in triumph. 
Stanislaus Poniatowski was compelled to abdicate, and to live in St. Petersburg, upon 
a pension contemptuously granted him by the Russians. A few months later, the 
jam. iros. three powers declared that they had determined, out of consideration 
for the welfare of their subjects, and owing to their love of peace, to partition Poland 
once more. This time the South, with Cracow, was given to Austria ; the land west 
of the Vistula, with its capital Warsaw, fell to Prussia, and the lion's share went of 
course to Russia. Thus perished the once famous and mighty Poland, a sacrifice to 
domestic discord and to foreign violence. Kosciuszko was set at liberty, and died in 
Switzerland, in October, 1817. 





B. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



1. THE LAST YEARS OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 



§ 471. 

•OUIS XV. was at first so popular that his 
Louis xv. people called him the " well- 
f jn-j beloved " ; when disease threat- 
ened his life the whole land bemoaned 
him aiid when he recovered, they cele- 
brated his recovery with the wildest de- 
light. But as the King abandoned himself 
to shameless debauchery, and his govern- 
ment, his courts of justice and his army, to the panderers 
of his lusts, and the companions of his revels, this popular 
love turned to hatred and contempt, particularly when 
mistresses without manners, and without shame, ruled the 
court and the kingdom. Among the latter, the Marquise 
de Pompadour (f 1764) guided the affairs of France for 
twenty years, filling the highest offices with her favorites, 
deciding for peace or for war, according to her caprice, and 
using the public treasury as her private purse, so that she 
bequeathed millions to her heirs even after her life of splendor and luxury. She 
and her creatures pampered the baser appetites of the King, that they might reign 
without restraint. Yet the Pompadour was possessed of dignity and tact ; but the 
Countess Dubarry, a woman of the lowest class, who succeeded to her place, took from 
the royal court the last shred of decency and respect. 

§ 472. This government of lust and extravagance, together with the senseless 

and costly wars in Germany, exhausted the royal treasury, increased the public 

debt, and the taxes of the people. All revenues being drawn from the merchants, the 

artisan and the peasant classes, they were of course exceedingly oppressive to the poor 

'and to those of moderate means. And to their exasperation at the exemption of the 

(555) 




556 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



nobility and clergy, was added their hatred for the " Farmers of the Revenue " with 
their cruel and greedy agents. The land and income taxes, the poll tax, the house 
and window taxes, the tolls on the highway, the tax on salt, the tithes, the contributions 

in labor, the feudal payments, 
robbed the lower classes of the 
fruits of their labor, and pre- 
vented the development of a 
prosperous commonwealth. The 
Parliament of Paris (which was 
a bench of judges) had acquired 
the right to register all decrees 
and edicts of taxation, and had 
come to hold that none was 
valid without its approval. This 
contention led to repeated quar- 
rels between the parliament and 
the royal ministry, which ended 
usually in a " bed of justice," 
that is, an arbitrary command of 
the king given in person to reg- 
ister the ministerial rescript. 

Not only the tax decrees, 
but the arbitrary letters of ar- 
rest (lettres de cachet), were a 
subject of strife between the 
parliament and the government. 
These terrible sealed letters 
were obtained easily by all 
those having any influence at 
court, and by means of them any 
one could be imprisoned without 
hearing and trial. Fort'* years 
the Parliament of Paris fought against court and ministry, until Louis XV, tired of 
their obstinate resistance, reorganized the Parliament and imprisoned the recalcitrant 
1771 members. But his successor restored their suspended prerogatives. 

§ 473. Louis XV was carried away by a terrible disease in the midst of his sin- 
ful career: he left the state treasury exhausted, the land burdened with debt, the 
public credit ruined, and the people oppressed with taxes. Under such difficult cir- 
1774 cumstances, Louis XVI ascended the throne. He had a good heart but 

a weak brain ; he wished to improve the condition of the people, but had neither 
money nor sagacity for the necessary measures; he tolerated the frivolity and 
extravagance of his brothers, and permitted his wife, Marie Antoinette, the highly cul- 
i.onis xn. tivated daughter of Maria Theresa, to interfere in State affairs, and to 
1774-1793 exercise great influence upon the court and the ministry. Proud and 
aristocratic toward the people, she was soon the object of popular hate ; for all severe 
measures were ascribed to her interference and the liberty she assumed in private life 




MARQUISE DE POMPADOUR. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



557 



was interpreted to her dishonor. Even in the famous affair of the " Diamond Neck- 
lace," in which certain swindlers made use of her name to get possession of a priceless 
ornament, she was believed by many to be guilty. 

The lack of money 
and the disorder in the 
State finances could be 
remedied only by taxa- 
tion of the nobility and 
of the clergy ; by ex- 
tensive reforms in the 
r o y a 1 administration, 
and by economy in ex- 
penditure. Turgot and 
Malesherbes desired 
is je. such re- 

forms, but Louis XVI 
had neither the will nor 
the strength for such 
decisive measures, and 
the court of Versailles 
had no mind for econ- 
omy. Necker, a banker 
from Geneva, who suc- 
ceeded Turgot as minis- 
ter of finance, found it 
impossible therefore to 
cover the deficit in the 
treasury, and his publi- 
cation of a paper upon 
the financial condition 
of France made him so 
unpopular with the 
court and the aristocra- 

Xecker Cy, that 

irm-iisi. he was 

compelled to resign. The American war was at this time increasing the financial dis- 
tress and awakening a longing for freedom and for republican institutions. It was 
therefore a great misfortune for France that, at such a critical moment, the frivolous 
and extravagant Calonne assumed control of the finances ; for Calonne departed from 
Necker's policy of economy, met cheerfully the wishes of the Queen and the demands 
of the Princes, and deceived the country with splendid promises. Brilliant fetes were 
celebrated in Versailles, and Calonne's talents were lauded to the skies. Soon, however, 
his promises proved to be idle wind ; he determined to avert impending bankruptcy by 
calling together an assembly of notables consisting of nobility, clergy, officers of State, 
distinguished judges, and representatives of certain cities. But Calonne found in this 
assembly violent opponents, instead of his expected friends. They rejected his plan of 




558 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



vebmary general taxation, including the nobility and the clergy, and threatened 

1787. him with a criminal process so that he resigned his office and betook 
himself to London. 

§ 474. Calonne's successor in the administration of the finances, Lomenie de 

Brienne, had a difficult 
post. In order to cover 
the deficit in the treas- 
ury, he must resort to 
the usual means, in- 
crease of taxation and 
loans ; but the Parlia- 
ment of Paris opposed 
him so vigorously that 
the ministry, having 
tried in vain " a bed of 
justice," determined to 
arrest the boldest mem- 
bers and to banish them 
to Troyes. This step 
August, 1787. caused 
great excitement among 
the people, which in- 
duced the ministry to 
make terms with the 
exiled members of the 
parliament, and to per- 
mit the resumption of 
their sessions. But the 
spirit of resistance had 
become too powerful 
and had already seized 
the people. They gath- 
ered in crowds about 
the hall of meeting, 
cheering the speakers of 
the opposition and hooting the party of the ministry. They burned daily the hated 
minister of finance in effigy, and made known their feelings in different cities 
by angry tumults. In the streets and in the parliament resounded the cry " The 
States General ! " In vain the ministry attempted, by transforming the parliament 
into a superior and several inferior courts, to break down the opposition. A new 
spirit had come over the people which was bound to triumph. Brienne was com- 
pelled to retire, as the lack of funds had become so great that all cash payments 
Atujuxt were suspended, and national bankruptcy appeared inevitable. The 

1788. popular Necker was now called to the ministry a second time. He im- 
mediately pacified the people by withdrawing the edicts against the parliaments, and by 
preparing to call the States general. But a question soon arose that brought him into 





GO TELL YOUR MASTER THAT WE ARE HERE BY THE AUTHORITY OP THE PEOPLE, AND CAN BE 
DRIVEN HENCE ONLY AT THE POINT OF THE BAYONET." (A. de Neuville.) 

{pp. 559.) 



560 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



difficult}' with the parliament and a second assembly of notables. The latter thought 
that the new assembly should, in the number of representatives and in the method of 
voting, follow the estates of 1614, while Necker wished to give the third estate a double 
representation and to vote by poll instead of by estates. In this opinion he was sup- 
ported by the most talented leaders of the people in a multitude of pamphlets (" What 
itec i7ss. is the third estate?" by Abbe Sieyes) Necker's opinion prevailed. A 
royal edict fixed the number of noble and clerical members at three hundred each, 
that of the commons at six hundred, and the following May as the time to convene. 
" Now comes my time," said Mirabeau, who had learned the effects of Lettres de Cachet 
in the prison at Vincennes. Repulsed by the nobility, he purchased a cloth store and 
appeared as candidate for the third estate. Necker was still the hero of the day, but 
he was not the pilot of a ship of state. He was only driving before the wind. 
2 — The Constitutional Assembly — (May 1789 to Sept. 1791.) 

§ 475. When May came, the representatives of the three estates convened in 
Versailles. — among them the most talented and cultivated men of 
France. The third estate, offended by the 
court at the opening, began to quarrel in the 
first sessions with the two privileged estates. 
The latter demanded separate chambers, but 
the commons pressed for one chamber and for 
a vote by poll. After a contest of several 
weeks the third estate, which was presided over 
by the astronomer Bailly, but led by the con- 
spicuous talents of Sieyes and Mirabeau, de- 
jmie 17. clared itself to be The Na- 
tional Assembly. Thereupon it was joined 
by members of the other estates. At the same 
time it determined that existing taxes should 
be collected only so long as the estates should 
not be dissolved. 

These doings disquieted the court and 
suggested to it the idea of giving the nation 
a constitution, thereby abolishing the States- 
general. To this end a Eoyal sitting was 
appointed and the assembly hall was closed. The representatives met together 
June so. in the empty hall of the tennis-court and swore a solemn oath, 
with up-lifted hand, not to separate until they had given the kingdom a new con- 
stitution. When the tennis-court was closed they held a session in the church of St. 
Louis. The royal sitting took place on the twenty-third of June, but neither the 
speech of the king nor the proposed constitution was satisfactory. At the close of the 
session Louis commanded the assembly to disperse. Nobility and clergy obeyed but 
the commons sat motionless, and as the master of ceremonies called upon them to 
leave the room, Mirabeau reminded the assembly of their oath and cried to the court 
official, " Go tell your master that we are here by the authority of the people, and 
jnne sr, ltso. can be driven hence only at the point of the bayonet." The feeble 
king did not venture to meet this determined resistance with force; on the contrary 
he advised the nobility and the clergy to unite with the commons. 




FRENCH CITIZENS. (1790-1792.) 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



561 



§ 476. Stoeming the Bastilb. 

Meanwhile the excitable population of Paris were kept in continual uproar 
by newspapers, pamphlets, and inflammatory speeches. In the public parks, in coffee 
houses, in wine rooms, and especially at the Palais Royal, the dwelling of the licen- 
tious, ambitious, and wealthy Duke of Orleans, violent speeches were made by agitators 
and demagogues about popular freedom, human rights, equality of all ranks, etc., and 
the assembled throngs were urged on to battle for a new era. The most gifted of 
these popular orators was a young lawyer, Camille Desmoulins. Even the soldiers 
stationed at the capital were carried away by this enthusiasm for liberty, and became 
members of the newly organized national guard. The administration of the city was 
turned over to a democratic municipality, of which Bailly was the Mayor. The court 
alarmed at the increasing excitement, determined, for its protection, to bring to 
Versailles some German and Swiss regiments. This was declared by the leaders of 
the people to mean the use of force against the national assembly. Suddenly the 
rumor ran through Paris that Necker was dismissed and banished, and a favorite of the 
Queen appointed in his place. A general uprising followed. Noisy throngs wearing 
the national cockade (red, white, blue,) marched through the streets; the bells were 
rung and the armories and gun shops plundered. Tumult and confusion prevailed 
jmi»/ l-t, irs». everywhere. On the fourteenth of July the mob, having taken thirty 




STORMING THE BASTILE. (F. LlX.) 

thousand muskets and some cannon from the Hotel des Invalides, stormed the 
Bastile, an old castle used as royal prison. The commandant Delaunay and the 
garrison of seven men fell a sacrifice to the rage of the mob. Their heads, stuck upon 
poles, were carried through the streets of the city, and several hated aristocrats were 
murdered. The banished Necker was called back, and his journey through the cities 
and villages of France resembled the triumph of a victorious hero. 
36 



562 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



In this joyful reception of the minister, the nation bore witness of its enthusiasm 
for freedom and its hatred for the court and the aristocracy. Lafayette, who had 
fought for America's freedom, was named General of the national guard, and while the 
king came to Paris and showed himself to the assembled people, standing on the bal- 
cony of the town hall 
with a cockade in his 
hat, the Count D'Ar- 
tois and several no- 
blemen of the first 
rank, like Conde and 
Polignac, left their 
country in dread an- 
ticipation of coming 
events. 

§ 477. The New 
Oeder. 

After the tak- 
ing of the Bastile, 
law and authority 
were powerless in 
France. The people 
no longer paid their 
tithes to the church 
and tolls to the no- 
bility, and revenged 
themselves for their 
long oppression by 
devastating their cas- 
tles by fire and plun- 
der. As the news of 
these events reached 
the national assembly, 
it was proposed that 
the privileged classes 
should prove, by con- 
spicuous deed, their 
willingness to lighten 
the burdens of the 
people, and to this 

WOMEN ON THE ROAD TO VERSAILLES. ( Viercje.) ^ ^ QjM renolmce 

voluntarily all their feudal revenues. This proposition created a storm of enthusiasm 
and self-denial. No one halted : ranks, cities, and counties vied with each other in 
Axigust ■*, ns9. bringing the largest sacrifices to the common weal. This was the 
famous fourth of August when, in one excited sitting, all tithes, ground-rents, tolls, and 
the like were abolished, the soil declared free, and the equality of all citizens, before 
the law, proclaimed. These resolves, and the laws and arrangements necessary to make 




THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 563 

them effective, produced, in a short time, a complete reorganization of all existing condi- 
tions. The church lost its wealth and was subordinated to the state ; cloisters and 
Monastic orders were abolished, the priests paid by the state, the bishoprics rearranged, 
and religious freedom guaranteed. But as the Pope refused to permit the clergy to 
take the required oath to the new constitution, the French priests were soon divided 
into jurors and non-jurors. The latter were deprived of their places and subjected to 
many persecutions, though they enjoyed the confidence of the faithful. The nobility 
sacrificed not only their privileges and the greatest part of their revenues, but lost also 
the insignia of their rank by the abolition of all titles, coats of arms, orders, and the 
like. And that the old conditions might be absolutely abolished, France was divided 
into departments and arrondissements, a new judicial system with juries was intro- 
duced, new weights, new measures, new coin, and finally a constitutional system in 
which the rights of the King were limited beyond reason, and the making of laws com- 
mitted to a single chamber to be chosen by universal suffrage. 

§ 478. The King and the National Assembly at Paris. 

As the King hesitated to proclaim the declarations of the assembly as law, 
the rumor spread that he intended to dissolve it by violence. This rumor was 
strengthened by calling the Flemish regiment to Versailles, and by a festival that the 
body guard gave to the newly arrived officers. During the banquet the company, 
excited by wine, indulged in foolish speeches, toasts, and songs ; busy tongues soon 
carried them to Paris, and the excited people, already suffering from famine, quickly 
oa. s. made their anger known. On the fifth of October great crowds, mostly 

women, marched to Versailles, in order to obtain from the King relief from famine and 
a change of his residence to Paris. The King tried to quiet them, but one wing of the 
castle was stormed, and the Queen compelled to fly. 

The next day the King and his family entered Paris, under the escort of this 
terrible mob, and took up their residence in the palace of the Tuileries. The national 
assembly soon convened, and the riding-school, in the vicinity of the palace, was 
prepared for their sittings. Power came more and more into the hand of the lower 
classes, who were kept in continual excitement by newspaper writers and demagogues, 
and urged to hatred against the court and the aristocrats. Among these demagogical 
journals, the most violent was "The Friend of the People " edited by the insolent 
horse-leech Marat, from Neufchatel in Switzerland. The democratic clubs now ac- 
quired greater importance and extent, especially the Jacobins, which had branches in 
all the cities of France. Tiie members of this club wore, as a badge, the red caps of the 
galley convicts and strove for a republic, in which all the citizens should be free and 
equal. The Club of the Cordeliers had for its leaders, the boldest men of the revolu- 
tion, like Danton and Camille Desmonlins. The Constitutional Club (Fenillants) on 
the other hand, to which Lafayette belonged, decreased in importance every day. The 
names of these clubs were derived from the cloisters in which they held their sitting. 

§ 479. The Feast of Federation. The Flight of the King. On the anniversary 

jxiiv l*, hoo. of the storming of the Bastile, a magnificent festival was held in the 

field of Mars. It was termed the " Festival of Federation." Talleyrand, the Bishop 

of Autun, and also a member of the National Assembly, marched, at the head of three 

hundred white-clad priests, to the altar of France, and consecrated the national tri- 



564 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

color. Lafayette, in the name of the National Guard, the President of the National 
Assembly, and finally the King himself, swore fidelity to the constitution. The count- 
less multitude lifted up their hands, and repeated the oath of allegiance, while the 
Queen, carried away by enthusiasm, lifted the Dauphin in her arms, and joined in the 
general acclaim. But this was the last happy day of the King, whose situation grew 
rapidly worse. Necker, unequal to the difficulties of the hour, abandoned France, and 
returned to Switzerland. Mirabeau threw himself upon the side of the court, and op- 
posed, with all the might of his eloquence, any further limitation of the royal author- 
ity, because he held that a constitutional monarchy was the best government for 
France. But unfortunately for the King, the great orator died suddenly, in the forty- 

A.jii-ii «, not. second year of his age, exhausted by his dissolute life, and by fatigue 
and overwork. He was the last support of the throne. Louis XVI. now lost all self- 
possession. He refused to accept as his confessor, a priest who had taken the oath of 
allegiance, and also to declare the emigrants, who were stirring up war against France, 
to be traitors to their country. He was suspected of disloyalty to the constitution, 
and the more this suspicion gained ground among the people, the more dangerous be- 
came the situation of the King. Finally, in desperation, he determined to escape from 
the kingdom. Bouille', a resolute general in Lorraine, was taken into the secret, and 
promised to support the plan with his troops. Issuing a proclamation, in which he 
protested against all his own acts, since October 1789, as the result of compulsion, the 
King escaped from Paris with his family. But the undertaking miscarried. Louis was 

aune si, 1191. recognized, detained in Varennes, and, at the command of the National 
Assembly, brought back to Paris. The royal authority was then suspended until 
Louis, at the end of September, took an oath to support the new constitution, and 
proclaimed it to the French people. 

3. The Legislative Assembly and the Overthrow of the Monarchy, (Isf. of Oct. 1791, to 

W Sept., 179£.) 
§ 480. The Grirdonists. The members of the national assembly had excluded 
themselves from the new legislature. As a result, the members of the legislative as- 
sembly were nearly all republicans. But they were divided into a radical and a 
moderate party. The radicals occupied the high seats in the rear of the hall, and were 
called "The Mountain." The Moderates were spoken of sometimes as "The Plain," but 
mostly as the Girondists, because most of their leaders were from Bordeaux, and from 
the department of the Gironde. The Girondists gathered around the minister Roland 
and his brilliant and high-minded wife, and among them were men of great eloquence 
and civic virtue, like Vergniaud, Lanjuinais, Barbaroux, Brissot, Condorcet, and 
others. The Girondists were in the majority; hence the ministry composed of Roland, 
Dumouriez, and others, belonged to this party. The attention of the government and 
of the assembly was especially and at once directed to the non-juring priests and the 
emigrants. These were bent upon overthrowing the new order of things ; the priests 
by sowing hatred and discontent among the French people, and the emigrants by urg- 
ing foreign powers to invade France. The assembty determined therefore to arrest all 
priests who had not taken the oath, and to declare the emigrants at Coblentz guilty of 
high treason, confiscating at the same time, their estates and revenues. But the King 
vetoed both these acts of the legislative assembly. This veto was ascribed to the 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 565 

secret hopes of the court in the intervention of foreign powers. The people conse- 
quently became more hostile. They knew that the Queen was in negotiation with her 
brother, the German emperor, and that she looked upon the emigrant nobility for sup- 
port and salvation. It was manifest too, that war was impending, as the Emperor 
Leopold and King Frederick William of Prussia, after an interview in the castle of 
Pillnitz, near Dresden, had determined to put their armies in the field, and to require 
the French government to compensate German princes and noblemen, for their lost 
tithes and feudal privileges, to restore to the Pope his possessions in Avignon, and to 
frame the constitution as King Louis himself had sketched it in 1789. The French 

Ap,u no, nog. cabinet answered this demand, with a declaration of war upon Austria 
and Prussia, to which the wretched King consented with tears. To protect the capital 
and the national assembly against every attack, twenty thousand national guards were 
summoned from the southern provinces, to whom was committed the defence of Paris. 
But Louis refused to sanction this measure. The ministry of the Gironde thereupon 
resigned, and Madame Roland published a letter, reproaching the King for his folly and 
misconduct. Under these circumstances it was easy to stir up insurrection. On the 
Hon. 20th of June, a mob, armed with pikes, gathered at the Tuileries, to 

compel the King to sign the decrees against the non-juring priests, and for the defence 
•of the city by the national guard. But Louis remained firm. He defied all threats, 
and bore patiently the mockery of the people, who placed upon his head the red cap 
of the Jacobins. The dilatory arrival of Pe'tion, with the citizen guard, freed him 
finally from the intolerable situation. ' 

§ 481. These events were the prelude to the terrible tenth of August. War 
had already broken out, to the great satisfaction of the Prussian officers, who talked 
•of a military ;i promenade " to Paris, in which they expected to gain great honor with 
little effort. The Prussians marched into Lorraine, under the command of Duke 
Ferdinand of Brunswick. An Austrian army assisted him, and 12,000 emigrants 
burned with eagerness to overthrow the " lawyers' government," and to revenge them- 

Aug. io, 1593. selves upon their adversaries. The Duke issued a proclamation full of 
threats against the National Assembly, the City of Paris, the National Guard, and all 
the French who favored the Revolution. This insolent proclamation excited a terrible 
hatred among the French, for the emigrants and their protectors. And the Jacobins 
used this excitement to overthrow the King. They invited crowds of rabble, and even 
galley slaves, from all the maritime cities, to come to Paris. They established a com- 
mittee of safety, and stirred up the rough inhabitants of the suburbs to a decisive 
blow. At midnight, on the 10th of August, the alarm bells were rung. An enormous, 
crowd moved first to the city hall (Hotel de Ville) in order to proclaim a new munic- 
ipal government, and then marched to the royal palace, which was defended by nine 
hundred Swiss, and by the National Guard of Paris under Mandat. Mandat was determ- 
ined to meet the threatening mob with force : the democrats therefore resolved upon his 
destruction. He was ordered to the city hall, and was murdered on his way thither. 
•The National Guard, uncertain what to do, and dissatisfied with the many nobility 
present in the palace, rapidly dispersed. The crowd became more violent ; cannon were 
trained upon the castle ; the men with pikes urged their way into every part of the 
palace, and the crowd demanded the deposition of the King. Louis suffered himself 
to be persuaded to seek protection for himself and family, in the hall of the Legislative 



566 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

Assembly, where they remained sixteen hours in a narrow apartment. The King had 
hardly left the palace, before the human billows broke over its defenders. The Swiss 
guard resisted bravely, and defended the passages. When the assembly heard the 
rattle of musketry, they compelled the terrified King to prohibit his guard from firing. 
The faithful protectors of the monarch were thereby devoted to destruction. The 
raging mob no sooner noticed that they had ceased to fire, when they stormed the 
palace, murdered all within reach, and destroyed all the furniture. Five thousand 
persons, among them 700 Swiss, were a sacrifice to the rage of the mob. Meanwhile 
the National Assembly determined to suspend the royal authority, to place the King 
and his family under guard, to give the prince a tutor, and to summon a national con- 
vention. The royal family were sent to the " temple " as prisoners. Insulted by 
their keepers, deprived of every comfort, and cut off from all society, they wore out 
here in wretchedness, the weary days, until released by death. 

§ 482. The Bays of September. The Legislative Assembly now created a min- 
istry of their own, of which Roland and the dreadful Danton were both members. 
Danton was minister of Justice, and in conjunction with the municipality of Paris he 
now possessed all power. The municipal council governed the city with the men of 
pikes, and all the prisons were soon full of " suspects " and " aristocrats." When the 
news of the approach of the allies reached the city, it was determined to get rid of all 
the enemies of the new order by a general massacre. First of all, they slaughtered 
the non-juring priests by hundreds in the cloisters and in the prisons, and then en- 
sued the horrible days of September. From the second to the seventh of September, 
bands of hired assassins marched from prison to prison. Twelve of them acted as 
judge and jury, the others as executioners. Under this mockery of justice, the pris- 
oners were murdered, with the exception of a few whose names were marked on their 
lists. About three thousand were slaughtered, either singly or in masses, by these 
butchers ; and for their work, they received daily wages from the city council. Among 
the victims was the Princess Lamballe, the friend of the Queen. Her head was placed 
upon a pike, carried to the temple, and held up to the window of Marie Antoinette's 
cell. The example of the capital was followed in many other cities ; a wild destruction 
of statues, inscriptions, coats of arms, and other monuments of the ancient time con- 
cluded the " days of September," the transition days from royal France to the new re- 
sejtt. m, it»n. public. The autumnal equinox was declared, by the Convention, to 
be the beginning of the reign of "freedom and equality," and all Frenchmen were 
now ordered to address each other as " citizens." Lafayette, who was with the army 
of the North, and who had ventured to Paris in order to save the King, was now 
called upon to make defence. Satisfied that the Jacobins were thirsting for his life, 
he fled to Holland, intending to go to America. But he fell into the hands of his 
enemies, who held him a captive for five years, in the dungeons of Magdeburg and 
Olmuetz. Talle} r rand went to England, and thence to America, where he waited for 
better times. 

4. Republican France Undee the National Convention (September, 1792 

to October, 1795.) 
§ 483. The Execution of the King. The Convention was chosen under the influ- 
ence of th» Jacobins, and by universal suffrage. It consisted of republicans of many 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



567 




3# 








r fnwiiflJ fawn 
•:,*>:« ***** 



^^ta; 



varieties. The moderates, whose name of Girondists was becoming, with every day, 

more hateful, strove for a republic, in the sense of antiquity or of the United States 

of North America. But they were soon overpowered by the radicals and democrats, 

who desired the overthrow of all existing institutions, in order to establish their new 

state of freedom and equality. Their watchword was, " He that is not for us is 

against us," and they 

sought to put an end 

to all resistance by 

terror and by blood. 

Their strength was in 

the Jacobins and in 

the Sans Culottes, the 

wild bands of revolu- 
tionists, who were 

kept in continual ex- 
citement by songs, 

festivals, the planting 

of liberty trees, and 

the like. The trial 

of King "Louis 

Capet " was one of 

the first acts of the 

National Convention. 

An iron chest had 

been discovered in 

the Tuileries, full of 

letters and documents 

from which, it was 

clear, that the French 

court had been in 
communication with 
Austria and the emi- 
grants, and had also 
been bribing certain 
members of the Na- 
tional Assembly, for 
example, Mirabeau. 
The King was there- 
fore charged with be- 
traying and conspir- 
ing against the land 
and the people. De- 
fended by the noble Malesherbes, Louis appeared twice before the convention (11th and 
20th of December), but in spite of his manly -bearing and of his able defense, and in 
spite of the efforts of the Girondists, he was condemned to death by a small majority. 
The party of the Mountain, the party of Robespierre, of St. Just, of Danton, of the lame 



execution of louis xvi. (Vierge.) 



668 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Jan. n, iJ83. Couthon, together with the Duke of Orleans, surnamed " Equality," 
employed every means to bring about this end. But they would not have succeeded, 
if they had not first changed the law that required a majority of two-thirds for a con- 
demnation to death. It was murder clothed in a judicial form. On the 21st of Jan- 
uary, the unfortunate King ascended the scaffold in the Place de la Revolution. The 
drum-beats of the National Guard drowned his last words, and " Robespierre's women " 
greeted his bloody head with the. cry " Vive la republiqne ! " Two crimes were com- 
mitted simultaneously ; in France the murder of a king, in Poland the murder of a 
nation. 

§ 484. Dumouriez. Meanwhile, the Prussians had marched through Lorraine 

into Champagne, but the Duke of 
Brunswick lost time, reducing unim- 
portant fortresses ; and as a result, 
entered the country when the roads 
were impassable from rain, and when 
the eating of unripe fruit weakened 
and destroj-ed his army. Dumouriez 
sept. 2o, i->»s. occupied the forest, 
and Kellermann attacked the enemy 
at Valmy with such success, that the 
Prussian army determined to advance 
no further. Six days were lost in 
negotiations with Dumouriez, and 
then the German troops retreated 
to Verdun, without being pursued, 
and finally abandoned French terri- 
tory. The Austrians had started 
from the Netherlands, but had just 
as little success. After the battle of 
xov. i, «»*. Jemappes, Dumouriez 
conquered Belgium and Luettich, 
whose inhabitants greeted the French 
as emancipators from the rule of 
Austria and the Bishop. He then 
threatened the Dutch frontiers. 
Meanwhile, General Custine captured the cities along the Rhine, in which French 
Oct. si, i->92. ideas had found many adherents. The citizens of Maj'ence, abandoned 
by the Elector, by the Bishop, and by the nobility, received the French troops with 
enthusiasm. These successes gave the republicans fresh courage, and the European 
powers great alarm. New armies were raised in all Europe to invade France, and to 
put down the revolution which was threatening the safety of all existing states. 
England, where the Tories were in power,, under the lead of the younger Pitt, where 
the eloquent Edmund Burke was attacking the revolution with great violence, — 
England took the lead of the " coalition " against France. An Austrian army ap- 
peared in the Netherlands, drove the French across the Meuse, and defeated Dumouriez 
march is, 1193. at Neer-Winden. The French commander, angry at the Jacobins, 




EDMUND BTJRKE. 




CHARLOTTE CORDAY ASSASSINATES MARAT. (F. LlX.) (pp. 569.) 



570 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



because they had so poorly provisioned his army, and had so hampered him with 
incompetent generals, threatened to overthrow the republic, and to establish a mon- 
archy. The convention thereupon ordered him to Paris. Instead of obeying, 
Dumouriez arrested the messengers of the Convention, delivered them over to the 
enemy, and, with a part of his troops, went over himself to the Austriaiis. About 
j«i!/, i7»3. the same time Mayence fell into the hands of the Prussians, who were 
once more approaching the French frontier. 

§ 485. The treason of Dumourriez was used by the Jacobins to overthrow the 




ROBESPIERRE. 

Gironde. The Girondists, tired of mob rule, were bent upon converting France into a 
federal republic like the United States of America. In that way only they expected 
to break the power of Paris. The Mountain and the Jacobins saw, in the scheme 
their own destruction, and entered upon a fight for life and death. They accused the 
Girondists of connivance with Dumouriez ; charged them with attempting to weaken 
the power of the people, and to destroy the republic, at the very moment when 
France was threatened by invading armies. But the eloquence of the Girondists put 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



571 



to shame all these attacks, and Marat finally urged the radical mob to an uprising 
against the moderates, and the luke warm traitors. This led to daily insurrections 
and tumults, which threatened life and property. All honest and moderate people 
were in continual peril. The Girondists brought Marat into Court, but he was ac- 
quitted by the Jacobin juries, and carried by the mob in triumph into the Convention. 
April a*. 1793. The Girondists then procured the appointment of a Commission of 
Twelve, who should discover and punish the promoters of tumult. When this com- 
mission arrested the journalist Hebert, the editor of Pere Duchesne, and his con- 
federates, the furious mob compelled his release, and began the great riot of the 31st. 

aiay 3i. of May. The rioters made Henriot, a former lackey and police spj', 
the leader of the National Guard. They then surrounded the Tuileries, where the 
Convention was in session, and demanded the abolition of the Commission of Twelve 
and the expulsion of the Girondists. The Girondists displayed in vain all their 
powers ; the people pressed into the hall, and 
into the galleries, and shouted for their victims. 
The majority of the assembly, together with 
their courageous president, ordered the mob to 
leave the hall, but in vain. The convention 
was obliged to yield to the commands of the 
mob and the Mountain. Thirty -four Giron- 
dists were arrested, twenty of them however 
escaped, and called upon the inhabitants of 
Brittany, Normandy, and the Maritime cities 
of the South, to rise up against the Jacobins. 

Oct. 3i. But the other fourteen died 

juiy 13. upon the guillotine. The mur- 
der of Marat, by the noble enthusiast Charlotte 
Corday, and a terrible civil war, were the im- 
mediate consequences of these violent measures. 
Roland, Petion,Barbaroux, Condorcet, all died 
a violent death. Madame Roland also perished 
on the scaffold, exclaiming, " Oh, liberty, what 
crimes have been committed in thy name ! " 
Thirteen members of the convention, who had voted with the Gironde, were also ex- 
pelled, so that the democrats of the Mountain now ruled the assembly. 

§ 486. The Reign of Terror. The convention was now able to unfold a fearful 
power and activity. It divided itself into various committees, among which the com- 
mittee of the public welfare and the committee of safety have acquired a terrible re- 
nown, by their deeds of blood. A revolutionary tribunal, consisting of twelve^ jurors 
and five judges, upheld the activity of these committees by their cruel and speedy 
trials. Fouquier Tinville was the public prosecutor in this terrible court. At the 
head of the Committee of Public Safety were Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just. 
Without regard to human life, they pursued their desperate aim. Whatever ventured 
to oppose them was stricken down without mercy. This reign of terror made itself 
felt in three directions : in the cruel persecution of all citizens who were known as 




MEMBERS OP THE COMMUNE. (1793-1794.) 



572 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



" Aristocrats " or Royalists ; in the bloody suppression -of the uprisings in the south and 
in the west ; and in the powerful war of defence against all foreign enemies. 

§ 487. The Persecution of the Royalists. The municipality of Paris was in the 
hands of extreme Jacobins and Democrats. All the wards of the city were under the 
supervison of democratic policemen. A revolutionary army of Sans Culottes stood 
ready to support the Men of Terror, so that all power was in the hands of the mob 
and their furious leaders. As in Paris, so also in the provinces, the Jacobins predomi- 
nated. Their orators and presidents committed the bloodiest crimes against all 

who would not work with 
them. A law against sus- 
pects declared every body to 
sept. i7. X793. be "an enemy 
of his country" who showed 
any sympathy for the mon- 
archy, or for the priesthood, 
or for the nobility, and threat- 
ened him with death. The 
prisons were filled with thous- 
ands of so-called aristocrats, 
and every day, thirty or forty 
persons were dragged to the 
scaffold. The base slander 
of a personal enemy, the ac- 
cusation of a spy, the hatred 
of a vagabond, sufficed to 
bring the innocent to prison 
and to death. But death 
lost its terrors, and the pris- 
ons became meeting places of 
cheerful companions and 
powerful intellects. For 
among the sacrificed, were 
the noblest and most dis- 
tinguished men of France. 
The noble-minded Male- 
sherbes, members of the Na- 
marie Antoinette led to execution. {Be la Roche.) tional Assembly, like Bailly 

and Barnave, scholars and writers like Lavoisier and Andre Chenier, 
died under the axe ; among them, the sorely tried Queen Marie 
Antoinette, who, before her judges and on the scaffold, showed a 
fortitude and a nobility of soul worthy of her birth. Her son died 
under the severe discipline of a Jacobin, and her daughter, the Duchess 

d' Angouleme, carried through life a gloomy spirit and an embittered heart. Even 
Nov. e. 1703. the pious sister of Louis XVI., the gentle Elizabeth, died upon the 

scaffold. Nor did the Duke of Orleans escape, for Danton's favor could not protect 

him from Robespierre's cruel envy. 




Oct. 10. 1793. 

X.airi's XVII. 

horn 17S5. 

ttiefl 

.Tunc 8. 1795. 



THE. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 573 

6. The Horrors in the South. 

§ 488. When the inhabitants of Normandy and Britten}' rose in defence of 
the expelled Girondists, the Committee of Public Safety devastated the region be- 
tween the Seine and the Loire with instruments of terror. Carrier, their agent, 
crowded together his victims by the hundred, upon ships with trap-bottoms, by means 
of which they were drowned in crowds. In Lyons, a former priest stirred up the 
artisans to rob and murder the aristocrats. The rich citizens of Lyons thereupon 
jiiiv ie. 1193. procured the execution of the demagogue. This enraged the Men of 
Terror at Paris. An army was sent to Lyons ; the city was taken ; the citizens were 
shot by scores, because the guillotine worked too slowly ; houses were torn down, and 
whole blocks blown up with powder. The possessions of the rich were distributed to 
the mob, and Lyons was to be destroyed from the face of the earth. A similar fate 
befell Marseilles- and Toulon. The Royalists of Toulon called the English to their 
help, and made over to them their city and harbor; but the army of the revolution, in 
which the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, gave the first proofs of his military 
genius, overcame all obstacles. Toulon was taken by storm. The English, un- 
able to defend the city, set fire to their fleet, and abandoned the wretched inhabitants. 
The wealthy citizens were shot down, and their property distributed to the Sans- 
Culottes. Bordeaux and Northern France were scenes of similar terror. 

§ 489. The Bloody Scenes in Vendee. But La Vendee, a peculiar district of 
West France, traversed by hedges and intersected by ditches, was the greatest suf- 
ferer of all. The people in this district preserved the simplicity of the ancient time. 
Peasants and tenants were attached to their landlords ; they loved the king, rever- 
enced the priest and the church, which had been dear and sacred to them from their 
youth. When, therefore, the National Assembly banished or murdered their priests, 
when the King perished by the guillotine, when their sons were drafted into the 
army, the people rose in their wrath to resist the Reign of Terror. Their leaders were 
from all classes, from the peasants and the nobility ; and at first the}' drove back the 
armies of the Republic. The Convention then sent a revolutionary army under 
Westermann, and the furious Jacobins, Ronsin and Rossignol, to suppress the rebellion. 
These fell like wild beasts upon the inhabitants ; set fire to their cities, villages, barns, 
and forests, and sought to break the resistance of the Royalists by cruelty and terror. 
But the courage of the Vendeans was unbroken. Not until General Kleber marched 
his army against them, did the unfortunate people yield, and then their land had be- 
come a desert, and thousands had fertilized the soil with their blood. The brave but 
humane Hoche followed, and offered the weary people peace. His moderation brought 
them to submission. 

§ 490. Danton s Overthrow. The cruelty of the Jacobins was at last too terrible 
for Danton and Camille Desmoulins. Danton was weary of murder, and retired with 
his young wife, for a short time, into the country, to enjoy the wealth which the 
Revolution had brought him. Desmoulins attacked the three heads of the Committee 
of Safety in his journal. This enraged the Jacobins, and as several friends and adher- 
ents of Danton had been guilty of deception and bribery, in connection with the East In- 
dia Company, and some others had caused offence by their attacks upon religion, the 
Committee of Public Safety determined to destroy Danton and all his party. The con- 
vention had altered the calendar and the names of the months, had abolished Sundays 



i74 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



and holidays, and substituted for them decades and popular festivals. This led several 
Dantonists, like Hubert, Momoro, Chaumette, and Cloots, to attack Christianity and 
the priesthood with scandalous fury. They desecrated and plundered the churches, 
they made a mock of sacred garments and sacred vessels, they paraded in blaspheming 
crowds through the streets, and finally they determined, in the Convention, to estab- 
lish the worship of reason in the place of the Catholic service. At a festival in Notre 
Dame, where the Goddess of Reason was represented by the beautiful Madame Momoro, 




THE FETE OF REASON. (31. Muller.) 



they began their new religion. Robespierre opposed all this ; he was neither greedy, 
nor licentious, nor blasphemous. And he determined to destroy both Desmoulins and 

Feb, 170-i. Danton. When the former appeared in the Convention, St. Just of- 
fered a remarkable resolution, in which he divided the enemies of the Republic into 
three classes, the corrupt, the ultra-revolutionists, and the moderates. The resolution 

ma,,n 34. was adopted on the 24th of March. Nineteen ultra-revolutionists, 
among them, Cloots, Hebert and Momoro, the husband of the Goddess of Reason, were 




THE DANTONISTS ON THE ROAD TO THE GUILLOTINE. (D. Maillard.) (pp. 515.) 



576 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

march 31, led to the guillotine. On the 31st of March, the corruptionists were 
accused before the revolutionary tribunal, and Danton and Desmoulins were dragged 
into the trial. They demanded to be confronted with their accusers. For three days, 
Danton's voice of thunder and the tumult of the people made his condemnation im- 
possible. For the first time in its history, the Tribunal hesitated; whereupon the 
Convention gave to the Court authority to condemn the accused, without a further 
April s, 170*. hearing. They were led to the guillotine and beheaded, along with 
a crowd of rabble. They died courageously, and with noble dignit}\ 

7. The Military Achievements of the Republicans. 

§ 491. The First Coalition. Meanwhile the armies of all Europe were marching 
to the French frontiers. The Dutch, the Austrians, and the English were in the 
Netherlands. Prussian and Austrian troops had crossed the Rhine. Sardinia was 
threatening the southeast, and Spanish and Portuguese armies were stationed at the' 
Pyrenees. The English were striving to destroy the naval power of France, to con- 
quer her colonies, and to maintain the armies of the continent by enormous subsidies. 
At first the allies were successful. Alsace and Flanders fell into their hands, and the 
way to Paris was open. But discord and incompetency hindered their success. There- 
publicans, on the other hand, suspecting treason in every defeat, sought to compel 
victory by terror. General Beauharnais, who came too late to save Mayence, was 
guillotined. So too were Custine and his son. And Hoche was imprisoned, be- 

xov. 2&-30, 1103. cause he was defeated by the Prussians and other German troops at 
Kaisers-lautern. The energetic and able Carnot now became a member of 
the Committee of Safety, and brought unity and combination into the war. A 
draft was ordered, which compelled everybody to take his part. Freedom still 
created among the soldiers courage and enthusiasm ; but they were no longer led 
against the enemy in small divisions, and from their ranks proceeded the greatest 
generals of modern time. The soldiers of other countries, who fought for pay and 
not for freedom, were no match for these young warriors : and besides that, the un- 
dertakings of the allies were frequently hindered by political considerations, and by 

June 20, ii»4. diplomatic arts. In June, Jourdan compelled the allies to retire from 
Belgium, and at the beginning of autumn the Netherlands and the Dutch frontiers- 
iio4--it.-,. were in the hands of the French. In December and January General 
Pichegru led his half-starved, half-clad army across the ice into Holland, compelled 
the Stadthokler to fly to England, and founded the Batavian republic. Holland was 
now allied with France. The French troops were clad and maintained at the expense 
of the Dutch, and great sums of money were sent to Paris, as compensation for the 
war. Meanwhile the English took possession of the Dutch ships and colonies, so that 
the unfortunate country was plundered on both sides. 

§ 492. The Peace of Basel. The French were just as victorious along the 
no*. Rhine. In October the Austrians and Prussians abandoned the left 

bank to the enemy ; and the Prussian government, busy with the affairs of Poland, 
Apra s, lias, agreed to the peace of Basel. In this shameful peace the left bank of 
the Rhine and Holland were given up to the French, the Rhine was established as the 
natural boundary of France, and North Germany was separated from the South. The 
war continued in South Germany, but North Germany was declared to be neutral soil. 




37 ROBESPIERRE WOUNDED IN THE HALL OF THE ASSEMBLY. (F. TAx.) (pp.511.) 



578 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

The Austrians, however, continued the war. Pichegru was defeated, Heidelberg was 

ij»5. taken from the French, and Mannheim was partly destroyed, and then 

occupied 03" the Germans. Clerfait, the Austrian commander, now resigned, and was 

succeeded b}' the Arch duke Karl, the Emperor's brother, who soon displayed great 

sept. 3, tioe. military genius. He defeated Jourdan at Wurzburg, and compelled 

him to retreat across the Rhine. Even Moreau was forced out of Bavaria and Swabia, 

sept. 10 to oet. but by a masterly retreat through the Black forest, he reached the 

24,, noe. Rhine without great loss. The other German princes imitated, for the 

most part, the example of Prussia, and made peace with France. 

§ 493. Robespierre's Downfall. After Danton's death, the Committee of Safety 
ruled absolutely, and brought the Reign of Terror to a climax, by their arrests and 
executions. But the Convention and the people no longer trusted them. The 
friends of Danton were lurking and watching for an opportunity. When Robespierre 
i7»4. made an end of the blasphemous worship of reason, his enemies in- 

creased. The Convention solemnly resolved that there was a Supreme Being, and that 
the soul was immortal ; and at a festival, in honor of this Supreme Being, Robespierre 
officiated as high-priest. To his enemies belonged Tallien, Freren, Fouche", and that 
jhij; a», no*, master of lies, Barere. On the 9th of Thermidor, a struggle for life 
and death began in the Convention. Robespierre and his friends were not allowed to 
speak. Their adversaries howled them down, and passed a resolution to arrest 
and imprison the three chiefs of the Committee of Safety, Robespierre, St. 
Just, and Couthon, together with their companion Henriot. On their way to the 
prison, they were set free by the mob. The drunken Henriot thereupon threatened 
the Convention with the National Guard, while the others hastened to the city hall, 
but the National Assembly was too prompt for them. 

A proclamation, cried through the streets, scattered Henriot's army, while the 
citizens, tired of the Jacobins, rushed to the support of the Convention. The accused 
were re-arrested. Henriot crept into a sewer, out of which he was pulled with hooks. 
Robespierre tried to kill himself, but succeeded only in shattering his jaw. They were 
juiy zs. led, amid the curses and cries of the people, first to the revolutionary 
Tribunal, and then to the guillotine. Ninety-three Jacobins shared the fate of their 
leader. 

The Last Days of the Convention. 

§ 494. The Thermidorians were doubtless animated by personal revenge ; never- 
theless, the death of Robespierre meant a return to order and moderation. The popu- 
lar assemblies were gradually restrained, the power of the city council diminished, and 
arms taken from the mob. Freron assembled about him the young men, who, from 
their raiment, were known as the " Gilded Youth." These attacked the Jacobins on 
the street, and in their club. The club was at last closed, and the Jacobin cloister 
torn down. 

The Convention was strengthened by the recall of the excluded members and of 
the Girondists, and then caused the worst men of the Reign of Terror -to be put to 
death. But when the most active members of the Committee of Safety, Barere, Va- 
dier, d'Herbois, and others were accused, the Jacobins gathered themselves together, 
and drove the excited people, who were desperate from famine and poverty, to a ter- 




THE BREAD RIOTERS IN THE HALL OF THE CONVENTION. (F. LlX.) (j)p. 579.) 



580 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



li-12 

Germinal, 
March 31. 

April 1, tlOS. 

May HO, 1595. 



rible insurrection. Mobs surrounded the hall of the convention, cry- 
ing for bread, for the release of the patriots, and for the Constitution 
of 1793. But Pichegru was fortunately present in Paris, and came to 
the help of the convention with citizens and soldiers. The mob was 
dispersed, and the still more dangerous insurrection of the 20th of May 
was also suppressed by the courageous president Boissj^ d'Anglas. The mob sur- 
rounded the convention from day-break till after midnight, demanding the restoration 
of the Committee of Safety. But the power of the Jacobins was broken. Some died 
by their own hand, some were deported, and others were beheaded. Meanwhile, the 
party of the Royalists was increasing, and a new constitution was adopted, in which 
the executive authority was given to a directory of five persons, and the legislative 
power committed to a council of ancients and a council of five hundred. The Repub- 
lican members of the convention, fearing that 
the Royalists would succeed at the next elec- 
tion, added a supplement to this constitution, 
requiring that two-thirds of both legislative 
councils should consist of members of the Con- 
vention. The Royalists rebelled against this 
limitation of the franchise, and provoked an 
uprising of the sections. The Convention there- 
upon called upon Napoleon Bonaparte to put 
down the insurrection, which he did, on the 
oot. s, nos. 5th of October, 1795, (13th 
Vendemiaire). This gave to the Republicans 
of the Convention the upper hand, and to the 
young Napoleon the command of the Italian 
army. A few days after his appointment, he 
March s, iioo. married the widow of Gen. 
Beauharnais, who had been put to death by the 
Terrorists. Josephine was the beautiful and 
,,,„.,.,,, D graceful daughter of a French officer, Tascher 

and member op the directory in gala de la Pagerie. Napoleon had been made a c- 
costume. {1794-1799.) quainted with her by Barms ; he loved her 

passionately, although she was several j'ears older than he. 




8. France Under the Directory (Oct. 26th, 1795— Nov. 9th, 1799.) 

§ 495 Bonaparte hi Italy. The French army on the Italian frontier was in a 
wretched condition. Suddenly Napoleon appeared, as their commander-in-chief, and 
in a short time he had made them so enthusiastic, and attached them so firmly to him- 
self, that thej' followed him into every danger. Where the love of glory was not 
i7og. powerful enough, the treasures of Italy stimulated their courage. In 

April, Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Monte Notte, separated them from the 
Sardinians, frightened the king, Victor Amadeus, into surrendering Savoy and Nice to 
stay. France, and into permitting the French armies to march through his 

territory. The kingdom was thus made entirely dependent upon France, and Charles 
Emanuel IV. surrendered Piedmont also, and retired with his family to the island of 




(pp. 581.) BONAPARTE ON THE BRIDGE AT ARCOLE. (Enlil Bayard.) 



582 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Sardinia. Napoleon's victorious course soon placed him in possession of all Upper 
jtiay 10, lints. Italy ; he crossed the bridge of Lodi, marched into Austrian Milan, 
subjugated the cities of Lombardy, and so terrified the small princes, that they begged 
for peace, on any terms. Napoleon forced the Dukes of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, 
to give him great sums of money, costly pictures, manuscripts, and works of art. 
These he sent to Paris, and the money was used to subsidize the directory. The octo- 
Au a . s, 1190. genarian commander of the Austrians, Beaulieu, was now superseded 
by Wurmser ; but Napoleon defeated him at Castiglione, and then beleaguered him in 
Mantua. The army sent to his relief was defeated in three successive battles, and the 
Nov. hob. Austrian army in Italy completely wiped out. This compelled 
sun. 1197. Wurmser to capitulate. Bonaparte permitted the venerable com- 
mander to retain his 
sword, and to march out 
with a part of his heroic 
garrison. Pope Pius VI., 
was so terrified by these 
successes of the French, 
that he purchased the 
Feb. 19, 1191. peace of 
Tolentino by cessions of 
territory, large sums of 
money, and valuable 
works of art. The Arch- 
duke Karl was then 
made commander of the 
Austrian armies in Italy, 
but he was soon com- 
pelled to an inglorious 
retreat, and pursued by 
Bonaparte in the direc- 
tion of Vienna. The 
frightened Emperor 
Francis was now per- 
suaded, by the still more 
April is, hoi. frightened women of his court, to sign the truce of Leoben, just at 
the moment when the French army was in great danger from the Tyroleans. At the 
same time, an uprising of the people in Venice led to the murder of many Frenchmen 
in Verona and its vicinity. 

Napoleon revenged his comrades by destroying the Venetian republic. The cow- 
ardice of the aristocratic counsellors greatly helped him in his work. The French 
marched into Venice in the month of May, carried off the ships and the supplies of 
the Republic, robbed the churches, galleries, and libraries of their most precious treas- 
on, ii, ii9i. ures, and occupied the city until the peace of Campio Formio was 
signed. By this peace, Austria agreed that Upper Italy should be formed into the 
Cisalpine Republic. Under the protectorate of France, Belgium was ceded to the 
French Republic ; the left bank of the Rhine and Mayence were also surrendered ; 




JOSEPHINE 



(E. Ronjat.) 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



683 




but in return for these, Austria acquired Venice and Dalmatia. The princes, prelates, 
and noblemen, who lost by this surrender 
of the left bank of the Rhine, were com- 
pensated by territories on the right bank. 
These, and all other points relating to Ger- 
Dec. 1707. many, were arranged at 
the Congress of Rastadt, where Napoleon 
presided in person, and whence he departed 
to Paris to receive the applause of excited 
thousands. 

§ 496. G-raechus Babeuf. The Royal- 
ists. The government of the five directors 
was hateful alike to the Republicans and 
the Royalists. The first attempt to over- 
throw it was made by the Republicans, 
under the lead of Gracchus Babeuf, who 
aimed at a new distribution of property, 
and sought to establish equality of wealth. 
He was joined by many of the old Jacobins, 
and they founded the " Union of Equals " 
which held its sittings secretly, at the hussar, cavalryman and infantryman. (1795.) 
Mau,i79e. Pantheon. The conspiracy was discovered. Babeuf drove a dagger to 
his heart ; the others were executed or exiled. The Royalists, on the other hand, 
k-. succeeded in the elections in bringing' into 

'■■■ ■ O O 

the legislative assembly a majority of their 
friends, among them Pichegru, the former 
commander of the Rhine army. He was 
chosen president of the council of five hun- 
dred, and sought to restore the monarchy. 
}The Republicans, in the directory and in the 
legislative chambers, sought, in their anxiety, 
help from Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte 
fsent Bernadotte, the cunning, and Augereau, 
the brutal, into Paris; ostensibly to bring 
the conquered standards, but really to sup- 
port the directors against the Royalists. On 
sei>t. 4, 1707. the 18th Fructidor, Augereau 
surrounded the Tuileries and arrested the 
Royalist deputies. Eleven members of the 
ancients, forty-two of the five hundred 
(among them Pichegru), and two directors, 
were thereupon condemned to exile. The 
Royalist elections were declared invalid, the 
returned emigrants were banished, and many 
newspapers suppressed. Nevertheless, the government of the directory -failed to 
inspire confidence. Commerce, industry, agriculture, were at a standstill, and the 




GENERAL, LIGHT INFANTRY OFFICER, AND 
INFANTRYMAN. (1795.) 



584 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



state treasury was empty. The paper money of the Revolution, which, during the 
Reign of Terror, no one ventured to refuse, had now lost all value. Great losses 
were the consequence. The expenses of war and other outlays, could only be met by 
forced contributions in the conquered lands. 

§ 497. The Republicans in Italy ; the Transformation of Switzerland. Italy and 
Switzerland were now made to feel the insolence and the capacity of the Directory. 
In the winter of 1797 the French provoked republican uprisings in Rome and other 
parts of the Papal dominions. In suppressing these movements of the mob, a French 
jFe6., i-.9s. general was killed by the papal troops; thereupon Berthier marched 
his army into Rome. A liberty tree was planted in the Roman Forum, and the 
temporal power was taken away from the Pope, and handed over to a republican 
government, consisting of consuls, senators, and tribunes. Heavy contributions were 
then levied upon the city, valuable works of art were carried off to Paris, the aged 

pope Pius VI. was led a prisoner to France, where 
.tug., ii99. he died the next year, and the car- 
dinals were severely persecuted. Genoa and Lucca 
also received democratic constitutions, for which 
they paid with their treasures of art. But Naples 
went through a series of changes. The hard hearted 
Ferdinand it., and cowardly king, Ferdinand, who 
(i) of Naples, turned over the affairs of state to 
i7S9-t825. his wife, Catharine, was induced, by 
the Queen and her friend Lady Hamilton, to send a 
Neapolitan army, under the Austrian general, Mack, 
into the papal states. The French were driven out 
of Rome, and the city occupied by Mack's army. 
xov. ana Dec., But in a few days, the French re- 
i79s. turned, drove out the Neapolitans, 

= and marched to Naples. The Neapolitan court fled 
F_ to Sicily, after setting fire to their own fleet, and 
abandoned Naples and the whole country to the vic- 
costume of citizens. (1796.) tors. The Neapolitan people now rose in insurrec- 
tion, urged on by monks and priests. Mobs of rabble, uniting with peasants and 
galley slaves, took possession of Naples, and committed such horrors that the royal 
governor fled to Sicily, and even Mack sought protection from the French. The 
French, under Championnet, now forced their way into the desperately defended 
san,. iioo. city, and erected the Parthenopian republic. All the cultivated, 
respectable, and patriotic Neapolitans accepted the new order with enthusiasm, rejoic- 
ing at their redemption from the long oppression of royal and priestly despotism. 
Switzerland also experienced a compulsory change of constitution. In 1798 the 
Republicans of Waadtland rose in arms to free themselves from the authority of 
Berne, and as they were unable to cope with the Bernese, they called upon the 
French for help. General Brune occupied Berne with a French army, took pos- 
session of the city treasur}' and the arsenal, and levied heavy contributions upon 
■the people. With the help of the Democratic party, the French then converted 
starch, 1198. Switzerland into an indivisible Helvetian republic. The forests can- 




THE, FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



585 



tons, urged on by their priests, refused to accept the new government, and took up 
arms. But their desperate and courageous resistance was soon conquered. Geneva 
also was united to France. About the same time, an insurrection occurred in Ireland. 
A French army under Humbert was sent to support the insurgents, but was forcecl by 
August, ins. the English to a speedy capitulation, and Ireland was then placed un- 
der martial law. 

§ 498. The Second War of the Coalition (1798-1799.') These events, and Napo- 
leon's expedition to Egypt, led to a new coalition of Russia, England, and Austria, 
against France. Russia, in 1796, came under the rule of Catharine's eldest son Paul, 
an eccentric prince, who hated the Revolution, who was a warm admirer of the Knights 
of Malta, of which he 
was grand-master, and . -. 



who found a cause of 
war in Napoleon's tak- 
ing 



the island of 




Malta. England dread- 
ed the consequences of 
the Egyptian expedition 
for her Eastern posses- 
sions, and scattered 
money- with liberal 
hands. Austria was in 
difficulty with the Direc- 
tory, because the dwell- 
ing of the French am- 
bassador in Vienna had 
been attacked, and the 
tri-color had been in- 
sulted. This war was 
carried on in Germany, 
Italy, Switzerland, and 
the Netherlands all at 

jirtreh as, i?oo. once. The French were driven across the Rhine by the Arch-duke 

Karl, and the French ambassadors at Rastadt, as they were leaving the city, were 

April as. attacked, robbed of their papers, and two of them killed. In Italy also 

the French suffered defeat. The Russians conquered the Cisalpine Republic ; Morean 

April 27, 1100. was defeated at Cassano, and MacDonald at Trebia, and Italy was 
June 11-10, lost to the French at the battle of Novi. This brought the Parthenopian 
August is. Republic to an end. As the French abandoned Naples, Cardinal Ruffo, 
jmie 13. with a mob of peasants and vagabonds, stormed the city. The court 
returned from Sicily, and began at once a terrible punishment of the Republicans in 
Naples. Supported by Lord Nelson, whose fleet lay in the harbor, the royal government 
and the priesthood committed outrages worthy of the worst days of the Reign of Terror. 
When the rabble was worn out with robbery and assassination, the judge, the jailor, 
and the hangman, set to work. All who supported or furthered the republican insti- 
tutions, were hunted down. Four thousand of the most cultivated and respected men 



PIUS vn. 



(E. Ronjat.) 



586 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



and women of the cit}' died upon the scaffold, or in gloomy dungeons. The aged 
Prince Caraccioli, Ferdinand's former confidant, and Xelsoms friend, was tied to a 

mast, and then, load- 
ed down with a heavy- 
weight, thrown into 
the sea. The repub- 
lican government in 
Rome was likewise 
destroyed, and the 
new pope, Pius VII., 
entered the Vatican. 
After the conquest of 
Italy, the Russian 
commander Suwaroff 
recrossed the Alps, to 
drive Massena and 
the French army out 
of Switzerland. The 
Russian army climbed 
. mountain passes 
: which had been hith- 
q erto regarded as in- 
h accessible to man, 
5 fought against nature 
3 and against their en- 
2 emies with a bravery 
never surpassed, and 
yet the French main- 
tained themselves in 
Switzerland. Before 
Suwaroff could unite 
with his allies, the 
Russians were de- 
feated in the battle 
of Zurich. Suwaroff 
sept, n«, 21, i?9». led 
the remnant of his 
army back to Russia, 
where he died in sor- 

2Uay, 1SOO. TOW, 

because of the dis- 
favor of his monarch. 
The attempt of the 
English to drive the 
French out of the Netherlands, was a disastrous failure. The Duke of York, who 
Oct., lino. commanded the expedition, was utterly incompetent, and bought his 





BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS. (F. LlX.) 



{pp. 687.) 



588 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



way home by a shameful treaty, without considering his Russian allies. This so 
embittered the Russian czar, that he withdrew from the coalition. 

§ 499. Bonaparte in Egypt and !Syria. In June 1798, Napoleon sailed for the 
mouth of the Nile : his purpose was to weaken the naval power of the English, and to 
threaten their possessions in East India. In the hot days of July, he left Alexandria, 
and marched through the Egyptain desert to Cairo. The distress of the army, under 
the glowing sun, without water and without sufficient food, was terrible ; 3'et in the 

juiu 2i, moo. Battle of the Pyramids, the Mamelukes were conquered, and Napoleon 
entered Cairo. But during his absence, the French fleet had been led away \>y the 
English hero, Lord Nelson ; and Napoleon was compelled to make preparations for a 

auo. i, a, iT9s. longer stay. He therefore established a new government, a new sys- 
tem of police and taxation : and he ordered the scholars and artists who were with his 




NAVAL FIGHT OFF ABUKIR, AUGUST 1, 1708. (Fr. Weber.) 

army, to investigate the antiquities and monuments of this wonderful country, to col- 
lect and to describe the relics of their ancient life Bonaparte and his soldiers were 
careful to spare the religious feelings of the Mohammedans, their priests, their 
mosques, and their ceremonies; nevertheless, the fanatical Mussulmans hated the 
dominion of the Christians. And when the French commander levied taxes and con- 
tributions upon them, and the Turkish government called upon the Mohammedans to 
oet. st, ii98. war against the Christians, there arose in Cairo a terrible insurrection. 
This was not suppressed until six thousand Mohammedans were slain. Napoleon then 
Feb., 1199. marched against the Turks in Syria, and conquered Joppa, where he 
massacred at one time two thousand prisoners. He then besieged St. John D'Acre. 
sratfi.-yiau, 1199. Here Napoleon's fortune proved treacherous for the first time ; the 
Turks drove back their desperate enemies, while a Turkish army outside the city 
threatened the besiegers. The latter was soon conquered and dispersed, nevertheless 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



589 



Bonaparte was compelled, by pestilence, to give up the siege and lo retreat. He 
juiy 2*. reached Cairo in June, and the next month defeated the Turkish army 
at Aboukir. A few days after the battle, he received newspapers recounting the 
misfortunes of the French in Italy, and news also of the political situation in France. 
He determined to return. Handing over the command of the Egyptian arm}' to 
Kleber, he sailed from Alexandria and narrowly escaping capture by the English, soon 
oct. a, i an/. reached the French coast, and journeyed, amid the acclamations of the 
people, hastily to Paris. 




SIEGE OF ST. JOHN d'aCRE. 



§ 500. T7w Eighteenth Brumaire. The Directory had lost all influence. Every- 
body was convinced that a change of constitution was necessary. The news of Napo- 
leon's landing fixed all eyes upon him. His daring expedition had increased the ad-, 
miration of the people for the new Ccesar, and the return of the hero, who"was said to 
have been exiled by the envious directors, formed the substance of all conversations. 
Napoleon now determined to place himself at the head of the state. To this end he must 
overthrow the Directory. He assured himself of the support of the officers and troops 
stationed in Paris, and then arranged with Sieyes, one of the directors, and with his brother 
Lucian, the president of the council of five hundred, the plan of operations. This 



590 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



was to remove the sittings of the council to St. Cloud, in order to bring the members within 
reach of the soldiers. Entering the hall, Napoleon sought at first to win the council 
over to his plans. But when he was met with reproaches and threats, he commanded his 
grenadiers to empty the hall at the point of the bayonet. The Republicans were com- 
pelled to yield, and sought safety through the doors and windows. The most defiant 
of them were carried out by the grenadiers. A commission of fifty persons was then 
charged with framing a new constitution. This was the Coup D' Etat of the 18th. 
Brumaire, in consequence of which, Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul, and in 
alliance with Sieyes, created a new constitution, which preserved the shadow of a re- 
public, but was really a military despotism. 




MADAME ROLAND. 




C. THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



I. THE CONSULATE (1800 TO 1804.) 



§ 501 



k HE consular constitution distributed the functions of the 
state as follows: 1 — A senate, consisting of eighty mem- 
bers, had authority to choose from the names sent from the 
various departments, the members of the legislative body, 
the chief executive officers, and the judges. 2 — A legislative 
body consisting of a tribunate composed of a hundred mem- 
bers, whose duty it was to examine and to discuss the propo- 
sitions of the executive, and of a law-making assembly which 
voted upon these propositions without discussion and adopted 
or rejected them without amendment. 3 — The executive 
I consisting of three consuls chosen for ten years, of whom the first 
consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, exercised actually the executive author- 
ity, while the second and third consul (Cambaceres and Lebrun) 
assisted him as counselors. Bonaparte surrounded himself with a 
state council and a cabinet, for which he selected men of the highest 
talent and largest experience. Talleyrand, the skillful diplomatist, 
became minister of foreign affairs ; the astute Fondle - controlled the police system, and 
Berthier was chief of the general staff. The French law book, the code Napoleon, in 
the composition of which the ablest jurists of France were engaged, is a striking proof 
of the ability of the state council. 




§ 502. Makengo and Hohenlinden. 

The new constitution once established, Napoleon wrote an autograph letter 
to the king of England and another to the Emperor, offering peace. But this un- 
usual step met a cold reception. The answers to it spoke of the restoration of the 
Bourbons, and of the return to old frontiers. The contrast between the apparent 
candor and magnanimity of Napoleon, and the haughty coldness of the cabinets of 
London and Vienna filled the French with the enthusiasm of war. The Russian Czar, 
however, treated Napoleon with more consideration. Paul's love of soldiers and his 
anger at the Austrians and English, who refused to exchange their Russian prisoners, 

C591) 



592 



THE ERA OF REUOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



were cunningly made use of by Napoleon. He sent thousands of these prisoners, newly 
clad and armed, back to their native country. This won the heart of the chivalrous 
Czar so that he entered into friendly correspondence with Bonaparte, and broke off 
relations entirely with his former allies. The first consul now secretly collected a 

large body of troops near Lake Geneva, and 
began his daring march across the St. Bernard 
with the main army, while other divisions were 
sent by the Simplon, St. Gotthard and other 
May, tsoo. passes, into Italy. The army 
marched through mountains of snow and ice 
past the Hospice of St. Bernard, into the river 
valley of Dora Baltea. Here the way seemed to 
be blocked by the Austrian fort Bard. But 
Napoleon mastered every difficulty. The troops 
crossed the neighboring mountain by a narrow 
sheep-path, while the cannon were secretly and 
cunningly pushed forward under the batteries of 
the fort. The French arrived, unexpectedly, in 
upper Italy, at the same moment in which the 
Austrians compelled Genoa to surrender, and 
June », isoo. thereby acquired possession of the 
whole land. But the situation soon changed. 
Five days after the fall of Genoa the Austrians 
were defeated at Monte-bello, and shortly after- 
jrune i4. isoo. wards in the battle of Marengo, where they were beaten in a third 
attack, after being twice victorious. The troops of General Desaix, who had just 
arrived from Egypt, and the opportune cavalry charge of the young Kellermann 
decided the battle, and snatched from the Austrian commander, Melas, his confidently 
expected victory. Desaix, one of the noblest and greatest men of the Revolutionary 
era, died a heroic death at Marengo. Milan and Lombarcly fell into the victors' hands. 
At the same time another French army under Mpreau had penetrated to Bavaria, 
driven back the Austrians in several engagements and compelled them to an armis- 
tice ; but the glorious march of MacDonald and Moncey, over the ice-clad Alps, and 
rei>. a, isoi. Moreau's splendid victory on the bloody field of Hohenlinden com- 
pelled the Austrians to sign the treaty of Luneville, and to accept the valley between 
the Adige and the Rhine as the frontier of the French Empire. The treaty also pro- 
vided for the formation of an Italian republic under the presidency of Bonaparte, and 
for the compensation of German princes, by secularizing the estates of the church and 
confiscating the property of imperial cities on the right bank of the Rhine. Two 
years later an arrangement of German frontiers was agreed to, which was the first 
*-e&. as, iso3. step toward the dissolution of the German empire, and toward the 
creation of sovereign kingdoms and dominions. 




FRENCH GENERALS. (1799-1800.) 



§ 503. The Peace of Amiens. 

England now stood alone. The Russian Czar Paul had shortly before, in 
order to gratify his hate, formed an alliance of armed neutrality with Prussia, Sweden, 



sun 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEOX BONAPARTE. 593 

and Denmark ; and as this gave the English enemies in the Baltic also, they became 
anxious for rest and recuperation. Negotiations were begun but they led to no result 
because it was impossible to agree about Egypt. Kleber, angry as he was at Napo 
leon s departure, had 
nevertheless main- 
tained himself suc- 
cessfully against the 
English and the 
Turks, and in the bat- 
ainrch no, isoo. tie of 
Heliopolis had defeat- 
ed an enenry six times 
his strength. But on 

the day of the battle 

of Marengo, he had 

been assassinated at 

Cairo by a fanatical 

Mahommedan. The 

French arm}? then 

passed to his incom- 
petent successor Me- 

liou who had gone 

over to Islam. It was 

speedily reduced to 

such extremities, that 

the English hoped to 

compel its surrender 

and therefore pro- 




mvsA 



CTZTian^LCzr .7 z. """ . m mmML —-'--•— 



DEATH OF MARSHAL DESAIX. 



tracted the peace negotiations. Not until the brave English general Abercrombie had 
fallen at Canopus, were they convinced that it was impossible to conquer the war-like 

lun.c 21, isoi. French, either by their own army made up of all people or by the 
worthless Turkish mobs The French troops, twenty four thousand in number, were 
finally carried to France in English ships, with their arms, their munitions of war, and 
all their treasures of science and art. The Peace of Amiens followed. The English 

jua.cn 27, iso*. agreed to surrender the greater part of their foreign conquests arid to 
turn over the Island of Malta to the knights of St. John. This treaty hastily agreed 
upon by the English ministry, excited violent opposition among the English people. 
The press, especially, attacked Napoleon with great violence. The First Consul, who 
could tolerate neither blame nor contradiction, replied with like vehemence in the 
French official journal (Moniteur). The feeling thus produced led to a renewal of 
the war, when the English delayed the surrender of Malta, and the execution of other 
articles of the treaty. They no longer feared Russia, for the Emperor Paul had suf- 
fered a violent death. His cruelty, his mad caprices, and his gloomy suspicions had so 
increased as to leave no doubt of his incurable insanity. A conspiracy was formed 
among his courtiers, of which Count Pahlen was chief. Paul was attacked in his bed- 

jwnrcft S3, isot. chamber and, when he refused to abdicate, strangled to death. His 



594 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



son Alexander was then proclaimed Czar. "The crown, too nervous to punisn, 
did not even venture to be angry, or to appear unthankful." The murderers 
were rewarded with riches and honors. Under such circumstances the peace of 

Amiens could not last : at the close 
of the year the English again de- 
clared war, and Pitt became again 
prime minister. Meanwhile Napo- 
leon had reduced Switzerland to 
dependence upon France, as he had 
May is, tso3. already subjugated 
Holland and Italy. By the " Act of 
Mediation " the constitution of the 
Swiss republic was so changed that 
Feh. iso3. the cantons became 
independent again, but a Landamman 
and a Diet represented the union. 
"This furnished the desired 'medium' 
between unity and isolation." 

§ 504. The New Couet and the 
Concordat. 
Bonaparte tried, in the begin- 
ning, to reconcile the old and the 
new ; to unite the conquests of the 
Revolution with the manners and 
forms of the Monarchy. But his 
preference for the old conditions was 
soon manifest in the restoration of the 
earlier arrangements and usages. At the court of the First Consul in the Tuileries 
the former costumes and fashions, the ancient forms of etiquette and the elegance of 
the royal period soon reappeared. Aristocratic bearing, refinement and fine manners 
were once more the marks of good society. The social tact of his wife Josephine, the 
beauty and amiability of his step-children (Eugene and Hortense Beauharnais), the 
handsome forms and striking talents of his sisters, greatly contributed to his success.* 




ALEXANDER 1. 



I. Joseph. 
1767-1844. 

6 Fa'iline— Borghese. 
i"81— 1825. 



* FAMILY TREE OF THE BONAPARTES OF AJA.CCIO CORSICA. 

CARLO BONAPARTE— LETITIA RAMOLINI (fl836 at ROME). 

2 Napoleon. 3 Lucian. 4 Elisa— Baeciochi. 

1769—1821. 1772— 1S10. 1777—1820. 

7 Caroline— Murat. 
1782—1839. 



Napoleon Bonaparte— Josephine Beauharnais (nee Tascher de la Pagerie). 
1763—1814. 



5 Louis. 
1778— 1S16. 
8 Jerome. 
1784—1860. 

Prince Napoleon. 



Eugene. 
1781-1824. 



Hortense— Louis Bonaparte. 
1 1837. 
I 
Louis Napoleon III. 

1848—1852, President of the Republic. 
1352— 1870, Emperor. 
1 1873, Exile in England. 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



595 



Many of the emigrant nobles were permitted to return and treated with such favor 
that they soon entered the service of the New Regime. Madame De Stael (Necker's 
•daughter) collected once more in her salon a company of cultivated and famous men. 
The vanity of the French also favored Napoleon's plans, and when he established the 
order of the Legion of Honor, Republicans and Royalists greedily struggled for this new 
evidence of human weakness. The restoration of the Christian worship in the French 
.juiv is, isoi. churches was eagerly desired by Napoleon. He abolished the repub- 
lican festivals, and restored the celebration of Sunday and then proceeded to negotiate 
with the Pope. This led to the Concordat, whereby the French clergy lost their 
ancient independence and were made subject to the head of the church and the ruler 
April is, isos. of the state. The system of education also attracted his attention, 
especially the institutions for practical knowledge like the polytechnic school of 
Paris. He made the schools wholly dependent upon the State. In a word Napo- 
leon wished to govern everything by his own hand and his own will, and thus became 
the creator of that destructive centralization, which makes local government and self- 
reliance impossible in France. 

§ 505. Conspiracies. 

Napoleon had no pleasure in a free state. He limited therefore more and 
more the political rights of the citizens, prosecuted Jacobins and Republicans 
(Ideologists he called 
them), put his trust in 
his guard and his police, 
the three-fold strength 
•of which was wielded 
by the cunning of 
Fouche\ Repeated con- 
spiracies against the life 
•of the first consul were 
started, sometimes by { 
Republicans, sometimes j 
by Royalists, and these 
led to fresh restrictions 
and closer surveillance. 
The boldest attempt 
■of the time was by means 
of an infernal machine 
filled with powder and 
ball, as the consul was 
driving to the opera 
house. Napoleon 

Becemher %±, escaped 

isoo. through the promptness and presence of mind of his coachman, 

although many houses were destroyed and several persons killed. In consequence 
of this a great number of Jacobins were deported, although it was subsequently 



im 




"■Hi 




CHATEAUBRIAND. 



(E. Ronjat.) 



596 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



discovered that the plot originated among the royalists that surrounded the 

Count D'Artois. The conspiracies became more extensive and more dangerous, when 

August a, the consulate was conferred upon Napoleon for life, with the authority 

isoa. to appoint his successor. This result of universal suffrage took away 

from the Bourbons their last hope, on which account the emigrants risked everything 




napoleon i. {Chattillori) 

to destroy Napoleon. George Cadoudal and General Pichegru, a giant in strength, 
were the agents in a fresh attempt at assassination ; they traveled secretly from 
England to France, but, with about forty of their confederates, were detected and 
imprisoned. Before their fate was determined Napoleon was informed that the Duke 
D'Enghien, the chivalrous grandson of the Prince of Conde, was the soul of all these 
royalist conspiracies. He immediately ordered the young nobleman, then resident in 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



597 




the town of Ettenheim in Baden to be arrested, hurried to Paris and condemned to 
march 21, death by a hurried court-martial. In spite of his magnanimous defense, 
iso4. he was ordered to be shot. All Europe was indignant at this inde- 

fensible crime ; even the admirers of Napoleon were reduced to silence. The poet 
Chateaubriand, author of "The genius of Christianity" resigned the office which had 
been procured for him by Napoleon's sister, Elisa, and retired to Switzerland. Pichegru 
died in prison a violent death, whether by suicide or murder is unknown. George 
Cadoudal, with twelve conspirators, ascended the guillotine. General Moreau, accused 
of complicity with Pichegru's undertaking, and arbitrarily condemned to two years 
imprisonment, went into voluntary exile in America. 

II. NAPOLEON AS EMPEROR. (1804—1814.) 
§ 506. 1.— The Empire. 

HE royalist conspiracy was used by Napoleon for the establishment 
of an hereditary monarchy. His adherents in the tribunate pro- 
posed to confer upon Napoleon the imperial dignity ; this was 
confirmed by the Senate and ratified by a vote of the entire popu- 
lation. While all hearts were yet throbbing with the recollection 
siay is, iso4,. of the bloody execution, Napoleon I. was proclaimed 
Emperor of the French, and at the end of the year was solemnly 
nee. a, lsoi,. consecrated by the Pope in the church of Notre Dame. The crown, however, 
was placed upon his own 
head and that of his kneel- 
ing consort, by his own hand. 
This coronation appeared 
to be the close of the rev- 
olution, since now all the 
old institutions, the abolition 
of which had cost thousands 
of human lives, gradually re- 
turned. The new Emperor 
surrounded his throne with a 
splendid court, at which the 
old titles, orders, and grada- 
tions of rank revived again in 
different form. He himself, 
it is true, preserved a military 
simplicity. But the mem- 
bers of his family became 
princes and princesses; his 
generals became marshals; 
faithful servants who fur- 
thered his plans, became great dignitaries of the crown, or were held fast to the new 
imperial throne as senators with large incomes. The creation of a new nobility with 
the old titles of prince, duke, count, baron, completed the magnificent structure of 




CATHEDRAL OP NOTRE DAME, PAR 



598 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

an imperial court, that outshone all other courts of Europe. The republican institu- 
tions gradually disappeared ; the old calendar was reintroduced ; the new nobility 
was allowed to create entailed estates : the press was put under censorship apd 
civil freedom more and more restrained. The ruler would endure no criticism. 
Hence he diminished the number of tribunes to fifty, and in 1807 abolished the 
tribunate entirely. Obedience now became the sum of patriotic duty. And 
France stood under a tyranny more powerful than that of the ancient monarchy. 
But the tyrant was a great man who had saved France from ruin within and without. 
Therefore men submitted willingly and in spite of the hard conscription, the severe 
embargo, and the heavy taxation, the people bore their burdens more easily because 
many achievements of the revolution, like equality before the law, the peasant's right 
to possess landed property and religious freedom, remained untouched. Industry 
made great progress ; arts and trades flourished exceedingly ; unusual prosperity was 
eveiywhere visible. Splendid highways like those across the Alps, canals, bridges, 
public works of all sorts, are to this da} - the speaking monuments of this extraordinary 
man. Paris was adorned with magnificent palaces, majestic bridges, and splendid 
streets. In the Louvre was brought together all that art could show that was great 
and splendid. The University was established upon a magnificent plan, and made 
supreme and authoritative in the entire system of education. The glory of the nation 
made the yoke of the emperor easy. The people forgot the silence of freedom, amid 
the rattle of musketry and the blare of trumpets. They did not perceive that the 
arrogant tone of the war bulletin, and the splendid phrases of senators and legislators, 
eclipsed the truth and destroyed the love of candor. 

2. Atjsterlitz, Pressburg, The Rhine Confederation. 

§ 507. The English made the outbreak of a new war with France an excuse for 
seizing Dutch and French ships ; and invited Russia and Austria to a new coalition 
may iso3. Napoleon, on the other hand, marched his troops to the Weser in 
order to occupy Hanover, which at that time belonged to the English king. The 
people and army of Hanover were determined to risk life and property in the 
defense of their country, but the selfish nobility and the officials preferred a dis- 
graceful capitulation, which gave up the entire land to the French, rather than to 
engage in desperate but honorable struggle. With gnashing teeth the brave army 
retreated across the Elbe and then disbanded ; arms, munitions of war, and valuable 
horses fell into the hands of the French, who garrisoned the land with their troops and 
exhausted it with taxes and contributions. Many patriotic men of the Hanoverian 
army, entered the English service, and proved their bravery in the German legion on 
many fields of battle, far from home. The threatening position that Napoleon now 
assumed toward the entire North, as well as his arbitrary conduct in Holland, Italy, 
and other lands, caused the remaining powers no little anxiety. The Italian republic 
was transformed into an Italian kingdom, of which Eugene Beauharnais was made the 
march 7, isob. viceroy, and to it was annexed the Dukedom of Parma. Lucca was 
given to Napoleon's sister Elisa. In Spain and Germany also he acted Avith the same 
self-will, and as a consequence Russia, Austria, and Sweden united with England 
against France and renewed the war with great energy. Even in Prussia there was a 
strong party, at the head of which was the high-minded Queen Louise and the brave, 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



599 



energetic, jovial, and talented Pi 
the coalition against Napoleon 
possessed the entire 
confidence of the ir- 
resolute, peace-loving 
king. So Prussia re- 
mained neutral to her 
own destruction. 

§ 508. While the 
attention of all 
Europe was directed 
to the west coast of 
France, where Napo- 
leon was preparing 
ships of all kinds, and 
collecting a great 
army at Boulogne, os- 
tensibly to invade 
England, he was ar- 
ranging quietly for 
the remarkable cam- 
paign of 1805. Hav- 
ing secured the sup- 
port of the South 
German countries, he 
set forth with seven 
army-corps, crossed 
the Rhine, and 
marched into Suabia, 

while Bernadotte, 

without regard to the 

neutrality of Prussia, 

marched into Prus- 
sian territory, and 

pushed on to the Tsar. 

Frederick William 

III. was so offended 

at this violation of 

his sovereignty, that 

he assumed a threat- 
ening attitude toward 

Napoleon, although 

not declaring war. 

With Napoleon were 

his famous marshals Ney, Lann 
Oct. 14, isor,. strengthened by 



ince Ludwig Ferdinand, who urged an alliance with 
But the three ministers were favorable to France and 



z 

O 

> 
•-3 



> 




es, Marmont, Soult, and Murat, and his army was 
the troops of Baden, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria. The 



600 



Till-: ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Dukes of Hesse and Nassau also supported him. In a short time the Austrian gen- 
eral. Mack, was shut up in Ulm, and cut off from the main arm}*. Despairing of relief. 
Oct. so. the incompetent commander soon capitulated, and twenty-three thou- 

sand Austrians, (among them eighteen generals), were made prisoners. They surren- 
dered also forty battle flags, and sixty mounted cannon. Mack was tried by a court- 
martial, and deprived of his rank and honors. But Napoleon's satisfaction, in his great 
oct. 3i. victory, was greatly diminished, by the naval victory of the English at 
Trafalgar, in which the whole French fleet was destroyed, while the English lost their 
great hero, Nelson. 

§ 509. In Prussia the war party was now in the ascendant. The King renewed 

his alliance with the Czar Alex- 
ander, in the garrison church at 
Potsdam, the two monarchs 
swearing eternal friendship over 
the coffin of Frederick the 
Great. Haugwitz was then 
sent to Napoleon with threaten- 
ing demands; but the French 
btov. it, isos. emperor marched 
along the Danube, -fighting 
several bloody battles with the 
Russians, under Kutusaff and 
Bagration. He found them 
harder to conquer than the 
Austrians, for Murat easily con- 
jiror. i3. quered Vienna, as 
the Prince Auersperg failed to 
defend or to destroy the bridge 
across the river. The indeci- 
sion of the Emperor Francis, 
and the want of harmony be- 
tween the Austrians and the 
Russians, enabled the French to 
defeat the allied army, which 
they had pursued into Moravia. 
nee. 2, isos. In the Battle of 
the Three Emperors' at Aus- 
terlitz, the winter sun shone down upon Napoleon's most brilliant victory. The 
Emperor Francis, eager for the close of the war, now sought out Napoleon, and agreed 
to a truce, in which the withdrawal of the Russians from the Austrian states was 
dcc. 2G. determined. The Peace of Pressburg soon followed. Austria lost 
Venice (which was united to the kingdom of Italy), the Tyrol (which was given to 
Bavaria), and the Black Forest (which fell to Baden). Bavaria and \Yurteniberg 
were raised to the rank of kingdoms, Baden was made a grand-duchy, and all three 
made matrimonial alliances with Napoleon. The daughter of Maximilian Joseph of 
Bavaria, became the wife of the Emperor's stepson, Eugene. Frederica Catherine, of 




ADMIRAL LORD NELSON. 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



601 



Wurtemberg, married Napoleon's frivolous brother Jerome, who, at the Emperor's 
command, abandoned his first wife Elizabeth Patterson of Baltimore. While Carl, 
the grandson of the Duke of Baden, married a niece of the Empress Josephine. 
The lands along the lower Rhine, with Dusseldorf as a capital, were given to the 
Emperor's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat. Holland too lost her independence, and 
Louis Napoleon was made her king. The royal family at Naples was next made to 
feel the wrath of the great soldier, for during the war, the combined Russian and 
English fleet had landed at Naples, and had been welcomed by the King and Queen. 

nee. 21. Napoleon now issued a decree, in connection with the peace of Press- 
burg, declaring that " the Bourbons in Naples had ceased to reign." The throne was 
given to Joseph Bonaparte, and a French army 
marched to Naples to install him in his new 
dignity. The royal family pleaded and stirred 
up rebellions, but were obliged to take refuge in 
Sicily, where they lived under English protec- 
ts., iso6. tion, till Napoleon's overthrow. 
The conquered territories of Italy were divided 
into dukedoms, and given over to French 
marshals and statesmen, and when, two years 
later, Joseph was made king of Spain, Joachim 
Murat succeeded him as king of Naples. After 
the battle of Austerlitz, the Prussian ambassa- 
dor, Haugwitz, did not venture to state his 
instructions to the victorious Emperor, but was 
induced, partly by threats and partly by appar- 
ent friendship, to sign a treaty, in which Prussia 
exchanged certain territories along the Rhine 
and in Switzerland for Hanover. The King 
was not consulted, and strove to escape the 
exchange, but was obliged to submit. The news of this sudden change in the situa- 
tion so affected the English minister, Pitt, that he died soon after. 

§ 510. The creation of the south German kingdoms dissolved the German Empire. 
Napoleon determined therefore to establish a Confederation of the Rhine, to withdraw 
southern and western Germany from Austrian influence, and to bind it to himself. A 
great number of princes and imperial cities entered into his plan, and a treaty was 
juiy, tsoe. signed in Paris on the 12th of July, 1806, by virtue of which, Napoleon 
became the protector of the Confederation, securing to each member of the union the 
sovereignty of his dominion, in return for the troops that each placed at French com- 
mand. Dalberg, ruler of a small principality, became Napoleon's viceroy, in the Con- 
federation, and many small principalities were consolidated, whereby the power of the 
larger princes was greatly increased. The Emperor Francis II., now abdicated, and 
withdrew all his states from the German alliance. "The Holy Roman Empire of the 
Aug. a, isoo. German nation " ceased to have a being, and Francis II. became 
Francis I., Emperor of Austria. Arndt was brave enough to give expression to the 
feelings that agitated German patriots, but few ventured to join him, — especially after 




MARSHAL MURAT. 



602 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

Aug. *e, isoe. the publisher, Palm, of Nuremburg, was shot, for refusing to reveal the 
author of a pamphlet published by him, called " The Humiliation of Germany." 

3. Jena, Tilsit, Erfurt. 

§ 511. The wavering attitude of Prussia had angered Napoleon ; he deemed the 
king's friendship unreliable, and his hostility of little moment. The formation of the 
Confederation of the Rhine was evidently intended to make Germany as dependent 
upon the French Empire as Italy and Holland. Prussia sought therefore to counter- 
act it, by the formation of a Northern Union ; and when Napoleon, by his intrigues, 
destroyed the undertaking, the King was deeply offended. In the second place, the 
French Emperor offered to return Hanover to the English, without so much as consult- 
ing the Prussian government. In the third place, the frontiers were constantly vio- 
lated by the French commanders. Prussia ventured at last to present an ultimatum, 
to mobilize her armies, and to break off communications with Paris. 

§ 512. While they were waiting for an answer in Berlin, the French troops, 
under Napoleon and his marshals, were already in the heart of Thuringia and Saxony. 

Oct. to, isoa. An engagement* took place at Saalfeld, where the Prussians were 
Oct. i-t. defeated ; but in the battle of Jena they were completely overwhelmed. 
This battle determined the fate of the country between the Rhine and the Elbe. The 
leaders of the Prussian army had neither plan nor council ; in their arrogance, they 
had expected victory, and had made no arrangement for retreat. The army separated, 
and was captured in detachments. Blucher alone was able to save the honor of Prussia 
at Liibeck, although he could not hinder the horrors that attended the storming of the 
city. Thirteen days after the battle of Jena, Napoleon marched into Berlin, and 
issued his decrees from the Prussian capital. The Elector of Hesse, who had refused 
to join the French, was deprived of army and of country, and driven forth a fugitive. 
The Duke of Brunswick, who had been carried to his home upon a stretcher, had to be 
carried further into Denmark, in order to die a quiet death. Hamburg, Bremen, and 
Leipzig were loaded down with war taxes, and the treasures of art and science were 
carried away from all the leading cities of Germany. Saxony alone was spared. The 
itec, iso«. Saxon prisoners of war were set at liberty, and the title of king was 
given to the elector, who was permitted to join the Confederation of the Rhine. 
Gratitude for his own salvation and the salvation of his people, held Frederick 
Augustus firmly attached to the French Emperor, in the trying days to come. 

§ 513. The King of Prussia fled to Konigsberg, and in his distress, turned to his 
friend, the Czar Alexander, who sent a Russian army under Bennigsen to East Prus- 
sia, to prevent the French from crossing the Vistula. Napoleon then issued a proc- 
lamation to the Poles, in the name of Kosciuszko, in which the people were urged 
to take up arms for freedom. The Poles made the greatest sacrifices, and strengthened 
the ranks of the French with brave soldiers under General Dombrowski. Napoleon 

Jan. a. isoi. entered Warsaw amid the shouts of the people, but did nothing to 
satisfy their longing for independence. Murderous battles were now fought on the 

jpe6. s. isov. banks of the Vistula, but the great battle was that of Eylau, where 
the courage of the French, Russians, and Prussians alike was sublime and the slaughter 
appalling. Both sides claimed the victory, and the exhaustion of all was so great, that 
the war was not resumed till four months later. The Prussian king was anxious for 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



603 



peace, but the negotiations led to no result. Finally, his Silesian fortresses were taKen 
may. as. by the French, and even Danzig was surrendered. The King then de- 
spaired of success, and when the French defeated the Russians in the battle of Fried- 
jr«»e i*. land, and occupied Konigsberg, the allied monarchs determined upon 
a personal interview with Napoleon at Memel, in which they agreed to the peace of Til- 
si<iy?-o. sit. Frederick William lost the half of his dominion, all the lands be- 
tween the Rhine and the Elbe. He consented also to the founding of the duchy of 
Warsaw, and to the erection of Danzig into a free city. He was obliged, moreover, 
to pay to the French Emperor $120,000,000. The territory ceded by Prussia was united 
with Brunswick ; Hesse and South Hanover were formed into the kingdom of West- 




MURAT AT EYLAU. (G. Delort.) 

phalia, of which Cassel was made the capital. This kingdom was given to Napoleon's 
youngest brother Jerome. 

§ 514. Austerlitz and Jena broke the power of Austria and Prussia. The fate 
of Europe now depended upon France, England, and Russia. All three recognized 
one right only, that of self-defence, as was soon shown in Sweden and in Denmark. 
King Gustavus IV. of Sweden, at the instigation of England, continued the war alone 
against Napoleon. His obstinacy, and his over-estimate of his powers, indicated a 
disordered mind. He refused Napoleon, the imperial title, and called him always 
treneral Bonaparte, and he believed that he was called by Providence to restore the 
bourbons, that Napoleon was the beast described in Revelation whom he, Gustavus, 



604 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

was appointed to overthrow. Nevertheless, the French conquered Stralsund, while 
the Russians invaded Finland. Meanwhile the French emperor was trying to destroy 
British commerce, by his continental blockade. This made the Swedish war of great 
importance for the English ; the French might get possession of the Baltic, and shut 
off English ships from the Baltic coast. They offered Denmark their alliance, but 
sept, us, iso7. this was refused. An English fleet thereupon bombarded Copenhagen, 
reduced a part of the city to ashes, and carried off the Danish fleet. Denmark was so 
embittered, that she allied herself to France, declaring war upon the English and 
their ally, the Swedish king. Alexander also had joined Napoleon at the famous 
meeting in Erfurt, where four kings and thirty-four princes were present. The two 
emperors agreed with each other, that Napoleon should conquer Spain, and Alexander, 
Finland, Moldavia, andWallachia. Sweden was now threatened from all sides bj r the 
Russians, by the Danes, and by the Spanish troops that were serving under Napoleon. 
And though the Swedish army was in a wretched condition, the stubborn king refused 
all terms. This led to a conspiracy in Stockholm and in the army, in consequence of 

jittmh is, 1800. which, Gustavus IV. was made a prisoner, and deprived of his throne. 

The revolution was followed by a peace, in which Finland was ceded to the Russians, 
Aug. m, isio. and finally the Marshal Bernadotte was made the adopted son of Carl 
XIII., and ascended the throne of Sweden as Carl XIV. Gustavus IV. was permitted 
to go to Germany, and under the name of Colonel Gustavson, he lived an uncertain 
life, separated from his family, and in voluntary poverty, until he died in 1837. 

4. The Peninsular War. 

§ 515. Intoxicated by his success, Napoleon advanced continually to new under- 
takings. Like his model, Carl the Great, he determined to unite the South and West 
of Europe into a great empire, under the control of France. To that end he sought 
to annex the Spanish peninisula and to bring all Italy under his control. He de- 
manded of Portugal that she should renounce her alliance with England, and exclude 
British ships from her harbors. The court of Lisbon refused. Napoleon thereupon 
obtained the support of Godoj r , the powerful favorite of the Spanish king and queen, 
and then sent Marshal Junot, with an army, through Spain into Portugal. The 
frightened King at Lisbon fled with his treasures to Brazil, whereupon Junot was ere- 
now. 3©, lso-i. ated Duke of Abrantes, ordered to take possession of the whole land 
Feb. i, isos. in the name of his Emperor, and to proclaim that the "•House of Brag- 
anza had ceased to rule." Godoy, the Spaniard, who had neither virtue, merit, nor talent, 
who had become absolute ruler in Spain onlj r b}' the favor of the immoral queen, and 
the impotent king Charles IV., now betrayed his country into the hands of Napoleon. 
Spanish troops, under La Romana, entered the Emperor's service to fight against the 
Swedes, while French soldiers occupied Spain. But the Spanish people became rest- 
less; tumults arose in Madrid, in which the palace of the hated favorite was plundered, 
starch, isos. and he himself threatened with death. The feeble king, Charles IV. 
alarmed by these events, abidicated in favor of his eldest son, Ferdinand, whom the 
people loved, because of his opposition to Godoy. But although Ferdinand humbly 
sought from Napoleon a confirmation of this change, seeking at the same time to 
marry one of Napoleon's relatives, the French ruler sent Marat to occupy Madrid, and 
then invited Ferdinand, with his parents, to an interview with himself and Godoy. 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



605 



Ferdinand went to Bayonne, in spite of the remonstrances of his friends, and the 
reluctance of his people. But the Spanish family was soon involved in the web of 
Napoleon's intrigues. Charles IV. revoked his abdication, and made over the crown 
to Napoleon and his family. Ferdinand had not the courage or the intelligence to 
protest. In the enjoyment of a pension, he took up his residence in France, while 
Charles IV., with his family, settled down in Rome. Joseph Bonaparte was now made 

jwne e,iso8. king of Spain. A Cortes-constitution was adopted. The judicial and 
administrative systems were improved.- But the dreadful insurrection in Madrid in 
which 1200 French soldiers were slain, showed that the nation itself would not sub- 
mit so easily to foreign rule as the impotent dynasty had done. 

§ 516. Before Joseph 
had entered Madrid, 
Juntas were formed in 
different cities, which 
undertook the conduct 
of affairs, and refused 
obedience to the new 
king ; these were de- 
fended by armed bands 
called Guerillas, who 
made continual war Vis 
upon the French troops.- f^l 
The more cultivated 
citizens were reconciled %* 
to the new order, as it 
gave them more free- . > 
dom than they had 
known under the ab- 
solute monarchy and 
priestly rule, but the 
great mass of the peo- 
ple followed their 
clergy, to whom the 
French were a terror. 
Napoleon's army was 
strong enough to keep 
the King and his minis- 
ters in Madrid, but their authority went no further than the French bayonets. 
The more distant cities and districts either followed the Juntas, or acted independently, 
yet Spain, in these stormy years, was really saved by this anarchy, in-asmuch as each 
city and district must be conquered separately. All Europe looked in astonishment 
upon the struggle of a people who marched bravely to death for their nationality and 
independence, for their old customs and religious usages, for their belief and their 
traditional institutions. The Guerillas avoided open conflict. Their strength con- 
sisted in surprises and petty warfare, and while the French were wearing out their 
forces in scattered fights, and besieging well-defended cities, the English began their 




f]W/AT. 



JOSEPH BONAPARTE. 



606 



THE EE.A OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



first successful war against Napoleon. In the beginning, the French arms were victor- 

stay i-t, isos. ious. The undisciplined troops of the Spanish were defeated at Rio 

Cecco by Bessieres, but Dupont was forced to surrender his twenty thousand Frenchmen 




THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON. 



suiy **. in Andalusia. This great victory filled the Spanish with enthusiasm ; 
king Joseph abandoned Madrid, the French armies retreated across the Ebro. The 




THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. ( C. Delort.) 



(pp. but., 



608 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

English, under Wellesley (Wellington) and other generals, would have captured the 
Aug. 30, isos. entire French army, if the capitulation of Cintra had nuv given 
to Junot's troops a free passage back to France. 

§ 517. Napoleon himself now marched at the head of an army into Spain to re- 
deem the French cause. The insurgent troops were soon defeated, so that, after four 
j> ec . 4, isos. weeks, the Emperor could reinstate his brother Joseph in Madrid. 
While Napoleon was seeking to win over the Spaniards by mingled conciliation and se- 
verity, his generals were fighting bloody battles with the Guerillas and the English 
Fen. ao, tsoo. armies. Saragossa was taken after a desperate resistance. General 
sun, *s, tsoo. Moore was killed, and although Wellington won the battle of Talavera, 
he was nevertheless compelled to keep within the boundaries of Portugal. Seville 
and Andalusia fell into the hands of the French, but the Spaniards would not yield ; 
the central Junta removed to Cadiz, which defied all attacks; and the Spanish general, 
La Romana, now escaped from Denmark with his troops, to take charge of the war 
against Napoleon. The new war with Austria called the Emperor away from Spain, 
but he left behind him a numerous army, consisting chiefly of German troops. At 
the close of the Austrian campaign, this was increased to 300,000 men, and under the 
command of the ablest French generals (Soult, Massena, Ney, Marmont, MacDonald), 
marched through the peninsula in all directions ; but their victories only intensified 
the hatred of the Spanish people. Petty warfare became assassination ; the greatest 
achievements of Napoleon's warriors, their fatiguing marches through mountains and 
ravines, their sieges and their storms, did not give them possession of the land. Mas- 
jan-iucay, 1811. sena's daring campaign to Portugal was brought to naught by the 
sharp-sighted Wellington, who erected the lines of Torres Vedras, against which the 
French shattered their strength in vain. Massena was compelled to retreat ; the Em- 
peror removed him in a fit of rage, and gave the command of the Spanish army to 
Marshal Soult. Meanwhile the Cortes assembled in Paris, and proclaimed a new 
constitution, known as the Constitution of the Year 12. This destroyed forever 
absolute monarchy and priestly authority in Spain. But the Spanish clergy made ifc 
hateful to the Spanish people. 

§ 518. The Russian campaign of 1812 compelled the Emperor to reduce the 
SjDanish army. Wellington thereupon marched into Spain, supported by the Gueril- 
jui v an, i8i3. las ; the British armies were soon victorious. Marmont was defeated 
at Salamanca by Wellington. The English entered Madrid and drove out the French 
king. Suchet and Soult, brave and rapacious, were still victorious, and Joseph was 
able once more to occupy his uncertain throne, but the terrible catastrophe of the 
Russian campaign demoralized the French armies in the Spanish peninsula, and Joseph 
was compelled once more to leave. After defeating the French at Vittoria, Welling- 
June xi, i8i3. ton pursued them across the Pyrenees, but was stoutly resisted by 
Marshal Soult. On the 10th of April, 1813, while the allies were encamping in Paris, 
the Marshal defended himself against Wellington with great energy at Toulouse, al- 
though compelled to retreat by superior numbers. Napoleon's overthrow restored 
Ferdinand VII. to the Spanish throne. 

§ 519. The Imprisonment of the Pope. When the Pope refused to close the 
harbors of the papal state to the English ships, and to form an alliance with France, 
Napoleon subjected him to d series of insults, and annexed a part of his territory to the 



THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 609 

Italian kingdom. But the steadfast pontiff neither bent nor broke. On the contrary, 
in the second war against Austria, he allied himself with the enemies of the French em- 
peror. Napoleon thereupon decreed the abolition of the temporal power of the Pope, 

may ie, 1800. and when the holy father excommunicated him, he carried him away 
jiiiw o. from Rome, exiled the cardinals, and annexed the States of the Church 

to French territory. Pius VII. lived in different cities, until he was finally ordered 
to reside in Fontainebleau. When he stubbornly refused to fill the vacant bishoprics, 
or to perform any act of ecclesiastical authority as long as he remained in captivity, 
and was deprived of the council of the cardinals, Napoleon was compelled to more 

jr««. 25, is™, arbitrary measures. But the Pope was finally induced, in a personal 
interview with the Emperor, to make important concessions. Yet the course of events 
soon released the head of the church, and restored his temporal sovereignty. 

5. The Second Austrian War. Hofer. Schill (1809). 

§ 520. Napoleon's violence in Italy and his growing influence in Germany,. 
startled Austria. The Vienna cabinet determined to try again the fortune of war. 
The Spanish uprising, the discontent with the European blockade, the movements in 
North Germany seemed to indicate that the hour of Austria had struck, that now was 
the time to recover her lost power, and to break the foreign tyranny. But the magic of 
the Napoleonic name was all too powerful. The princes of the Rhine Confederation still 
strengthened the French army with their troops, and the soldiers of South Germany 
poured out their blood for a foreign ruler in a struggle against their own country- 
men. In April the Austrian armies, under the Arch-duke Carl, marched into Bavaria 
1809. and Italy. But Napoleon marched along the Danube, forcing his ene- 

Api-u 10-2-t, mies across the Inn, and invading Austria for a second time. On the 
1808. 10th of May he was at the gates of Vienna, and in three days he en- 

tered it as a conqueror. Just below Vienna, where several bridges spanned the Dan- 
ube, the French armies attempted to get across. But in the two days' battle of As- 
Mati 21-22. pern and Essling, they were compelled to abandon the project. Fifteen 
thousand French soldiers covered the battle-field, and for the first time, the belief in 
j«»ie 14,. Napoleon's invincibility was shaken. Not until reinforcements arrived 
from Italy could the French army get across the river. The Arch-duke Carl was then 
juiy 5-e. defeated in the great battle of Wagram, and compelled to retreat. 
The loss on both sides was about equal, but it was plain that the French no longer 
possessed their former mastery in the field. Nevertheless, Austria concluded hastily 
juiy m. the truce of Znaim, with a view to permanent peace. 
§ 521. This truce was disastrous to the Tyroleans. These mountaineers held 
with fidelity to Austria, and had risen to throw off the rule of Bavaria, to which the 
Tyrol had been ceded in the peace of Pressburg. Confident of Austrian help, they 
seized their muskets and attacked the French from the heights and defiles of their 
mountains. Their chief was Andreas Hofer, a man of great strength and bravery, 
beloved for his piety and his patriotism. A terrible conflict ensued. The Bavarians 
abandoned the Tyrol, and Hofer took possession of Innsbruck. The truce of Znaim 
oct. 14, i8oo. made the insurgents irresolute, without ending the struggle. But the 
peace of Vienna, in which Austria lost 50,000 square miles and 3,000,000 inhabitants, 
took from the Tyroleans all hope of aid. The Bavarians and the French marched into 
39 



610 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Feb. 20, tsto. the country. Innsbruck fell to Bavaria. Most of the leaders fled, but 
Hofer was captured and shot in Mantua. The Tyrol was divided into three parts. 
§ 522. During the second Austrian war, other parts of Germany attempted to 
April, isio. shake off the foreign yoke. An attempt was made to overthrow the 
King of Westphalia. This failed. Mayor von Schill, with a troop of volunteers, 
sought to stir up the people of North Germany against the French. Schill was driven 
into Stralsund, whence he expected to escape to England ; but he and his companions 




the last call to arms. (Franz Def?-egger.) 



may 31, isoo. were either slain or taken prisoners, and the prisoners sent to the 
galleys or shot. Duke William of Brunswick was more successful. Scorning the 
truce of Znaim, he fought his way through hostile lands and armies to the North Sea, 
and escaped to England. Staps, a lad who attempted to assassinate Napoleon, was 

oct. 12, iso». seized and put to death. But in Prussia the high-minded Baron 
Stein was making preparations of another fashion. Patriotic men were now in charge 
of affairs, and Stein was seeking to elevate both citizen and peasant, the former by in- 
troducing new municipal institutions, the latter by the creation of peasant freeholds 







612 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

and the abolition of serfdom. He introduced also liberty of trade, and abolished many 
mediaeval privileges. In a word, he established civil equality, which he regarded as 
the pillar of any permanent throne. Stein's leading principle was the emancipation 
of energy, the removal of all fetters upon the freedom of property and of person. He 
sought to promote industry, to awaken the sense of community, and to have all men 
££& participate in the welfare of the nation. His 

reforms made it possible for the Prussian state 
to recover from the terrible calamity of Jena. 
Scharnhorst reorganized the army. He intro- 
,,-' duced universal service, opened to all the pos- 
" sibilities of rank, and abolished all degrading 
^ punishments. The King, it is true, was soon 
isos. compelled to sacrifice Stein to 

the hatred of Napoleon, but Stein's creations 
remained, and are the foundation upon which 
modern Prussia rests. His successor, Harden- 
berg, followed his principles as much as pos- 
sible, and the " Union of Patriots," to which 
the noblest men of the country belonged, as 
'''.^^^sm^^^^^^^^^^^ we ll as tue ne "' University of Berlin, nourished 
Ferdinand von schill. anf l strengthened patriotic feeling, especially 

among ambitious youth. 
§ 523. The French Umpire at the Climax of Its Power. Napoleon was now tor- 
mented by the thought that he was without an heir. He therefore put aside the Em- 
.Dee. xs, isoo. press Josephine, alleging a defect in their marriage, and wedded 
Marie Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. On the 2nd of April, 1810, "the 
daughter of the Caesars," whose train was carried by five queens, became his wife. 
In the next year, a son was born to the Emperor, who was given the title King of 
Rome. But Napoleon's pride and ambition drove him to new acts of violence. An- 
nexations and exchanges of land were without end. The Continental Blockade was 
the despair of commerce and of industry. When King Louis of Holland sought to pro- 
tect the rights of his people, he was compelled to abdicate by his angry brother, and 
July o, isio. Holland was annexed to France. Hamburg, Bremen, Liibeck, the 
Duchy of Oldenburg, the lands between the Rhine and the Elbe were added to the 
French empire, which now controlled the entire coast of the North Sea, and numbered 
130 departments. And Hamburg was occupied by French troops. Meanwhile, a 
terrible police system destroyed the last remnant of freedom, threatening every sus- 
pect with arrest and imprisonment. Caprice, passion, and tyranny, took the place of 
right and law. Blockade, oppressive taxation, conscription, were the burdens imposed 
upon the allied countries, while hostile peoples were oppressed with forced loans and 
quartered troops. 

6. The War Against Russia (1812.) 

§ 524. The extension of the French empire to the coast of the Baltic and the 
taking away of his land from the Duke of Oldenburg, a near relative of the Russian 
Czar, destroyed completely the friendship between Alexander and Napoleon, which 



GI4 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



was already greatly shattered by the enlargement of the duchy of Warsaw, and by 
the intrigues leading to Napoleon's marriage. This ill-feeling was increased when the 
Russian government issued a new tariff, preventing the import of French goods. Both 
powers now equipped themselves for the desperate struggle. Russia made peace with 
the Turks, and formed an alliance with Bernadotte of Sweden, whom Napoleon had 
grossly injured. The French emperor, on the other hand, made an alliance with 
Prussia and Austria, and thereby increased his strength considerably. Alexander's 
demand that the French garrisons should evacuate Pomerania and Prussia, led to an 
immediate declaration of war. 

§ 525. In May, Napoleon appeared with the Empress in Dresden, where the 
ism. Princes of the Rhine, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of Prussia, 

united to do honor to the 
mighty man who had sum- 
moned half Europe to the 
war against Russia. After 
ten days' delay among the 
princes, Napoleon hastened 
to his army of half a mil- 
lion men. This army was 
scattered between the Vis- 
tula and the Niemen, with 
its thousand cannon and 
its 20,000 wagons. The 
left wing, composed oi 
Prussians and Poles, was 
commanded by MacDon- 
ald, and was stationed on 
the Baltic coast ; the right, 
which consisted of the 
Austrians under Schwart- 
zenberg, and of a French 
and a Saxon division, con- 
fronted the Russian Army 
of the South. The main 
army, commanded by Napoleon himself, marched into Wilna. The 
appearance of the French aroused the Poles to wild hope and warlike enthusiasm. 
The diet of Warsaw proclaimed the restoration of the kingdom of Poland. But this 
was not to Napoleon's mind. He prohibited an uprising, and declared that out of re- 
gard to Austria, he could not consent to the re-establishment of the Polish Republic. 
Nevertheless Polish soldiers followed the imperial eagles, and the Polish people sup- 
suiu- ported the foreign troops, which were now marching from Wilna to 

Witepsk. The rains were terrible, and hundreds perished of fatigue. Moscow, the 
heart of Russia, was Napoleon's goal. But the ways were impassable ; his supplies 
did not reach him ; the land could not support his troops ; diseases thinned out the 
ranks of the array, and filled his hospitals with helpless soldiers. 

§ 526. The Russian generals, Barclay de Tolly and Bagration, carried on the 




MARIE-LOUISE. 



June. 




(pp. 615.) 



RETREAT FROM MOSCOW. ( C. Delort.) 



616 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



war in Parthian fashion, avoiding a pitched battle, and enticing the Emperor into the 
heart of the country. Not until he reached Smolensk, did the troops engage ; where, 

.4tf». 17, ism. after fighting the whole day, the Russians withdrew in the night, 
having set fire to the city. In Smolensk, Napoleon called a council of war, and in 
spite of his generals' advice, he determined upon the conquest of Moscow, where he 
expected to winter. The Russians, on the other hand, complained of Barclay's inac- 
tivity, as the ancient Romans complained of Fabius. Alexander consequently ap- 
pointed Kutusoff to command the army. This general was a native Russian devoted 
to the Greek religion and to old Russian customs, and accordingly very popular 
among the masses. He certainly (they thought) would never permit the Holy City 
of Moscow, with its countless towers and gilded domes, to fall into the hands of the 

sept. 7, ism. French. He halted the army, and delivered battle at Borodino, where 
the French maintained 
possession of the field, 
while the Russians re- 
tired in good order. 
Over 70,000 dead and 
wounded covered the 
scene of conflict. Ney, 
the Prince of Muscovy, 
was the hero of the day. 
On the 14th of Septem- 
ber, the French entered 
Moscow. The nobility 
and the wealthy had 
already left. When the 
French army inarched 
through the streets, the}" 
were startled to discov- 
er only a few vagrants. 
But what was their hor- 
ror, when the city broke 
into flames, and for four 
days, all was converted 

sept, is, i8i2. into a sea of fire! The commander of the city, Rostopt-schin, had 
ordered the conflagration without the Czar's command, thinking to deprive the 
grand army of winter quarters, and to compel a disastrous retreat. Forgetting all 
discipline, the soldiers plunged into the burning houses, to satisfy their greed and 
their passions. 

§ 527. The Russians were bent upon a war of destruction, yet Napoleon re- 
mained thirty-four days in Moscow, hoping for peace, and refusing to see that Kut- 
usoff was holding him off, until the winter-cold might enable him to destroy utterly 
Oct. a*. the retreating army. Not until October was the command given for 
the disastrous retreat. After destroj'ing the Kremlin, the army proceeded to Smo- 
lensk. In November the cold was ten degrees below zero, and later on it reached 
thirty. Hunger, frost, and fatigue made more victims than the bullets of the Rus- 




MARSHAL NEY. 




CROSSING THE BERESINA. 



(pp. 617.) 



618 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



sians, and the lances of the Cossacks. Thousands of starving and freezing soldiers 
strewed the highways and the fields. Kutusoff issued a proclamation, ascribing the 
burning of Moscow to the French, thus stirring up the people to bitter hatred against 
the retreating foe, and compelling the latter to fight at every step. Smolensk was 
reached by the middle of November, and the army counted at that time but forty thou- 
sand active combatants. Thirty thousand unarmed stragglers followed in their wake, 
without discipline, order, or commanders, the picture of misery and horror. Arrived 
in Smolensk, the expected supplies of clothing, food, and arms were not to be found, 
while the enemy appeared in ever increasing numbers. Ney, "the bravest of the 
brave," brought up the rear guard. His passage of the Dnieper, in the night, was 




BURNING OF MOSCOW. GRAND ARMY LEAVING KREMLIN. ( C. Delort.) 

one of the boldest achievements recorded in human history. On the 25th of Novem- 
ber, the army arrived at the river Beresina. Two bridges were erected in sight of the 
enemy, and the little remnant passed over, amid countless dangers. But eighteen thou- 
sand stragglers fell into the hands of the foe. How many were drowned in the ice- 
cold waters of the river, or trampled to death in the rush, no man could tell! At the 
irov. 2B-29, 1812. passage of the Berasina, Napoleon had eight thousand active soldiers 
left. Ney was the last man to cross; half of Europe was in mourning. On the 3rd 
of December Napoleon published the famous twenty-ninth bulletin, which informed 
the anxious nations, who had been for months without news, that the Emperor was 
safe, but the great army was annihilated. Two days later, he turned over the com- 
mand to Murat, and hastened to Paris to levy new recruits. 




D. DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EM- 
PIRE AND ESTABLISHMENT OF 
NEW CONDITIONS. 

I. THE GERMAN WAR OF LIBERATION AND DOWNFALL OF 

NAPOLEON. 

§528 

HIS is the beginning of the end," Tal- 
leyrand is reported to have said of 
the Russian campaign : and the saying 
soon proved to be true. An oppres- 
sive conscription filled up the gaps 
in the French army, but the faith in 
Napoleon's invincibility had vanished, 
and the raw undisciplined recruits 
were of little use against an enemy, 
exulting in their recent victories and 
glowing with patriotic zeal. As early as the 
30th of December, the Prussian general 
York, who was stationed on the Baltic coast 
i8i2. under MacDonald, made an agreement 

with the Russian commander-in-chief Diebitsch, and with 
his troops withdrew from further conflict. This act was, to be sure, publicly disavowed 
in Berlin, but the king's journey to Breslau, where many patriotic men gathered about 
isi3. him, was the first step toward an alliance with Russia, which was agreed 

upon in February under the active influence of Stein. The outrageous treatment of 
Prussia had created such a hatred toward the foreign tyranny, that the King's " Call to 
Mareh ii. my people " urging them to volunteer against the French, produced an 
incredible enthusiasm. Striplings and men alike abandoned their ordinary avocations 
and their homes to take part in the liberation of the Fatherland ; students and teachers 
left their lecture rooms, public officers their desks, young noblemen the paternal es- 

(619) 




620 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



May 2. 

May 20. 

1813. 



tate, and seizing musket and knapsack, took their places as privates in the same rank 

with the artisan, who had just come from his workshop, and with the peasant who had 

starciiio. exchanged the plow for the sword. The order of the Iron Cross 

march 2s. founded on the birthday of Queen Louise was a spur to the brave, and 

i8i3. the proclamation of Kalisch, calling upon them to struggle for the 

rights, the freedom, and independence of all the states of Europe, filled them with hope 

and expectation. 

§ 529. The allied monarchs sought the support of the king of Saxony, but Fred. 
erick Augustus resisted their urgent entreaties ; gratitude for so many proofs of favor 
and confidence given him by Napoleon and fear of his wrath kept him faithful to the 
French emperor. He placed his dominions, his fortresses, and his troops at the dispo- 
sal of his mighty ally, and thus Saxony became the theatre of the war. In the first 
battle at Liitzen and Bautzen, the French held the field and drove 
their adversaries across the Oder, but the courage of the young German 
warriors taught the enemy that another spirit than that of Jena had 

come upon the Prus- 
sians. Here Scharn- 
horst received his mor- 
tal wound, and among 
the thousands who 
lay dead upon the 
field was Napoleon's 
friend and favorite 
Duroc. The death of 
the latter filled Napo- 
leon with gloomy fore- 
bodings, but pride and 
arrogance carried him 
forward. In vain did 
Prince Metternich at- 
tempt to mediate a 
peace. Napoleon re- 
fused to cede the small- 
est portion of the con- 
quered land. Austria 
now declared war upon 
France. The battle of 
Dresden followed. Na- 
poleon was, however, 
more and exulted to see his old rival Moreau, who had been 
brought from America by the Emperor Alexander, carried dying from 
the field. But the fruits of the victory at Dresden were destroyed, 
first by a victory of Bliicher in the battle of Katzbach ; second by 
the capture of the French General Vandamme with his whole army, at 
the battle of Kulm ; third, by the splendid achievements of the united 
Prussian and Swedish army which prevented the taking of Berlin by the French; 




'™»M 



victorious once 

Aug. 86-23 
2813. 

.lug. 26. 

-lug. 30. 

Sep. 6. 



Mi$e» 



PRINCE METTERNICH. 



622 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Aug. «j. and fourth, by the engagement at Hagelberg, where the Landwehr beat 
down the enemy with bayonets and the butts of their muskets ; and a few weeks 
after this the Silesian army was united with the army of the north, Count York having 
Oct. s. crossed the Elbe in sight of the enemy and wrung from him a glori- 

ous victory at Wartenburg. 

§ 530. The princes of the Rhine Confederation now began to abandon Napoleon, 
Bavaria concluding an alliance with Austria. In October the armies concentrated in 
front of Leipzig; the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenberg, who commanded the en- 
tire allied force, the Russians under Barclay, Bennigsen and others; the Prussians un- 
der Bliicher; the Swedes under Bernadotte. The allied troops numbered three hun- 
dred thousand men, the army of Napoleon only one hundred thousand. The allies, 
however, were weakened by the want of harmony among their leaders. Yet Napoleon 

October developed in vain the genius which had hitherto proved so wonderful. 
19, it, is, His bravest generals Ney, Murat, Augereau, MacDonald deployed in 
i8ia. vain their forces ; the three days battle of Leipzig was the grave of 

the French empire. After a terrible loss Napoleon abandoned the city on the morn- 
ing of the 19th of October. The premature destruction of the Elster bridge gave 
twelve thousand able-bodied warriors into the hands of the victors, to say nothing of 
the great number of sick and wounded who died for lack of care and in indescribable 
suffering. Pursued by the allies, the French hastened by forced marches to the Rhine ; 
their way was blocked by the Bavarians and Austrians, but the dying lion in the battle 
oct.3o,3i. of Hanau, once more displayed his might, and in a brilliant victory 
opened for his army the way to the river. Then followed, in quick succession, the dis- 
solution of the kingdom of Westphalia, the return of the Elector of Hesse and of the 
Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg to their states, the imprisonment of the king of 
Saxony, and the abolition of the Rhine Con- 
federation. Dalberg gave up his grand duchy. 
Frankfort and Wurtemburg, Baden, and Hesse- 
Darmstadt made treaties with Austria and- 
turned their troops over to the allies. Only in j^ 
Hamburg were the French able to hold out. U 
There they remained till May 1814, exacting 
from the city the most oppressive contributions. 
The king of Denmark was punished for his at- ; 
tachment to Napoleon with the loss of Norway, s=li 
which, in the treaty of Kiel, was given over to . 

j«». i4, i8i4. Sweden. The like happened ; : >t§§|| 
in Italy. The Viceroy Eugene, after a brave i|§|§|§ 
struggle, abandoned the regions of the Po to 
the Austrians and joined his father-in-law in 
Bavaria. The Grand Duke Ferdinand returned 
to Tuscany, and the sorely tried Pope Pius VII gebhard lebrecht von blucher. 
received back the states of the Church. Naples alone remained for a while in the 
hands of Murat, who having quarreled with Napoleon, had allied himself to Austria. 

§ 531. The. allied monarchs, with their ministers and generals, held a council at 
Frankfort, at which they appointed Stein provincial chief of the conquered lands, and 




DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



623 



offered the French emperor peace if he would be satisfied with the Rhine as the French 
frontier. But they were soon convinced by the preparations and conscriptions of Na- 
poleon that he was determined to try the fortune of war once more. They therefore 
jran. i, isi-t, crossed the Rhine. On New Year's night Bliicher, with his talented 
chief of staff, Gneisenau, crossed the river with the Silesian army at various points be- 
tween Manheim and Coblentz, while Schwartzenberg with the main army marched into 




THE ALLIED FORCES ON THE ROAD TO PARIS. 

southeast France through Switzerland. A second Prussian army under Riilow deliv- 
ered Holland meanwhile and restored the hereditary Stadtholder. The armies of Blii 
cher and Schwartzenberg united in Champagne and won the battle of La Rothiere, but 
Feb. t, the difficulty of supporting the two armies compelled their separation, 

isi4. Schwartzenberg moving along the Seine and Bliicher along the Marne. 

Napoleon was thus enabled to defeat the army of Bliicher and to force his retreat; 
then throwing himself suddenly upon the main army he defeated it and drove it back. 
rev. to. ts. The allies now sued for peace, and if Napoleon had been satisfied to 
surrender the conquered lands, he might easily have retained the French throne. But 
his demands increased with his good fortune ; he hindered negotiations with ambiguous 
and indefinite statements, until Bliicher, his irreconcilable enemy, was able to attack 
star, t-9, him and put him once more at a disadvantage. The negotiations were 
.now abandoned and the deposition of Napoleon determined upon. Another engage- 



624 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



inent at Arcis convinced the emperor that his diminished and exhausted army was no 
longer equal to the stalwart ranks of the enemy, and this conviction made him irreso- 
lute. While the allies were marching upon Paris, and his presence at the capital was 
highly necessary he wasted his time in bold but useless marches. The heroic fight of 
Match as. the national guard at Fere-Champenoise was the last splendid expres- 
sion of the old French military spirit. A few days afterward the enemy stormed 
Montmartre. Joseph, to whom Napoleon had entrusted the defence of the capital, now 




blucher's cavalry before paris. ( G. Delort.) 

abdicated in favor of" Mortier and Marmont, and retired with the empress and the re- 
gency to Blois. The two Marshals were soon compelled to yield to superior numbers 
jKarch.31, and the city was surrendered. The allies marched into Paris, and a 
lsi*. provisional government was established under the presidency of Tal- 

leyrand. This cunning diplomatist and master of intrigues now began to work in the 
interests of the ancient royal family, and sought, by urging the principle of legitimacy, 
to bring about the expulsion of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons.* 

*TIIE BOURBON FAMILY. 



THE GRANDSONS OF LOUIS XV. 



Louis XVI- 
U793 



■Marie Antoinette 
t!794 



Louis XVIII 
Count De Provence 
t!824 



Charles X. 

Count D'Artois 

11836 



Louis XVII 
Dauphin tl~95 



Marie Therese 
tl851 
Married 
Due D'Angouleme 



DucD'Angouleme 
t!8« 



Due De Barri 

Murdered 

13 Feb., 1820 



Henri V 

Due De Bordeaux 

Gomte De Chambord 

born 1820 

H883. 



DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



625 



2. End of the Napoleonic Rule and the Restoration. 

§ 532. Meanwhile Napoleon remained in Fontainebleau with his guard and his 
adherents, whose number was increasing daily. But he wavered in his purposes, till 
the news of Marmont's defection determined him to abdicate in favor of his son ; 
jLpra 4,181*. this conditional abdication was not accepted by the allied powers, and 
he could not continue the struggle because his nearest friends like Berthier, Ney and 
Oudinot had left him in order to worship the new sun. Napoleon thereupon sub- 
scribed to the unconditional act of abdication as framed by the allies. He received the 
Island of Elba as his property, with an annual income of two million francs and the 
right to surround himself with four hundred of his faithful guard. His consort, Marie 







ENTRY OF LOUIS XVIII INTO PARIS. 

Louise, received the Dukedom of Parma. On the twentieth of April Napoleon took 
leave of the grenadiers of his guard in the courtyard of Fontainebleau. On the fourth 
of May he landed at Elba, and soon afterward, to the rejoicing of the exhausted 
May so, isi4. nations, the first treaty of Paris was concluded, in which France 
received Louis XVIII as her king, with a new constitution and the frontiers of 1792. 
The foreign armies left the French territory, and the Congress of Vienna was convened 
to establish permanently the new order of things in Europe. 

§ 533. At this Vienna Congress emperors and kings, princes and nobles, and the 

s<„t. tsn. most famous statesmen of all nations were assembled to rejoice over 

/nne isis. their victory. The splendor and culture of all Europe was displayed 

in dazzling festivals, splendid balls and banquets ; and of festivities there was no end. 

40 



628 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS.. 



But to establish the new order was no easy task. Beneath all the dazzling festivities 
surged violent passions which threatened to destroy the work of peace. The restora- 
tion of the legitimate princes to their lost thrones, and the destruction of the republican 
constitutions, were two principles upon which all could easily unite. But the ques- 
tion of the division of the conquered lands, and of compensation for the allies, excited* 
envy, selfishness, and 
greed. Prussia de- 
manded the annexa- 
tion of Saxony, and 
Russia that of Po- 
land ; both demands 
were violently op- 
posed. The discord 
appeared to threaten 
another war, so that 
the armies were kept 
upon a war-footing. 
These events and the 
happenings in France 
at the same time 
awakened in Napo- 
leon fresh hopes. For 
the constitution given 
to the French people 
proved a poor defence 
against the reaction 

under Louis XVIII. L0UIS XVIIL (K Ron J at ^ 

The actions of the Bourbons soon showed that "they had learned nothing and forgot- 
ten nothing." The recollections of the Revolution and of the Empire were as far as 
possible effaced. The tricolor was exchanged for the Bourbon white. The old aris- 
tocrats treated the new nobility with scorn and arrogance, crowding them from the 
court circles, in which the haughty Count D'Artois, and the gloomy and vindictive, 
Duchess D' Angouleme (the daughter of Louis XVI), exercised the greatest influence. 
The guards were dismissed and their places filled by well-paid Swiss; the officers of 
the Grand Army were discharged with half pay; the Legion of Honor rendered con- 
temptible, by the distribution of countless decorations among the unworthy. Even 
the compact with the banished Emperor was broken. The clergy and the emigrants, 
who enjoyed especially the favor of the King, thought only of getting back their lost 
estates, and tithes, and feudal rights. 

§ 534. A mighty dissatisfaction took possession of the nation. The wish for a 
change seemed to spring up out of the ground, especially when a hundred thousand 
French soldiers returned home from their imprisonment or from foreign lands, and 
spread their enthusiasm for Napoleon into every corner of the country. - Meanwhile 
Napoleon was kept informed by his adherents, especially by Fouche, Davoust, Maret, 
and the Duchess of St. Leu, of the mistakes of the Bourbons and of the feelings of the 
people. He determined to try his star once more. With a hundred men he landed 





THE RETURN FROM ELBA. " SOLDIERS OF THE 5TH, DO YOU RECOGNIZE ME ? " ( C. Delort.) 

{ P1 ?. 627.) 



628 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



mar. 1,1815. on the south coast of France. With cunning and rapidly-distributed 
proclamations He soon won all hearts. The tri-color appeared everywhere ; the troops 
sent out to oppose him went over to him ; the citizens of Grenoble battered down 
their gates as he approached, and 




C**-:— i. S- <K 



aj o a ~, — *o 



-^POPkP-O 



Colonel Labedoyere, at the head of 
the garrison greeted him as chief. 
The enthusiasm was as great as in 
the days of his glorious victories. 
D'Artois rushed in vain to Lyons 
hoping to win the soldiers there. The 
cry "Vive l'Empereur " met him from 
all sides and when even Ney, who had 
once expected to bring the usurper 
in chains to Paris, went over to his 
former comrade, the Bourbons in mad 
confusion abandoned a second time 
their native land. Louis XVIII, 
with a few of his supporters, went to 
Jim-, ao, isis. Ghent, while Napo- 
leon took possession of the Tuileries 
and framed a new ministry. Thus 
began the dominion of the "Hundred 
Days." Clubs were re-established 
and the songs of the Revolution were 
heard again. But Napoleon had not 
laid aside his dislike of popular move, 
ments ; he too had "learned nothing 
and forgotten nothing." The im- 
perial throne with its splendor and 
its nobility he was determined to re- 
store. But the people would have 
none of it. The new constitution, 

June i. which was solemnly 

sworn to at a great festival in the 
Champs de Mai, did not satisf} r either 
their expectations or their demands. 

§ 535. The Vienna Congress, 
startled by these events, agreed finally 
upon the following territorial divi- 
sions. Austria received back East 
Galatia, the Tyrol, and Salzburgi 
with the kingdom of Lombard}', 
Venice, Dalmatia, and the Illyrian 
provinces added as compensation for Belgium and the western territory. The kingdom 
of the Netherlands was made, by uniting all the provinces of the Netherlands, under 
William of Orange as sovereign king. The Italian princes received back their posses- 



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630 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



sions ; the republic of Genoa was given to Sardinia, and the states of the church 
were restored. In Spain and Portugal also the old dynasties returned. The duke- 
dom of Warsaw was united to Russia as the kingdom of Poland, and received from 
Alexander a free constitution. Prussia received back the territory taken from her 
in the peace of Tilsit, together with Posen and Danzig, the half of the kingdom of 
Saxony, and important territories along the Rhine. 

Austria and Russia appeared inclined, at the beginning, to negotiate with Napoleon 
and to leave him or his son in possession of the French throne, especially as he prom- 
ised to observe the treaty of Paris, and not again to disturb the peace of Europe. But 
Talleyrand's activity and Murat's thoughtlessness determined otherwise. The usurper 
was proclaimed the " enemy of nations " and given over to public vengeance. Murat 
had joined the allies, and attacked the viceroy of Italy, but he felt that his conduct 

^pyss^ was unnatural, and a corres- 

pondence was opened be- 
tween Naples and Elba. 
Napoleon's landing and 
triumphal march were, for 
Murat, the signal for a new 
uprising. The Emperor 
warned him to be cautious, 
but without waiting for the 
development of affairs, he de- 
clared war upon Austria, and 
called the people of Italy to 
arms. But the battle of 
Tolentino decided against 
him. His army was dis- 
persed, and he fled to South- 
ern France, while the Aus- 
trians entered Naples, and 
restored the exiled Ferdi- 
nand. After the battle of 
Waterloo, Murat wandered 
along the French coasts, then 
escaped to Corsica, and undertook an expedition into Calabria, to stir up the people 
against Ferdinand. But he was easily overcome, and paid for his rashness with his 
death. On the 13th of October this daring soldier, who had risen by valor and 
fortune, from his poverty as the son of an inn-keeper, to the ruler of the most beau- 
tiful portion of Italy, was shot to death at Pizzo. 

§ 536. Napoleon's fate was decided earlier. The European powers armed a half 
million men to meet the returning exile. Napoleon inarched the soldiers, who hurried 
to him from all sides, into the Netherlands, to meet the armies of Wellington and of 
Bliicher. He encountered the Prussians at Ligny and forced them back, while Ney, 
at Quatrebras, withstood the forces of Wellington, consisting of English, Dutch, and 
Germans. At the battle of Waterloo, victory wavered long in the balance, and not 
until the Prussians, under Bliicher, arrived, were the French finally defeated. 




TALLEYRAND. {E. Ronjat.) 



632 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Grouchy failed to cut off the Prussians, or to hold them back, so that the French were 
finally driven from the field. The old guard, under General Cambronne, fell fighting 
at Mont St. Jean, their brave commander answering the summons of the enemy with 
the immortal cry, " The guard dies, but it never surrenders." Soult led Napoleon, 
pale and confused, from the battlefield. He hastened to Paris, but his old energy and 
powers of invention seemed to have deserted him. The flight was universal ; all the 
artillery fell into the hands of the enemy, and only a fourth part of the army escaped 
from the field. The battlefield of Waterloo had become the grave of the French Em- 
pire. 

§ 537. The chambers in Paris, at the instigation of Fouche, now demanded the 
abdication of Napoleon. Reluctantly the broken conqueror yielded to their demand. 

He abdicated in favor of his son Napoleon 
II., and fled to Roehefort, intending to go 
to America. But the English were in pos- 
session of the harbor, and trusting to the 
magnanimity of the British nation, he sought 
the protection of the English ship Bellero- 
phon. But the statesmen of England had 
no sympathy for the vanquished adventurer. 
They determined to send him, as a prisoner, 
to the island of St. Helena. On the 18th of 
oet. is, isis. October he arrived at the 
place of his exile, in the midst of the Pacific 
ocean. He lived there separated from his 
relatives, with a few faithful friends, until 
the 5th of May, 1821. The climate was 
unhealthy, and the strict supervision under 
which he was held, fretted away his strong 
spirit. A disease, inherited from his father, 
hastened his death. His ashes were brought 
to Paris in 1842, and buried in great pomp, in the Hotel des Invalides. 

§ 538. After the abdication of Napoleon, Fouche conducted a provisional gov- 
ernment. He agreed with Wellington and Bliicher, that no one should be punished 
juin is, isi.-,. for his past deeds or opinions, and then surrendered to them the capi- 
tal. A few days later, the Bourbons returned to the Tuileries, under the protection 
of foreign bayonets. The people were quiet and unsympathetic. The armies were 
dismissed, the Chambers dissolved, and a proscription list published, which deprived 
some men of their offices, drove some into exile, and condemned others, like Marshal 
Ney, to death. The allied monarchs resided, for a while, iu Paris, and assisted the 
Bourbons to establish the new order. Finally a second peace of Paris was agreed 
Nov. no, isis. upon, in which the French frontiers of 1790 were restored, all the 
stolen treasures of art and science returned to their former owners, 150,000,000 dol- 
lars war indemnity paid over to the allies, and seventeen fortresses surrendered to the 
allied arm}'. These fortresses were to be garrisoned by foreign troops, for at least 
three years. Labedoyere and Ney were condemned to be shot. This execution of the 
nee. 7, 1815. famous marshal, was looked upon as a violation of the agreement be- 




WELLINGTOX. 




ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON. 



(pp.633.) 



634 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION'S AND RESTORATIONS. 



tween Wellington and Fouche. Lavalette was also condemned to death, but rescued 
from prison by his faithful wife. The exiles consisted of the members of the Napole- 
onic family, the generals and statesmen who were with Napoleon at Waterloo, and fin- 
ally all the regicides, i. e., the members of the Convention, who voted for the death of 
Louis XVI. Fouche was included among these, and compelled to leave France. Car- 
not, Sieyes, and others did likewise. Berthier lost his mind, and threw himself from 
a balcony of the Castle at Bamberg. 





E. EUROPE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF 

THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY 

OF METTERNIOH. 



§539. 




I. THE HOLY ALLIANCE AND THE POSITION 
OF PARTIES. 



| HE Revolution and the military rule of Napoleon had 
visited European society, from its lowest to its highest 
forms, with the severest chastisement. Deeper reflection 
upon the progress of the Revolution, revealed the in- 
fluence of a higher power, that brings to naught humau 
pride, and punishes severely human wickedness. Re- 
ligious feeling entered once again the hearts of men, so 
that piety and Christian faith were once more dominant 
in upper circles. The three allied monarchs, Alexander 
of Russia, Frederick William III of Prussia, and Francis of Austria, under the influ- 
sept. up, isxs. ence of this feeling, established the Holy Alliance which was joined 
by all European sovereigns except the Pope and the King of England. The three 
rulers, without regard to the difference of their creeds, solemnly promised to live ac- 
cording to the words of holy writ, which commands men to love each other as 
brothers, to stand by each other in the bonds of a true and imperishable fraternity, to 
rule their subjects as loving parents, and to maintain religion, peace, and justice. But 
this ideally beautiful alliance soon became the instrument of a state-craft, which, under 
pretence of religion, attempted to exalt the absolute sovereignty of the prince and of 
the government, and to eradicate utterly the doctrine of popular sovereignty and the 
democratic and constitutional institutions depending upon it. This prostitution of 
Christianity to the purposes of reaction brought upon the Holy Alliance the reproach 
of hypocrisy and the hatred of the nations. 

(635) 



636 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



§ 540. Princes and governments strove in general for absolute monarchy and 
unlimited power. The people on the other hand were eager for constitutional forms. 
In England, where constitutional monarchy had been developed, the representatives of 
the people had control of the appropriations, had a share in the formation of the 
laws, and the right to inquire into the administration of the state. Representative 
government guarantees alike the dignity of the monarch, and the freedom and the 
rights of the people, and is therefore the best arrangement for a civilized state. Hence 
the European nations strove for the establishment, or for the extension of these con- 
stitutional forms of state, and public life was almost exclusively directed to constitu- 
tional systems and political progress. This led to the formation of two powerful 
parties of which the one (differently designated " aristocratic," " conservative " or 
" servile"), was determined to concede to the people the least possible, while the other 
•(" democratic," " liberal," or " radical ") sought to obtain for them the largest possible 
measure of right. The former opposed vigorously the introduction of constitutiona 




=sS^ C?£BS^teig 



MALTREATMENT OF THE BODY OF MARSHAL BRUNE. ( G. Deloi't.) 

forms or (where they had been introduced) sought to strip them of democratic ele- 
ments. The latter aimed to establish and to develop constitutional life, to increase 
"the rights of the people, and to organize a parliamentary system. The governments 
were as a rule in the hands of conservatives ; and the liberals were in opposition. Of 
the five great European powers, England and France only possessed a constitutional 
system. Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other hand, held fast to the absolute 
monarchy, — the two latter however convening the notables of the land for particular 
-and provincial affairs. In Germany, Italy, and the Spanish Peninsula, modern history 
is concerned chiefly with these constitutional struggles, in which sometimes the one and 
-sometimes the other political principle prevails. 

2. France. 

§ 541. The 'French kingdom shaken to its foundations by the events of the 
Revolution, experienced under the restoration a remarkable change of thought and 
feeling. The party of extreme Royalists (ultras, or as they were designated by their 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERXICH. 



637 



opponents " white Jacobins ") became so powerful that the king found it difficult to> 
maintain the constitutional guarantees. Instead of the free thinking antipathy of 
former days, the church looked with delight upon a religious fanaticism that passed all. 
bounds. This union of intense absolutism and religious zeal provoked cruelties that 
sept. 18X5. surpassed even the bloodiest events of the revolutionary era. At 
Marseilles, Toulon, Nimes, Toulouse, and elsewhere, furious and fanatical mobs fell 
upon the Protestants, Bonapartists and Republicans and murdered them by hundreds. 
In Avignon they shot down Marshal Brune and threw his body into the Rhone. In 
Toulouse when General Ramel sought to check the outrages of the Royalists he was- 
sacrificed to the popular rage. Murder, plunder, and conflagration were the order of 
the day. The murder of the Duke De 
Berri, the King's nephew, upon whom the 
hopes of the Bourbons rested, only fur- 
ies. 13, lsno. thered the efforts of the 
party of reaction at the head of which 
stood the Count D'Artois and the Duchess 
D'Angouleme. The king was compelled 
to dismiss the moderate ministry of De- 
cazes, and to consent to a limitation of 
personal liberty, freedom of the press, and 
the right of suffrage. The new ministry 
carried their royalistic zeal to the extreme. 
The chamber expelled the liberal deputy 
is23. Manuel for an expression of 
republicanism, and the army, commanded 
by the Duke D'Angouleme, crossed the 
Pyrenees, at the instance of the Holy 
Alliance, to restore absolute monarchy in 
Spain. 

§ 542. On the 16th of Sept. 1824, Louis XVIII. closed his life of trial and of 
change. Bitter experiences had taught him gentleness and moderation ; and the unbri- 
dled vehemence of the members of his family filled the heart of the dying monarch with 
gloom}' forbodings of the future. His brother Count D'Artois became king of France. 
jtiay no, 1825. By his solemn coronation in Rheims, Charles X. appeared to indicate 
that he intended to govern in the sense of the ancient "Most christian" kings. 
Accordingly he opened his heart to the nobility and to the clergy, giving out as a watch- 
word " The throne and the altar." The emigrants received, as compensation for their 
losses during the Revolution, a thousand million francs. A series of laws in the inter- 
est of the Church and the Christian religion, attested the purpose of the king to create 
a mighty breakwater against revolutionary ideas, by the regeneration of France. This- 
regeneration was to be accomplished by giving back to the clergy their former position 
of authority, by founding rich episcopates, by furthering the religious orders, and'by 
clothing ecclesiastical ceremonies with all the new Roman pomp. The Jesuits, who 
had been reorganized by the Pope, returned to France, albeit secretly. They established 
unions and sought to get the education of the j'outh into their power. But the king r 
through these measures, strengthened the liberal opposition, as all the men of philo- 




charles x. {Charles Duchesne.) 



638 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

sophical education, all the friends of light and of Science, turned away from a govern- 
ment that showed such favor to the men of darkness. While the blinded monarch 
believed that he could imprison the minds of the people by anachronistic pilgrimages 
or by intolerant laws and limitations, the new generation was listening eagerly to the 
bold words and teachings of the enlightened professors of the University of Paris 
(Guizot, Villemain, Royer-Collard), or reading the bold declarations of the libel press 
(The Globe, The National, The Constitutional), or rejoicing in B6ranger's "Songs of 
Freedom " or Courier's " Satires." The writings of Voltaire and of the Encyclopaedists 
were once more widely circulated, and the older citizens read with enthusiasm the 
numerous histories and memoirs of the Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire 
(Thiers, Mignet). 

3. — The Constitutional Struggles in the Spanish Peninsula and in Italy. 
§ 543. In Spain and in Italy the new political ideas had not penetrated to the 
people, for these were under the domination of the Priests. They lived only in the 
minds of the educated ; and when it became dangerous to acknowledge them they were 
propagated in secret societies, — by the Free Masons in Spain and in Portugal, and 
by the Carbonari in Italy. Diminution of the power of the priests, introduction of 
political freedom, the education of the people, and the development of patriotism, 
were the chief purposes of these societies. Their power was first revealed in Spain. 
Ferdinand VII. a treacherous, suspicious man, and a master of dissimulation, was no 

Mnu to, tai-t. sooner restored, than he overthrew the parliamentary constitution 
in Spain and brought back the absolute monarchy with all its mischief. Nobility and 
clergy were once more exempted from taxation, the cloisters, the Jesuits, and the In- 
quisition reappeared. A dreadful persecution assailed all the adherents of France, 
all who had held any office under Joseph or rendered him any service whatsoever, and 
even the chiefs and adherents of the Cortes, and the leaders of the bands who had 
poured out their heart's blood for king and country, and now claimed as a reward civil 
freedom and a share in the management of the State. Many of these heroes died upon 
the scaffold ; others wandered abroad as exiles and fugitives. Those who remained at 
home locked up their opinions and their dissatisfaction in their silent hearts. A 
number of court-favorites (Camarilla) consisting of fanatical priests, selfish court- 
flatterers, and intriguing women captured the confidence of Ferdinand, and urged him 
to a cruel persecution of all liberals. The administration of the State and of justice 
became most wretched. The royal treasury, in spite of the most oppressive taxation, 
was exhausted. The movement of trade and of industry was arrested. The South 
and Central American colonies declared and conquered their independence and estab- 
lished a number of republics. The war of Independence in South America is especially 
connected with the name of the Creole Bolivar, who died in 1830. 

§ 544. On New Year's Day 1820, certain regiments, collected in Cadiz and 

Jan. i, i8so. destined for South America, broke out in mutiny. Colonel Riego was 
the soul of this insurrection, but the conduct of it was intrusted to Quiroga, who had 
just been released from prison. It soon spread over all Spain. The constitution of 
the year 1812 was demanded everywhere, and the king was compelled to yield, to con- 
vene the Cortes, and to swear fidelity to the constitution. This victory of the Spanish 
Democrats inflamed the zeal of their comrades in Portugal and in Italy. Popular up- 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 639 

risings took place in Lisbon and Oporto, and the people demanded the removal of Lord 
Beresford (who governed the land in the name of the king yet absent in Brazil), and 
also the convening of the Cortes, and the introduction of a constitution like that newly 

jmi. 2e, last, given to the Spaniards. John VI. returned to Lisbon, and swore to 
support the new constitution for Portugal and Brazil. In Naples the Carbonari ex- 
cited a military insurrection, which progressed so rapidly that king Ferdinand was 

.riiiy i:j, isio. compelled to concede to the Neapolitans the Spanish constitution. 
William Pepe and Carrascosa, the chiefs of the insurrection, marched into NajDles in 
triumph at the head of the rebellious troops and their allies, the Carbonari. In Pied- 
mont also there was a revolutionary uprising against the priesthood, the aristocracy, 
March iasi. and the monarchy. In consequence of which Victor Emmanuel 
abdicated in favor of his brother Charles Felix, and the Spanish constitution was intro- 
duced into the kingdom of Sardinia. 

§ 545. The heads of the Holy Alliance, alarmed at this new revolutionary spirit, 
at the suggestion of Metternich, determined to put down the liberal movements. At 
j««. is2i. the Congress of Laibach, at which King Ferdinand of Naples was 
present as a guest of the other monarchs, it was determined to overthrow by force the 
constitution of his kingdom, and Ferdinand consented. An Austrian army invaded the 
■ri„ i<h is2i. land ; the troops of Pepe and Carrascosa were soon overpowered, 
whereupon the king abolished the constitution. The priesthood and the absolute 
monarchy now united, by means of mercenaries and paid police, to destroy every 
movement toward freedom and progress. This turn of affairs in Naples determined 
the fate of the constitution of Piedmont. Santa Rosa at the head of his enthusiastic 
liberals resisted, not ingloriously, at Novara, but abandoned by their secret patron, the 
Prince of Carignano, their strength was soon broken. Turin and Alessandria were 
taken by the Austrians, and absolute monarchy, in its strictest form, was restored in the 
kingdom of Sardinia. Upper Italy was overwhelmed by the reaction, and manj' a 
A»rti i82i. patriotic man like Pallavicino-Trivulzio of Milan and Silvio Pellico 
the poet, was doomed to long incarceration as prisoner of state. 

§ 546. The Spanish Cortes perished quite as ingloriously. For the liberals 
abused their victory, limited the royal authority most unwisely, and so assailed the 
monasteries and "the privileged class, that they excited the Priests and the adherents 
of absolute monarchy to a bloody struggle. Civil war threatened to destroy the 
oa. 1822. unhappy people. Thereupon the Holy Alliance required the Cortes to 
alter their constitution, and to concede to the king a larger authority. The Democratic 
party defiantly refused. Whereupon a French army crossed the Pyrenees. In vain 
the Cortes called the people to arms. Constitutional liberty had no meaning for 
masses led by Priests and Monks, and the new system was opposed to their habits and 
their feelings. The war of the people, the famous old Guerilla, in which the Cortes 
Feb. 1823. trusted, did not take place. The mob and the Camarilla greeted the 
French as the saviours of the country from the hateful tyranny of the Free Masons. 
A few leaders like Mina in Barcelona, and Quiroga in Leon resisted the foreign 
army courageously, but the soldiers showed little enthusiasm, and sought safety in sur- 
render. The French entered Madrid victoriously and, as the Cortes, with the king, 
had fled to the south, they proclaimed a regency. Cadiz was the last refuge of the 
friends of the constitution : the French now approached this fortified city. But the 



640 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



members of the Cortes, instead of being buried under its ruins (as they had declared), 
made a treaty with the besiegers ; agreeing to dissolve and to set the king at liberty. 
Ana- is, is23. Ferdinand VII. was once more in power, by the help of foreign bayo- 
nets; the constitution was annulled, and the apostolic party expended its rage upon 
their former enemies. Riego and many of his companions died by the hand of the 
executioner; thousands wandered without bread and home as exiles ill strange lands; 
a number quite as large expiated their love of liberty in damp prison cells, and died as 
victims of their effort to take from the people the institutions to which they had been 
habituated bj r three centuries of despotism. 




the French at Cadiz. (Paul Delaroche.) 

§ 547. This wretched issue of the Spanish constitution, incited the Queen of 
Portugal and her second son Dom Miguel to a similar enterprise. They induced the 
weak king John VI. to abolish the Cortes-constitution and to permit the persecution 
of the constitutionalists and the Free Masons. Soon afterwards Dom Miguel rebelled 
April i&24. against his own father so as to obtain a regentship, but failing was 
lssa. banished the country. John VI. died two years afterward. His oldest 

son Dom Pedro who, as constitutional emperor of Brazil, could not be at the same 
time king of Portugal, transferred the government of his mother-country to his daughter 
Donna Maria da Gloria, and gave the Portuguese a liberal constitution. To be sure 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 



641 



Dom Miguel, returning from exile, was soon able, with the help of the apostolic party, 
jrwne, is28. to overthrow this constitution. He deprived his niece of her right to 
the throne, proclaimed himself absolute monarch, and proceeded furiously with ban- 
ishment, imprisonment, and death against the friends and adherents of the constitu- 
tional system. But his government was of short duration. Dom Pedro gave the Bra- 
zilian crown to his son, landed in Portugal and, after two years of war, compelled his 
tyrannical brother to renounce the throne and to go into exile. Dom Pedro theie- 
sept. 2-t, isa-t. upon re-established the Cortes-constitution, but unfortunately he died 
soon after. And under the government of his daughter Donna Maria it underwent 
many changes and assaults. 

§ 548. England emerged from the long struggle with France victorious and power- 
ful. She had destroyed the fleets of other nations, and secured to herself the suprem- 
acy of the ocean. She had ex- 
tended her possessions in the West 
Indies, brought Canada to prosper- 
ity, established colonies in Western 
and Southern Africa and created 
an empire in India, greater ' than 
the kingdom at home, and destined 
to be a source of untold wealth. 
Distant islands, which had been 
discovered hy daring navigators 
like Cook, yielded obedience, while 
Gibraltar and Malta confirmed 
English authority in the Mediter- 
ranean. The Ionian islands, and 
the free navigation of the Darda- 
nelles, gave the English flag almost 
control of the Levant. The con- 
stitution of England awakened the 
envy of other nations, so carefully 
did it define the rights of the peo- 
ple and of the crown, and so firmly 
did it secure freedom of speech and 
of the press. Yet the English monarchy was not without great difficulties. In the 
first place wealth was distributed very unequally. The wars by sea and by land 
had been enormously expensive, the national debt had increased so greatly that the 
annual interest was $150,000,000. The expenses of the court were extravagant, 
salaries of officials were very large, appropriations increased so rapidly that the 
required means could be obtained only by taxing the necessaries of life, houses 
and lands, incomes, and commodities to the utmost. This brought about the de- 
struction of the small land-owner and the small trader. Estates were accumulated 
in the hands of a few, rents were raised to the point of oppression, and the corn- 
law prevented the import of foreign food-stuffs. Manufactures likewise came into 
the hands of a few rich capitalists, and the number of artisans who lived from hand 
to mouth increased to an alarming extent. The poor tax, and the subsidies of the 
41 




m ■ 




GEORGE TV. 




642 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Cfeovge IV. 



1830-1S30. 



/<>, 



government, did but little to diminish the misery. Insurrections were the natural 
consequence, but the working classes received no benefit. On the contrary, they 
were dispersed easily by military power. The bloody suppression of the uprising 
lsto. at Manchester by the government provoked great bitterness, and the 

lower classes began to agitate for political power. They demanded universal suf- 
frage, annual parliaments, and a secret ballot. They stated their principles in the 
people's charter, from which they were called Chartists. They failed of their im- 
mediate aim, but their agitation had great influence upon the repeal of the corn- 
laws in 1842. 

§549. In the second place, the political condition of England after the Napoleonic 
wars was one of apathy. George IV. had no sympathy with the people 
and trusted entirely to the Tories. The people repaid his indifference 
with hate, especially when he sought a divorce from his wife Caro- 
line of Brunswick. Castle- 
reagh, the boon companion 
of George, and the sup- 
porter of a false and faith- 
less system of politics, 
finally committed suicide. 
This greatly affected the 
is2n. King and 

drove him to retirement. 
Meanwhile, Canning, a 
really able statesman, 
lifted England once more 
to great renown. The 
Princess Charlotte, the bril- 
liant and amiable daugh- 
ter of George IV. died 
without children. He was 
therefore succeeded hy his 
wauam iv., brother Wil- 
is3o-is3-). liam IV., a 
simple, straightforward 
sailor. With him the 
Whigs came into power; 
their leaders were John Russell, Brougham and Palmerston. The most important polit- 
i83i. ical measure of this period was the reform of the Parliament, by means 

of which the rotten boroughs were destroyed, the parliamentary districts rearranged ac- 
cording to population, and the right of suffrage made dependent upon a definite income. 
This was a triumph of the middle classes over the aristocracy. It was soon followed by 
is33, the abolition of slavery in the colonies for which Wilberforce, Buxton 

and other philanthropists had labored for many years. The slaves in the colonies were 
given their freedom and the owners were granted compensation. The English there- 
upon sought to persuade other nations to do likewise, and especially to put an end to 
victoria, 1831. the slave trade. Upon the death of Willliam IV., Victoria, his niece 




M4: 



WILLIAM IV. 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 



643 



obtained the crown of England. She was married on the 10th of February, 
1840 to Prince Albert of Coburg. The first great measure of her reign was the 
repeal of the corn -laws, after a violent agitation, of which Richard Cobden was 




QUEEN VICTORIA. 



the leader. By a gradual process extending from 1846 to 1849 these laws, which 
laid enormous duties upon foreign breadstnffs, were gradually repealed, and in 1869 



644 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



they were finally removed. In a short time free trade, except in wines, spirits, and 
tobacco, became the settled policy of England. Although Australia, Canada, and other 
colonies are allowed to impose duty on imports from the mother country. 

§ 550. In the third place, Ireland is the wounded member in the English body 
politic. The two peoples, unlike in nature, religion, and institutions have never formed 
one nation, and the old feuds have been kept alive by the landlords, and by the clergy. 
Ireland is divided into numberless small farms, thousands of them not averaging five 
acres apiece. The peasants who work these farms are in many cases compelled to pay 
extravagant rents to their landlords, many of whom they have never seen. On the 
other hand the English clergymen were in possession of all the revenues of the Irish 
church, while the Catholic clergy must be supported by the people living in poverty, 
although the great majority of the Irish people are Catholic. Various uprisings were 

put down, but the peo- 
ple continued to rebel. 
Finally the emancipa- 
1829. tion act was 
passed which admitted 
Catholics to the English 
Parliament. Under this 
act Daniel O'Connell 
with forty followers en- 
tered Parliament and 
began to agitate for the 
repeal of the union, or 
the separation of Ireland 
from England. The 
failure of the potato 
crop, the outbreak of 
pestilence and of famine 
demanded immediate 
relief * and O'Connell 
found it easy to keep 
the land in an uproar 
and to unite all his coun- 
trymen in organizations- 
to promote repeal. The Catholic clergy supported him and his word became the 
law of Ireland. He demanded the abolition of the Church tithes, and when 
Parliament refused, the people would not pay them. The English resorted to 
violence and were opposed with violence. Mobs of armed men marched through the 
is33. land to plunder and to kill. A coercion bill was passed, and martial law 

proclaimed. The church bill for Ireland, with appropriation clauses, was introduced 
and became a law. This abolished or diminished the tithes, and appropriated a part of 
the Church revenues for public instruction, but the High Church party and the Tories 
fought desperately to mutilate the bill and to a great extent succeeded. The High. 
Churchmen in England were supported by the Orangemen of northern Ireland. Re- 




SIR ROBERT PEEL. 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 



645 



ligious and national hate was kept alive, and many Irishmen left their native country 
and sought new homes in North America. 



5. Germany. 

§ 551. Germany departed from the Congress of Vienna weaker and less united than 
ever. The number of princedoms was, it is true, diminished by more than a hundred, 
but thirty-eight principalities, which were united in the German union, acquired sov- 
ereign authority in their domestic affairs. In place of the former diet there was 
created a Congress of the Union, consisting of ambassadors from the different govern- 
ments, who met at Frankfort, under the presidency of Austria. But this Congress 
was without independence, and the German union was an impotent member of the 
European family of nations, dependent altogether upon the two great powers, Austria 
and Prussia. And to make matters worse, 
foreign kingdoms sent ambassadors to 
Frankfort; Denmark, because of Holstein, 
and the Netherlands, because of Luxem- 
burg. Yet the people were not represented 
at all, although the thirteenth article of 
the "Act of Union" contained a vague 
clause about constitutional government, 
which corresponded but little to the ex- 
pectations of the people. And when Prus- 
sia hesitated to grant a constitution, and 
instead of convening a Parliament, con- 
vened only provincial councils with secret 
sessions, the bitterness of the people be- 
came very great. Austria was governed 
absolutely, and held apart from Germany. 
Prussia also was under the influence of 
Metternich, and allowed herself to be 
used to carry out his policy. The consti- 
tutions, which had been adopted in the smaller states, were soon abandoned, and the 
customs barriers between the different lands made commerce difficult and almost im- 
possible. 

§ 552. The Liberals who sought for a progressive development of the states, and 
were full of the hope of German unity, began now to increase. The German youth, 
discontented with the present, longed for the return of the Medizeval Empire. They 
established Fraternities at the Universities, and began to proclaim their love of the 
old-new Fatherland. The spirit made itself felt, especially at the festival of the Wart- 
burg. A number of professors and students of the University of Jena met at the 
Oct. is, isii. Wartburg, near Eisenach, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the 
Reformation. They made fiery speeches and sang enthusiastic songs, after which 
they made a bonfire of emblems and books that seemed, in their eyes, to belong to a 
past age. This festival received its importance, however, from the bloody deed of one 
iiiaicH 23, i8io. of its members, Carl Sand, who murdered the poet Kotzebne. The 
latter was accused of betra}'ing his fatherland, but his murder gave occasion to the 




DANIEL o'CONNEIX. 



646 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



sept., isio. Carlsbad decrees, which limited the freedom of the Press, established 
a central commission for the discovery of political criminals, placed the Universities 
under strict supervision, and required all the governments of Germany to carry out 
the decision of the Congress of the Union. The democratic spirit of South Germany 
stay is, isso. was at the same time suppressed by the decrees of Vienna. Prussia, 
for a long time the hope and confidence of all German patriots, marched at the head 
of this reaction. Men like Arndt and Jahn were accused of sedition, deprived of 
their offices, and watched constantly by the police. The unity of Germany seemed to 
vanish like a dream. To speak of it even was a crime. Every single state was ruled 
without regard to the common interests, and although many improvements were made 
in the Church, and school, and state, the political authority and honor of Germany 
seemed to have no value in the eyes of German princes. 

6. The Struggle for Greek Independence. 

§ 553. But suddenly the news flashed through Europe, that the Greeks had 
risen in arms against the Turks. Like a breath from a nobler world, it quickened the 




acropolis at athess. (Modern.) 



lives of the people held fast by the chains of the Holy Alliance and the policy of 
Metternich. This movement of the Greeks was headed by Alexander Ypsilanti, a 
Moldavian nobleman, in the Russian military service. He was helped by a widely 
ramified society, the secret purpose of which was the separation of Greece from Tur- 
ziarch, issi. key. In a short time, Morea (Peloponnesus), Livadia (Hellas), Thes- 
saly, and the Greek islands were in arms. But the expected help of Russia failed 
them. The Czar Alexander was restrained by Metternich, who compared the uprising 
of the Greeks with the democratic movements in Italy and in Spain. The Turks 
foamed with rage, and took a bloody revenge. The patriarch of Constantinople, the 
head of the Greek Church, was torn from the altar by angry Mohammedans, and hung 
up at the main door of his church. A like fate befell the Bishops of Ephesus and 
Nicomedia. Many old Greek inhabitants of Constantinople died a violent death, or 
were driven to beg their bread in foreign lands. The Holy band of Greeks, under 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 



647 



June ia. ism. Ypsilanti's lead, was finally destroyed, in the desperate battle of Dra- 
gatschaii. Ypsilanti fled to Austria, where he languished for many years in prison. 

§ 554. A fearful national war now broke out in all parts of Greece. In the 
Morea the wild Mainotes rose in rebellion. These were followed by other inhabitants 
of the Peloponnesus, under Demetrius Ypsilanti, the brother of Alexander. The 
Greeks in Livadia, and in the island, fought with the courage of their ancestors. The 
European people looked with sympathy upon the glorious contest, sent them money 
and men, and did their utmost to sustain their leaders, and to maintain the republic 

lass. that they had established. While the Princes of the Holy Alliance 

abandoned the Christian people to the blows of infidels, crowds of sympathizers 
were moving toward the ancient scenes of glory. The English poet Byron dedicated 

1834. his talent, his for- 

tune, his energy, and his life, to 
the cause of Greece, and the rich 
Genevan Eynard supported them 
with enormous sums of money. 
In spite of the discord and selfish- 
ness of the Greek leaders, the in- 
surgents were victorious, until the 
year 1825. In that year Turkey 
acquired a powerful support in 
Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, 
who had overcome the Mamelukes, 
and introduced into Egypt western 
institutions. The Pasha sent his 
son Ibrahim, with a considerable 
army, into the Peloponnesus. The 
discordant Greek bands were una- 
ble to withstand him ; one city 
after another fell into his hands. 
Ibrahim and his inhuman troops 
marched over corpses and ruins to 
their victory. The coasts of Greece 
were cruelly devastated, while the 
cabinets of Europe sought in vain 

April 22, i82e. to bring the war to an end 
was there a change in the situation. 




MEHEMET ALI PASHA. 



But not until the fall of Missolonghi 
The distressed city, unable to hold out longer, 
made a desperate attempt to break through the ranks of the besiegers.- A third part 
of the inhabitants were slain, the city was burned to the ground, and all who had 
remained in it were buried beneath the ruins. A cry of horror went through all 
Europe, and the governments were driven to activity by the angry curses of their out- 
raged peoples. 

§ 555. The Czar Alexander had just died, and his brother Nicholas was govern- 

Bee. i, i82s, ing with a strong hand. In England the high-minded Canning was then 

in the splendor of his youth, and had not forgotten his early enthusiasm for Greek 

independence. In France also the government was obliged to listen to the voice of 



648 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



friends of Greece, especially when the bloody abolition of the Janissaries, in which 
June, isne. 15,000 Mohammedans lost their lives, revealed the barbarism and 
inhumanity of the Turkish empire. At Canning's instance, a treaty was made be- 
tween Russia, England, and France, in which the three powers pledged themselves to 
compel the emancipation of the Greeks. A united fleet appeared at once in the 
Archipelago, and summoned Ibrahim to evacuate the peninsula. When he refused, 
Oct. 20, tain, the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was annihilated in the naval battle of Navar- 

ino. But the allies did not know 
their own minds, and Canning died 
in the crisis of affairs. The English 
looked with more favor upon Turkey, 
and the Sultan now resolved not to 
let the Greeks go, and behaved so 
defiantly to Russia, that the latter 
1828. declared war. This 

excited once more the hopes of the 
Greeks. While the armies of the 
Ottoman Turks were marching to the 
lands of the Danube, Ibrahim was 
compelled, by the French fleet, to 
abandon Morea. Capo D'Istria of 
Korfu was now made president of the 
Greek republic, and the Russians 
soon compelled the Turks to the 
sept. 14, i82». peace of Adrianople, 
in which the independence of Greece 
was acknowledged. But a long time 
elapsed before the frontiers could be 
established, and the Greek fleet was 
destroyed to keep it out of the enemies' 
hands. Finally, at a Congress in 
May, 1832. London, the European 
powers established the kingdom of Greece, making Otto I. of Bavaria the king. 

7. The New Romantic Literature and Art. 
a. Germany. 

§ 556. The creators and chief pillars of romantic literature and art were 

a. w. sohieaei, Augustus and Friedrich Sehlegel, and the two poets, Novalis and 

liei-is-ts. and Tieck. They directed their attention to the forgotten products of 

romantic literature and, following the example of Herder, collected 

and elaborated the legends and the songs of the old German time. 

They introduced the romantic poetry of the Spaniards and of the 

Italians into Germany by skillful translations, and brought the myth- 

Tieck.in3.iss3. ology an d poetry of the Orient and of Scandinavia into the circle of 

their studies. Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes were splendidly translated. The 

Sehlegel brothers distinguished themselves by their critical writings, their translations 




NICHOLAS I. 



JF. Sehlegel, 
1112-1820. 

Novalis, 
1112-1801. 




JOHN DRYDEN. 1631-1701. 



JOSEPH ADDISON. 1672-1719 




ALEXANDER POPE. 1688-1744. 



BRITISH POETS. 



JOHN KEATS. 1796-1821. 

{pp. 649.) 



boO 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AXD RESTORATIONS. 



and their knowledge of the history 
of literature. Tieck acquired renown 
for his fables and romances. Novalis, 
by his melancholy poems and his 
Fouqiie, fragmentary romances. 
nrs-1843. Fouque contributed his 
wonderful story of Undine, while 
Brentano collected and modernized 
suckei-t, old German ballads. 
i7ss-isee. Riickert translated 
and imitated the poems of the 
j. Grimm, Orient ; the brothers 
i7S5-ise3. Grimm helped on the 
w. Grimm, movement by their in- 
i7se-is59. vestigations into the 
Old German language and literature 
and by their search for popular 
fables and proverbs. The great his- 
torian Raumer followed, with the 
History of the Hohenstauffens. Many 
writers of the Romantic school joined 
the Catholic Church, which created 
great offense among the Protestants. 





SAMCEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. 1772—1 S34. 



SIR WALTER SCOTT. 1771—1832. 



maud, Uhland and Arndt how- 

nse-tsag. ever did not join the 
movement, but followed in the path 
of Schiller. The party of the Lib- 
erals and the great mass of the Ger- 
man people were devoted rather to 

jean rani these than to the others. 

i7e3-i825. Jean Paul (Friedrich 
Richter)stands quite apart from both 
these schools as the author of the 
humorous romance, and the painter of 
the domestic life of Germany, full of 
wild fancj', of delicate humour, of sub- 
tlety, and of mysterious suggestion. 

b. The writers of Italy under- 
took the lofty work of lifting their 
nation from the degredation of cen- 
Mfieti, turies. Alfieri, in his 

1749-1S03. dramas, sought to cre- 
Foscoio, ate enthusiasm forfree- 

ii7->-i82i. dom and fatherland. 

Leopardi, Foscolo and Leopardi 

i708-is37. broke forth in mr/an- 




ben jonson. 1574—1637. 



JONATHAN SWIFT. 1667—1745. 




SAMUEL JOHNSON. 1709-1784. 



OLIVER GOLDSMITH. 1728-1774. 



BRITISH PROSE WRITERS. 



(pp. 651.) 



652 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



choly strains to bewail the wretched 
Feineo, ness of their country. J 

-180-1SS4. Silvio Pellico and others 
sought to arouse their compatriots 
by pictures of a noble past; and 

stansoni, Manzoni, the most re- 

1785-1873. nowned poet of recent 
Italy, followed the same direction. 
In Scotland and England, ballads 
and border tales were collected, and 
the past exerted a powerful influence 
upon many men of great genius. The 
K1M-11.V. greatest of these was 

tiso-i-ioo. Robert Burns, by birth 

a peasant, whose poems are full of 

warmth, strength, sensibility, and 

scott, vivid power. Walter 

1771-1832, Scott began his remark- 
able career by collecting ballads, con- 
tinued it with epic narrative, and 
made himself famous for all time, by 
his romances, in which he pictured 
the manners, customs, landscapes 





THOMAS MOORE. 1780-1852. 



LORD GEORGE GORDON BYRON. 1728-1824. 

and character of his own country and 
of other lands, with unapproachable 
skill. 

In England, the Lake school of 
lrordsworm, Wordsworth, Southe) 7 , 
1170-1S50. and Coleridge, created 
coieiidge, a new development in 
i77a-is3 ■*. the poetry of nature. 
Rogers wrote his " Pleasures of 
Memory," and Campbell his "Pleas- 
ures of Hope." These were easily 
Huron, surpassed by Lord 
i7S8-isa4. Byron, a man of great 
gifts and of powerful imagination, but 
full of unrest and of unsatisfied pas- 
sion. His feelings and observations, 
his experiences and reflections in his 
travels through Europe, he has im- 
mortalized in the two poems, "Childe 
Harold," and " Don Juan." Beside 
these he wrote his dramas " Manfred," 
" Marino Faliero," "Cain," his ballads, 
and the famous " Hebrew Melodies." 




THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY. 1800-1859. 



GEORGE ELIOT. 1819-1880. 



... j , „,,,„,,; ,,..,„,,.,, ,.,,,,: ,.; ,.;y , , ,, .;,;■,.; ,-,..,, , , 





ROBERT BROWNING. 1812-1889. 

RECENT BRITISH AUTHORS. 



JOHN RUSKIN. 1819- 



(pp. 653.) 



654 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Byron was endowed with a rare poetic 
siieiiey, genius ; he knew all the 
H9H-182SI. movements of the 
human soul, all its moods and pas- 
sions, and knew likewise the words 
in which to clothe them. But he 
lacked reverence and love for the 
moral sublime ; he was without faith 
in humanity, or confidence in God ; 
he longed for a better age, and would 
have died to bring it nearer, but his 
nature was too turbulent for that 
steady activity, by which alone the 
best can be achieved. Thomas 
Moore, the Irishman, gave to the 
world, in his "Irish Melodies," a 
touching expression of the vanished 
splendor and loveliness of the Em- 
erald Isle. Yet his chief work is his 
oriental poem., Lalla Rookh. Shelley 
was a gifted, noble, but bewildered ! 
nature. He attracted all too soon 
the condemnation of his pious coun- 





CHARLES DICKENS. 1812-1870. 



PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY. 1792-1822. 

trymen, and led a life of inner strug- 
gle and suffering, until death took 
him early from a world that gave 
him little pleasure. And yet his 
poems reveal glimpses of unearthly 
beauty, although overshadowed by 
the gloom that always surrounded 
his powerful mind. In more recent 
Tennyson, times, Alfred Tennyson 
isoa-iso3. has become famous for 
his " Idylls of the King " and his 
elegiac poem "In Memoriam." Robert 
Brotming, Browning has created 
1S12-1SS9. a new species of poetic 
representation in the " Ring and the 
Book." His dramas and dramatic 
poems abound in lofty thought and 
powerful phrase, but are lacking in 
perfection of form and in musical at- 
cariyie, tractiveness. Thomas 
1705-issi. Carlyle, in his " Sartor 
Resartus," first made the English ac- 
quainted with the growing influence 



1S12-1SSO. 



Thackeray, 



1S11-1803. 



JUarian Evans, 



1820-1880. 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 655 

of German thought, and in his essays and histories, revealed a genius of surpassing 
power. His " French Revolution " is unique in the literature of the world. A 
history, a comment, a prose poem, abounding in dramatic pictures, in bursts of 
mcuens, prophetic irony, in flashes of inspired insight, and yet marked with 
the narrowness of the Scottish puritan. Dickens and Thackeray, in 
their novels, have acquired great renown, while about them circle a 
multitude of clever writers, the most famous of whom are Charlotte 
Bronte", George Eliot (Marian Evans), and Mrs. Gaskell. Macaulay, 
in his "Essays" and his "History of England," exalted rhetoric to a 
throne of power ; Matthew Arnold brought into English criticism the spirit of the 
great French master, St. Beuve, while Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer expounded 
the philosophies of Utilitarianism, and Evolution with lucidity and force. 
In France the classical literature 



of the old regime was attacked from 
three sides, first by Idealism, which 
began with Rousseau's enthusiasm for 
nature and reason, found expression 

st. net-re in the Paul and Vir- 

1737-1814 ginia of Saint Pierre, 

aiadame Roianti, in Madame Roland's 

17S4-1793. "Appeal to Posterity,' 
and in Volney's " Ruins ; " secondly, 
by the poetry of the revolution, 
especially in the Marseillaise hymn, 
and in the" Young Captive "of Andre* 
Ch^nier. But the new romanticism 
of Madame de Stael, the daughter of 
Necker, which was enriched with 

iiamartine, religious sentiment 

1790-iseo. by Lamartine, and 

culminated in Victor Hugo, was the 

greatest enemy of classicism. Dur- 

juad. De staei, ing her exile from 

1700-1817. Paris, Madame de 
Stael made herself familiar with Ger- 
man literature and German life as 

she showed in her famous " L'Allemagne," and afterward clothed her romantic ideas 
■and her impressions of travel with the poetic form in her romances " Delphine " 
and " Corinne." Chateaubriand wandered, during the reign of terror, in the forests 
and wastes of North America, and recorded his impressions in his " Rene " and 
"Atala." Upon his return to France, he wrote his great work on the " Genius of 
Christianity," which contributed greatly to the reconciliation of church and empire, 
Chateaubriand, and to the restoration of religious feeling in France. After the murder 

1708-1848. of the Duke d' Enghien, he left the country, and made his pilgrimage 
to Jerusalem, the fruit of which was the epic poem of the "Martyrs." With the res- 
toration, this poet began his golden age. He became cabinet minister, ambassador at 




WILLTAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY. 1811-1863. 



656 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



net™- Hugo, several courts, and defender of legitimate monarchy. Lamartine struck 
isos-isse. the same chords in his religious and poetic "Harmonies" and found 
a ready welcome with the French public. He made " A Journey to Syria and Pales- 
tine," which he described with great charm, and afterward composed his two great 
poems " Jocelyn," and " The Fall of an Angel." As deputy of the second house, La- 
martine gradually renounced his royalist opinions, and became the champion of a cos- 
mopolitan democracy. This led to his history of the " Girondists," which made him 
so popular, that he was especially adapted to arrest the revolution of 1848. Victor 
Hugo is famous for his lyrics, dramas, and romances. But he excels as a lyric poet. His 
" Odes," " Ballads," " Autumn Leaves," and other volumes reveal a sure insight into the 
souls of men, and a surprising sympathy with all the moods and impulses of the human 
heart. His dramas however are exaggerated and unnatural, not seldom violating the 

laws of beauty and of taste. 
They abound in cruelties and, 
horrors, in the wild and the im- 
possible. The best known 
among them are "Cromwell," 
" Hernani," " Lucretia Borgia," 
and " Marion Delorme." After 
the revolution of 1848, he was 
chosen a member of the National 
Assembly, but being an eager 
republican, he opposed bitterly 
the plans of Louis Napoleon, 
provoking his wrath to such an 
extent that he was compelled to 
fly, in December 1851, and spent 
many years in the Isle of Jersey, 
where he wrote several of his 
greatest works. Among these 
are "Les Miserables," a picture 
of social conditions in France, 
which has become world-famous. 
victor hugo. In contrast with this romantic 

poetry, there arose a liberal 
school which found expression in the political satires of Courier, and in the popu- 
Berangei-, lar songs of Beranger. This latter poet gives genuine expression 
nso-issi. to French character in its nobler phases. He is cheerful, full of life, 
and yet amiable, noble, and enthusiastic for freedom and for human welfare. A lover 
of his country and of mankind, and a child of the people, he spoke the natural lan- 
guage of the heart, and was at once the comfort and the inspiration of the masses. 
This literary liberalism came to an end with the July revolution. A new power entered 
the field. The didactic romance, which attacked not only monarchy and hierarchy, but all 
George Sana, the traditions of society. George Sand was the most gifted and attractive 
iso4-iHio. of all these writers. Her contemporaries, Eugene Sue and Alexander 
Dumas, pictured society rather than attacked it. The present school of French litera- 




EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 657 

ture wavers between a poetic and a repulsive realism. Daudet and Bourget represent 
tlie former, and Flaubert and Zola are the masters of the latter tendency. 

Russia, during the 19th century, has created a literature of acknowledged power. 
jpuachhin This began with Alexander Puschkin, whose poetry reflects every phase 
1100-1S3-}. of popular life. Turgenieff portraj'ed the dark side of Russian society 
Twrgenieff, and popular manners, with cutting severity but vivid realism, whde Tol- 
isis-iss3. stoi has astonished his contemporaries withapower of imagination, a grasp 
of details, a strength of thought, and an audacity of ideas almost unexampled in our age. 
Hungarian literature originated in our century, and reached its perfection in Alex- 
petoefi, ander Petoefi, a poet and a hero who fell fighting for democracy and inde- 
is'i.-t-is-io. pendence. His songs of wine and of love, and his pictures of travel, 
are the fruit of many wanderings among shepherds and peasants, gypsies and robbers. 
Danish poetry was, in earlier times, influenced chiefly by Germany, but Adam Oeh- 
lenschlager founded a national school, choosing for his themes the old Norse stories. 
isos-is7s. Hans Christian Andersen, in his fables, attracted readers in all coun- 
Mbsen bom iss8. tries, and the two Norwegians, Bjbrnson and Ibsen, have been recog- 
nized as men of surprising genius through their stories and dramas. The greatest poet of 
Sweden is Tegner. His "Story of Fritjhof "is the national poem of the Swedish people. 
c. The Fine Arts. 

Romanticism had a powerful influence upon the development of the fine 
arts, especially upon painting. It enriched art with new elements, gave a nobler sig- 
nificance to artistic ideas, unfolded a deeper spiritual life, and prevented absorption in 
form to the exclusion of mental and moral significance. The two schools, the classic 
and the romantic, struggled for a while for sole supremacy, but both tendencies were 
finally reconciled in a natural and powerful realism. The champion of classical art in 
aienga, Germany was Raphael Mengs, the son of a Saxon court painter, who 

i72s-ti70. aroused a new love for art by his pictures in oil and in fresco, and 
although he was by no means a genius, showed the way to a nobler taste. David, 
itiuiti. the French painter, in his imitation of the antique and his studies of 

H4&-1825. nature, of models, and of the theatre, revealed the weakness of the 
classical school ; for he attached so little importance to the imagination and to crea- 
tive composition. Carstens was more reasonable. Although he studied the antique 
with great seriousness, he reproduced its forms freely and boldly from memory and 
imagination. But he found no sympathy among his contemporaries, and wasted away 
in poverty and disease at Rome. His influence lived on, however, in his successors. 
overbeck, Overbeck and Schadow were the leaders of the new romantic school. 
liso-iseo. They devoted their art exclusively to Christian representations, after 
the manner of the old German and old Italian painters. A greater than either of 
corneuus, these was Peter Cornelius of Dusseldorf, the founder of the school of 
US3-1S6J. art at Munich. In 1841 Cornelius was called to Berlin by Frederick 
William IV., whither he was followed by William Kaulbach, who painted the great 
Kauibach, frescos of the new museum. In more recent times, the German 
iso5-is-:4. painters have been noteworthy for the variety of their themes. Piloty, 
in Munich and his pupil Makart have followed the realistic school of France and Bel- 
gium, while Anselm Feuerbach has perfected the idealism of the old Italian masters. 
Defregger has become celebrated for his scenes of Bavarian popular life, while Menzel 
42 



658 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

and Werner have preserved for posterity the memories of a great time in their national 
painting. 

In France and in Belgium painting reached a great perfection. Gerard followed 
the example of David. Robert was the creator of the historical picture of common 
life. Horace Vernet immortalized scenes from the army and camp life of the Napo- 
Deiacroix, leonic time, while Delacroix portrayed Dante and Virgil in their voy- 
t799-ise3. age to the city of Hell. In Delaroche, the romantic realistic school 
reached its most powerful expression. In England, Turner produced his landscapes 
deemed worthy to take their place beside those of Claude Lorraine, while David Wil- 
kie acquired great renown by his pictures of English and of Scottish life. Architect- 
ure and sculpture had also their devoted artists. Canova breathed into his statues a 
canova, certain grace, which, however, was marred at times by a painful effort 
us? ism}. at effect. The first sculptor of the age was Thorwaldsen, born at Co- 
penhagen, though his parents came from Iceland. Like Carstens, he was an earnest 
student of the antique. The old world of gods and heroes was the realm in which 
Thorwaldsen delighted to dwell, and in which he found the themes for his statues and 
reliefs. And yet he was too close to actual life to withdraw himself from the tenden- 
cies of his time, and these tendencies were toward religion and common humanity. 
Christ, the apostles, and other figures of sacred history, were wrought out by Thor- 
Thoricaidsen, waldsen with great power. The most famous of his monumental 
mo-isu. works are the Guttenburg monument in Mayence, the statue of Schil- 
ler in Stuttgart, and the "Dying Lion" in Luzerne. Though honors and distinctions 
were showered down upon him, he preserved his simplicity and his love for his 
friends, having no preference for splendor and society. Dannecker is renowned for 
his " Ariadne; " Schadow r , father of the painter, for his Victoria at the Brandenburg gate 
at Berlin ; Raueh for his monument of Queen Louise, and the great group surmounted 
by the equestrian statue of Frederick the Great at Berlin. Rietschel solved the difficult 
untivh, problem of clothing statues in the costume of the time, without de- 

mi-issi. stro}'ing their ideality. Schwanthaler is famous for his statues of Mo- 
zart and of Goethe, and for the colossal work " Bavaria " in Munich. 

In musical art, secular music has gradually displaced the supremacy of sacred. 

aiueh, Gluck gave to the musical drama a new significance, and Mozart 

mi-iisi. created a number of operas, which, like the dramas of Schiller, are the 

juosart, pride and the delight of the German people. But Beethoven, in his sym- 

isse-iioi. phonies and sonnets, revealed the possibilities of music beyond the 

Beethoven, boldest anticipation of his predecessors or contemporaries. Mendels- 

mo-ism. sohn, by his oratorios and his songs, and Weber, by his operas, gave 

Mayan, to their ideas a noble, and at the same time a national expression, 

i-!32-iso9. while Meyerbeer was a master of ingenious and startling effects. But 

Mendelssohn, a new epoch of German opera began with Richard Wagner. The 

1S09-18*-!. musical-declamatory opera re-appeared. A disciple of Gluck in prin- 

schubert, ciple, he had no love for simplicity, but strove for the colossal, the 

ii9i-i828. massive, the over-whelming. No artist has ever had bitterer enemies, 

or more enthusiastic friends, than the composer of Tannhauser, Lohengrin, and Parsi- 

lraaner, val. Schubert and Schumann are renowned for their songs, while the 

1813-1883. Italians, Rossini and Verdi, have preserved the traditions of their 

people in the music that they have written in the spirit of Gluck and of Mozart. 



OlOIOtQlQlOl OlOl O/ K^ O ' O l O 1 O I Q_)_Q 1 O 1 O 1 O 1 O 

■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ,J n - - " in 




lOIOIOjOlOIOlOIOIOlO \^Q 1 O 1 O I O'l'O I O V O \ O I O T 



F. LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 



I. FRANCE. THE JULY REVOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 

§557. 

^^^HARLES X. regardless of public opinion, 
pushed forward on the path of re- 
mits/, s, X820. action. The liberal 
ministry yielded to an ultra-royalist 
cabinet under Polignac's presidency, 
and when the chamber expressed 
dissatisfaction with the policy of the 
government, the king dissolved it and 
May, is3o. ordered a new elec- 
tion. In vain, the men of the oppo- 
sition appeared in greater numbers, 
and thus confirmed the distrust of 
the people toward the new ministry. 
Charles X. was not to be taught. He 
thought that the glory with which 
the French troops were covering 
themselves in Africa would produce 
a more favorable sentiment. When 
jruiy s. the Moniteur pub- 

lished the famous "Three Ordinances" in which the freedom of the Press was sus- 
pended, the new chamber was dissolved before it was convened, and the election law 
juiv 2o-3o. was arbitrarily changed, the July Revolution occurred. After three 
days' heroic fight in the streets of Paris, the people conquered for themselves, emanci- 
pation from the Bourbon dynasty and from priestly domination. On the 29th of July, 
during the hottest of the street fight, a provisional government was established by the 
deputies of the chamber then present in Paris. Laffitte, the banker, Casimir-Perier 
and Odilon Barrot carried on this administration until the constitutional party pre- 
vailed over the republicans, and Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, was named as pro- 

(659) 




660 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



tector of the State. When it was too late, Charles X. offered to take back the hated 
ordinances, and to appoint a popular ministry. He was compelled to go with his 
family a third time into exile, while his shrewder relative, Louis Philippe, after swear - 
Ang. a. ing fidelity to the hastily revised constitution, ascended the throne as 
king of the French. The restoration of the tri-color and the re-establishment of the 




CAPTURE OF ALGIERS. (F. Lix). 

National Guard under La Faj^ette's command, marked the beginning of the new king- 
dom : a kingdom created by the people. Algiers was retained by the new govern- 
ment and organized as a colony ; not, however, without long weary struggles with the 
Mahommedan population and their indomitable chief Ab del Kader. Charles X. died an 
exile in the year 1836. 

§ 558. The Holy Alliance, already shaken hj the death of Alexander, fell to 
pieces from the shock of the July revolution, and throughout Europe, movements be- 
gan which produced a transformation. The French monarchy, it is true, took up a 
peaceful attitude toward the other states of Europe. The victorious liberals in Paris 
preferred mediation and reconciliation to conflict and civil strife, and sought to gain 
the moderates and the undecided for the maintainance of existing conditions. Never- 
theless the movement was mighty enough to break through, in more than one place, 
the artificial structure of the Congress of Vienna. Belgium, Germany, Poland, and 
Italj T , were the scenes of insurrections which it required two years of struggle to sup- 
press ; and although the influence of Russia, Austria, and Prussia was strong enough to 



LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 



661 



maintain the old state of affairs in most countries, nevertheless, liberal ideas increased 
so rapidly, and public opinion became so powerful, that all the measures of the police 
regime were set at defiance. In western Europe, the influence of England and of 
France prevailed, and this was in favor of a constitutional system, of civil freedom and 
of representative institutions. 

§ 559. The revolution in Belgium was the immediate consequence of the events 
of July in Paris. The Vienna Congress 
had united the provinces of Flanders and 
Brabant with Holland, to form a kingdom 
of the Netherlands, without the slightest 
regard to religion, language, or national 
interest. The Dutch regarded themselves 
as the ruling race. They compelled the 
Belgians to share their large national debt 
and their high taxes, tried to force upon 
them the Dutch language and Dutch laws, 
and to place the education of the Catholic 
youth under the control of Protestant au- 
thorities. And when the press assumed a 
is3o. hostile tone, the govern- 

ment proceeded against the journalists with 
fines, imprisonment and banishment. This 
led to an alliance between the French Lib- 
eral party which was working for a free 
constitution, and the Catholic ultra-mon- 
tane party, which demanded freedom of in- 
struction, — an alliance against the Dutch 
government, which the king in a speech 
from the throne designated as " infamous." 
utterance, was so great, that when the news of the Paris Revolution reached Brussels, it 
set the whole city ablaze. On the evening of the 25th. of August mobs destroyed the 
printing office of a newspaper of Dutch proclivities, the palace of the Minister of Jus- 
tice, and the dwelling of the chief of police. To prevent further devastation by the 
mob, a citizen-guard was constituted, and a citizens' committee, until finally the radical 
and ultra-montane party combined to form a " national congress." The example of 
Brussels soon found imitators, so that in a short time the Brabant flag was waving in 
all Belgium. An attack of the Dutch upon Brussels was repulsed, and the Belgian 
insurgents now advanced upon Antwerp, in order to take this city also from their 
hated neighbor. Thereupon the Dutch general, Chasse, withdrew into the citadel, and 
bombarded the city with three hundred cannon for seven hours. -Indignant at this 
conduct, the National Congress declared the independence of Belgium, and the exclu- 
sion of the House of Orange from the Belgian throne. Meanwhile, a conference of the 

Nov. i83o. five great powers was called together in London, and after long dis- 
cussion, it came to the conclusion to separate Belgium from Holland, and to establish 
just frontiers: accordingly Leopold of Saxe Coburg, a relative of the English sovereign, 

jm»e 1831. who was shortly afterward married to a daughter of Louis Philippe, 




louis Philippe. (Winther thaler). 
The dissatisfaction, produced by this royal 



662 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



received the Belgian crown. Leopold sought to pacify the liberals by a grant of rep- 
resentative institutions, and the Catholic clergy, by the complete independence of the 
Church from the State. In vain the Dutch attempted a second time to subjugate the 
Dec. lean. seceding provinces. Threatened and opposed by France and England, 
they were compelled, in spite of the bravery of their army and navy, to abstain from 

further war. Belgium, however, began 
at once to prosper, both in its free insti- 
tutions, and in its rapidly developed in- 
ustries. 

§ 560. The happy issue of the 
French and Belgian Revolutions im- 
pelled the Poles to insurrection. The 
Vienna Congress had created a king- 
dom of Poland, and subjected it to the 
Czar of Russia. The constitution, 
which provided for a diet, and for a na- 
tional army, also afforded the people 
liberty with law; their industry pros- 
pered, literature revived, while great 
highways opened up a growing com- 
merce. But all these advantages were 
not sufficient to efface among the Poles 
the desire for the resurrection of their 
country, and the hope that the French 
nation would hasten to help their old 
ally, strengthened them in the belief 
that the hour of Poland's regeneration 
was at hand. On the 29th of Novern- 
isso. ber, twenty armed ca- 

dets of the Royal School forced their 
way into the palace of the Viceroy, 
whom they had sworn to murder, while 
other conspirators called the people of 
jf| Warsaw to arms. The Grand Duke 
barely escaped the fate intended for 
him, and yielding to the storm, with- 
drew from the land. A provisional government undertook the conduct of affairs, but 
the regency, which was composed of Polish noblemen, chose the way of negotiation 
rather than that of war, and although Chlopicki was soon appointed dictator, and 
although the hastily summoned diet invested .Prince Radzivil with supreme authority, 
the situation was not bettered. The aristocracy, dissatisfied with the violence of the 
democratic and republican clubs, held matters in their hands and hindered all enter- 
prises by their delay and discord. While the Emperor of Russia was advancing into 
Jan. us, is3i. Poland with an army of two hundred thousand men, the Diet de- 
clared the House of Romanoff to have forfeited the throne of Poland; but refused to 
free the lands of the peasants and to abolish feudal tribute and rejected the proclama- 




LEOPOLD I., KING OF THE BELGIANS. (Wiline) 



LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 66a 

tion of a people's war, which was all that could have saved Poland. The Polish army 
was brave enough in the field of battle. Chlopicki fought like a hero, and Dwernicki 
astonished the world by his bold retreat into Austrian territory ; jet the Poles were 

May ae, is3i. defeated by the Russians and ruined by discord, treachery, and the 
duplicity of the French mediators. Diebitsch, the Russian general, died of the 
cholera. His successor, Paskiewitsch, crossed the Vistula and advanced upon War- 
saw. The democrats of the capital, believing that the failure of the revolution was 
due to treason, began a horrible massacre. A mob headed by soldiers forced its way 
into the castle, murdered the generals stationed there, and attacked several persons 
suspected and hated as aristocrats, friends of Russia, or spies. Czartoryski, in whose 
hands the authority had been placed, fled to the camp of General Dembinski. The 
Diet now appointed Krukowicki president, with dictatorial power, and thus entrusted 
the highest authority to the hands of a man who was either a fool or a traitor. When 
the Russian army approached the capital, the dictator issued the most contradictory 
orders. The Polish army bravely withstood the advancing enemy, and the heroic 
deeds of the fourth regiment have been often celebrated in song. But, after a two- 
days storm, Warsaw and Prague were surrendered to the Russians, after which the 

sent, e-7, is3i. government and the Diet, with the remaining troops, took refuge in 
Prussia. Here they were disarmed and held prisoners until Poland was completely 
subjugated, when they received the promise of an amnesty and permission to return. 
But thousands of them rejected the mercy of the Emperor, preferring to eat the bread 
of sorrow on foreign soil, rather than to witness patiently the gradual extermination 
of Polish nationality. In Poland and Littau court-martials were held, and the mines 
of Siberia were peopled with their victims. Poland was deprived of its constitution, 
its Diet, and its royal council, and became a Russian province with a separate adminis- 
tration, and a separate judiciary. Humiliated Warsaw was ruled with an iron sceptre. 
The emigrants attempted in vain, by conspiracies and uprisings in Cracow, Galiciaand 
Posen, to accomplish the rescue of their fatherland. New prosecutions, and the final 
incorporation of the free-state Cracow into the Austrian monarchy, were the only 
results of these desperate undertakings. 

§ 561. Germany too was moved mightily by the news of the Revolution of July. 
The princes, fearing that the French desire for the left bank of the Rhine might pre- 
cipitate a new war, noticed with anxiety the discord between people and government, 
and hastened, partly by just concessions, and partly by swift recognition of accom- 
plished changes, to diminish the discontent, and to prevent a union of the discontented. 
The uprisings in Hanover and Saxony were appeased by the granting of liberal consti- 
tutions, and by the abolition of oppressive abuses and limitations. In Brunswick, 
where the inhabitants had destroyed the castle, and forced Duke Carl to fly, his brother 
William assumed the government, and pacified the excited people by a reformation of 
the constitution. In Hesse-Cassel, the elector William II. consented to a liberal con- 
stitution, but the hate which the people showed to the Countess Reichenbach, his ill- 
assorted wife, so angered the elector that he made his son regent, and with the Countess 
and his other treasures, abandoned Hesse ; he lived partly in Baden-Baden, partly 
in Frankfort, where he died in 1847. In Baden, the freedom of the press was intro- 
duced; and in the South German legislatures, the liberals acquired the majority, and 
pressed for changes and reforms in constitution and administration. But the increas- 



664 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

ing boldness of the party, in speech and in writing, especially the proceedings at the 

stay, is39. festival of Hambach, induced a swift reaction. The peaceful character 
of the July monarchy, and the fall of Warsaw, freed the German princes from the 
fear that the liberal movements might receive foreign sujjport: and the undertaking of 
some young enthusiasts to break up the Diet of Frankfort was a welcome performance 
to the leaders of the reaction. Many were arrested ; prisons and fortresses were filled 
with political criminals ; France and Switzerland became the homes of numberless 
German fugitives ; the censorship of the press was re-established ; the publication of 
books watched with the utmost care ; and the prerogatives of legislative bodies greatly 
diminished. The party of progress was thus brought to a halt, b} r the violence of its 
own adherents. Victory belonged to the governments. But they knew not how to 
use it. For they soon outraged the feelings of the people in many ways, especially 

June, 1837. when, at the accession of Victoria to the throne of England, the 
crown of Hanover fell to her uncle, Ernst August, of Cumberland. For he abolished 
the constitution already granted, and restored the old feudal arrangements, and, not- 
withstanding the opposition which he encountered on every side, summoned all 
servants of the state to take a new oath of allegiance. When seven professors of the 
University of Gottingen refused, he deprived them of their places, and banished them 
from the kingdom ; so, too, when the assembly of estates lacked a quorum, because so 
many members refused to attend, their places were filled by members of the minority. 
These, and similar measures, made a great gulf between the people and their rulers. 
The "police state" was everywhere dreaded and hated, and the Bureaucracy was the 
object of universal dislike. In the press, in literature, in poetry, the existing political 
system was constantly denounced; while among the people, every opposition to the 
Bureaucrats was heartily applauded. Yet amid all these struggles and divisions, there 
was one impulse in which all shared, — the longing for national unity, and for a strong 
German confederation, established upon mutual interests. And this led to the found- 
1833. ing of the " customs union," the corner stone of German political 

unity. (Zollverein). 

§ 562. In Italy, likewise, the July Revolution produced serious consequences, 
but the hopes of the patriots were soon carried to the grave. The uprisings in 
Bologna, Modena and Parma, were quickly suppressed by Austrian troops, and the 
banished regents immediately restored. In the papal states, the papal troops, supple- 
mented by bandits and convicts, were employed to put down the insurrection. These 
xuffians raged so furiously, that the Austrian military became necessary to protect the 
government and the country from their own soldiers. Jealous of Austria, the French 

***. 1832. now took possession of Ancona. An attempt to overthrow the Sar- 
dinian throne, and, with the help of young Italy, to precipitate a revolution, failed 
ingloriously. A band of fugitives under the lead of the Polish general, Ramorino, a 
is33. native of Genoa, started from Switzerland to invade Savoy, but with- 

out success. In Spain the liberals came to the front once more, not, however, through 

Oct. i83o. their own strength, but in consequence of a disputed succession to the 
throne. Ferdinand had been persuaded by his fourth wife, Marie Christine, to abolish 
the Salic law, and to secure the succession to his infant daughter Isabella. This 
change displeased the apostolic party, which put its entire trust in Ferdinand's 

sept. 1833. younger brother, Don Carlos. Hardly had the king closed his eyes, 



LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 665 

when the Absolutists proclaimed Don Carlos king, and provoked a civil war. They 
found support in the northern provinces, especially among the rude inhabitants' of the 
Basque mountains. Instigated by priests and monks, led by brave and enterprising 
brigands, the Basques drew their swords for the absolute monarch, who had taken 
refuge in their midst. The Queen regent, Marie Christine, now made overtures to the 
constitutionals and the liberals, agreeing to introduce a parliamentary constitution, and 
to permit the return of the fugitives and the exiles. Thus the war of the succession 
became a war of principles and a civil war. After many bloody battles, the Christinos 

isao. were successful ; the Carlists laid down their arms, and Don Carlos, 

with his family and many officers and priests, took refuge in France. General Espartero 

tsjtt. now quarreled with the queen mother, and this was the beginning of 

new struggles, constitutional changes and court intrigues. Espartero was powerful 

1843. enough to procure Christine's banishment for a time, and to assume the 

regency. But he was soon put down by General Narvaez, an adherent of the queen 
mother, and compelled to fly to England. Christine returned and continued to reign 
until her daughter Isabella readied her majority. Both mother and daughter were 
controlled by the suggestions of the king of France. 

2. The Government of July and the Popular Uprising op 1848. 
a. The Years of Political and Social Excitement. 

§ 563. The July monarch}', erected as it was' upon the uncertain foundations of 
popular sovereignty, suffered many attacks. The adherents of the Bourbons and of 
the Legitimists were joined by the Republicans in their attempts to overthrow the new 
order. Only the prosperous middle class, anxious to preserve their possessions, and 
expecting to find salvation in a constitutional monarchy, were satisfied with the gov- 
ernment of July, and upon these Louis Philippe particularly depended. But when 
the King dela}'ed to extend the suffrage and to call the less prosperous citizens to take 
part in political life, the number of his supporters became quite small. Moreover, the 
King failed to win the hearts of the French. Though possessed of an immense for- 
tune, he used his high station to increase his riches. As a consequence, he was re- 
proached with selfishness and greed, and this reproach fell upon his ministers and 
office-holders. All were looked upon as tainted with corruption, and even the beauti- 
ful domestic life of the royal family failed of proper recognition. The Legitimists 
were the first to attack the King and his ministry. But the hate of the people for the 
Bourbons was yet too fresh for them to succeed. The unfurling of the white flag, 

Feb., last. at the death of the Duke de Berri, caused an uprising, in consequence 
of which the palace of the Arch-bishop of Paris was destroyed. The attempt of the 
Duchess of Berri to arouse the Vendeans also failed. When she was arrested and her 

Nov., i83n. secret marriage revealed, the romantic charm that clung to the ban- 
ished royal famil}- gradually disappeared. The Legitimists, with the aged poet Cha- 
teaubriand at their head, now gave up the hope of placing Count Chambord upon the 
throne. They called him Henry V., but they could give him neither sceptre nor 
authority. The Republicans were more dangerous. The uprisings in Lyons and Paris 

1831-2-4. were suppressed, and the ring-leaders punished ; but the newspapers 
were alive with their opinions, and in their secret assemblies they obtained more and 
more adherents. The National was the much persecuted and much punished organ 



666 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



<MMM>UiMUI\/i 



of the Republicans, who were soon divided into various factions. The moderates at- 
tacked the existing constitution, and sought only a transformation of the government ; 
but the radicals declared that property was theft, and urged war against the wealthy 
classes, or flattered the working-classes by exaggerating their importance, and de- 
manding the readjustment of capital and labor, and better wages for the laborer. All 
this tended to an upheaval of social conditions. Liberty, fraternity, and equality was 
the watchword, and hatred for the prosperous, was the core of the new doctrine. 
Communistic and socialistic ideas were proclaimed and extended, and many saw in 

them salvation from 
poverty and degrada- 
tion. Gradually the 
socialists of France 
formed an alliance 
with those of other 
countries, and thus 
constituted the Inter- 
national. These 
socialists, believing 
that if the king were 
put to death, the 
communistic repub- 
lic could be easily 
proclaimed, sought 
to assassinate Louis 
Philippe, but he es- 
caped eight separate 
attacks with truly 
wonderful good for- 
tune. The most ter. 
rible of these was that 
of the Corsican, 
F i e s c h i , who ex- 
ploded an "infernal 
machine " in the 
boulevard, whereby 
eighteen persons near 

July, 1S3S. the 

King were killed. The guilty were punished with death, but assassination continued to 
be tried. Limitation of the press, of the right of assembly and of personal freedom, 
were the consequences of these attempts. Louis Philippe was also sorely afflicted by the 
death of his oldest son, the popular Duke of Orleans, who was thrown from his carriage. 
§ 564. Pope Pius IX. made the papacy the political center of Italy by opportune 
isjto. reforms. He extended the freedom of the press, improved the ad- 

ministration of justice, gave the city of Rome a liberal charter, and started the forma- 
tion of an Italian confederacy. The excitable Italians were filled with new hopes. 
Jan., is48. Sicily unfurled the banner of independence, and began a mighty 




H**jA r. 



DUCHESS DE BERRI. 



IBIiiljil wSKK. = 




FIESCHl's ATTEMPT ON THE LIFE OF LOUIS PHILLIPPE. (F. Lix.) {pp. 667.) 



668 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



struggle with her oppressors. The King of Naples sought to appease his people by a 
parliamentary constitution, and compelled other princes thereby to do likewise. The 
Grand-duke Leopold of Tuscany, and Charles Albert of Sardinia, were among those 
that followed his example. But the Duke of Modena, an ardent champion of the 
divine right of princes, escaped the hatred of the people by flight, while in Parma the 
»ec is, is47. throne became vacant by the death of the Duchess Marie Louise, the 
little beloved and little respected widow of Napoleon Bonaparte. All this filled the 

Italians with the hope 
of national unity and 
freedom. Only two 
powers stood in the 
way of their achieve- 
ment — the Jesuits 
and the Austrians — 
and upon these were 
poured the glowing 
hatred of the Italians. 
Hurrahs for Gioberti, 
the foe of the Jesuits, 
and death to the Ger- 
mans mingled in the 
cries of " Long live 
Pionono, the saviour 
of Italy ! " 

In Germany the op- 
position between the 
government and the 
people had readied 
a crisis. The writ- 
ings of young Ger- 
many, the songs of 
the political poets, 
the boldness of the 
daily press, the liberal 
writings of young 
philosophers and the- 
popepiusix. ologians, the doc- 

trines and speeches 
of the " friends of light " among the Protestants, and of the " German Catholics " 
among the Catholics, revealed the deep dissatisfaction of the people with the 
existing state and church. Frederick William IV., who became king of Prussia 
in 1840, tried to meet this feeling with reforms. He opened the sittings of the 
courts to the public, issued an edict of toleration, and called the Estates of his 
is*». Provinces to assemble in Berlin. When the Estates met, the demands 

of the people for a free press and a free state were supported with such eloquence and 
with such earnestness, that they could no longer be resisted. Meanwhile, a great 




670 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



■>StU 



crisis took place in the commercial world. A financial panic robbed thousands of 
their fortunes, brought multitudes to the edge of starvation. To make matters worse, 
famine and pestilence visited the regions of industrial activity, and misery spread into 
every corner of Germany. Uprisings in Berlin, Stuttgart, Munich, and other cities 
were the consequence. The military and police soon put down the tumults, and a 
... ;.• ... .,■:,'...'.:..,'" v rich harvest put an end 

to the famine ; but it 
was impossible any 
longer to overlook the 
inequalities of fortune 
which the crisis had re- 
vealed. The excitement 
and dissatisfaction with 
the political institutions 
of Germany was greatly 
increased by the infatu- 
ation of King Ludwig of 
Bavaria, for the Spanish 
dancer, Lola Montez, 
by whom the aged mon- 
arch was led into ex- 
travagance and hasty 
action. The ultra-mon- 
tane party quarreled 
with the king's darling, 
the Countess of Lands- 
feld, as she was called : 
and as a consequence, 
the ministry and the 
heads of the university 
were dismissed, and 
when the students took 
the part of their profes- 
sors, the King closed 
the university, and or- 
dered the students to 
depart. An insurrec- 

Feb., rsjv. t i O II 

followed. The King 




GU1Z0T. 



was obliged to retract, 



and the Countess Lola 
was dismissed from the country. Switzerland was in the same decade, the scene of 
great hostility between Catholics and Protestants, conservatives and radicals. Eight 
cloisters of Aargau had been abolished, and their estates been confiscated by the 
government. The Catholic Cantons protested, but without avail. Lucerne now 
entrusted the Jesuits with the education of her youth, and when the radicals stirred 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 671 

up a tumult, a desperate conflict took place between them and the Jesuits. The 
Catholic Cantons demanded the punishment of the rioters, and a restoration of the 
is4«. cloisters. When this was refused them, they seceded and formed a 

separate union. The radicals declared this conduct unconstitutional, and demanded 
the expulsion of the Jesuits. The Catholic Cantons refused to disband. The 
government' then attacked them with the sword. The struggle was brief. The 
government soon conquered Freiburg, when Lucerne and the other Cantons submitted 

juiy, 1841. at once. Their separate union was dissolved, the Jesuits were 
expelled, the governments of the Cantons modified, and the costs of the war imposed 

nee, isjj. upon the Catholics. Austria, France, and Prussia came too late 
with their mediation, and the failure of France was one of the causes of the revolu- 
tion. The Swiss used the opportunity to change their constitution. The Federal 
council, which sits permanently in Berne, was conjoined with the council of the Can- 
tons, and a national council elected by the people. 

b- The February Revolution in Paris. 

§ 565. While these events were occuring in Italy and Switzerland, the policy of 
Guizot was giving great offence to the French liberals. The excitement was increased 
by a trial of high officials for bribery, and by the murder of the Duchess of Praslin 
by her own husband. The people were satisfied that a government, upborne by such 
rotten pillars, was impossible. The cry for reform went through the land, and the re- 
form desired was universal suffrage. Throughout France reform banquets were the 
order of the day, and when the Chambers were convened in Paris, a reform banquet 
was arranged for, to give expression to the popular mind. But the government for- 
bade the banquet, and the speech from the throne described the movement as one 
started by hostile or blind passions. The program for the banquet was issued never- 
theless. But when the government took military measures for its supression, it was 
abandoned. When the members of the opposition determined to accuse the ministry of 
a breach of the constitution. The people however were too excited to be thus ap- 
peased. Mobs of artisans, tramps, students, and street-Arabs marched through the 
streets crying " Reform ! Down with Guizot ! " The crowds increased with every 
hour ; the soldiers spared them ; the police were too feeble to put them down ; barri- 
Feh. is4s. cades were erected and defended. The fight lasted for two days, when 
the King dismissed Guizot and promised reform. The crowds now marched singing 
and hurrahing through the streets ; most of the barricades disappeared, and the houses 
were illuminated. But this did not suit the secret societies. They wanted much more 
than a change of ministry. The barricades in the northeast part of the city, where the 
working classes lived, were still standing. About ten o'clock, a crowd of people with 
flags and torches marched through the Boulevards, singing and shouting. They halted 
before the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and demanded the illumination of the build- 
ing. The troops now interfered, but the Colonel commanding was insulted. Suddenly 
a shot was fired, and the soldiers delivered a volley which killed and wounded fifty- 
two of the mob. The corpses were placed upon a bier, and carried through the streets 
by men carrying torches and crying " to arms ; they are murdering us." At midnight, 
the bells were rung, and the next morning, the 24th, of February, all the streets of 
Paris were barricaded. A violent struggle soon ended with the victory of the people. 



672 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



Louis Philippe abdicated, and fled with his wife to England, whither the rest of his 
family soon followed. A republican government was established, under the presidency 
of the aged Dupont de 1' Eure, and in which the poet Lamartine, the leaders of the 
left, Ledru-Rollin and Arago, and the socialist, Louis Blanc, took part. But the new 
government did not bring the expected happiness. As the revolution was the work 
of the working classes, something must be done to better their condition. National 
workshops were established to provide employment at the expense of the state. The 
state expenses mounted up with great rapidity, and the number of men out of work 
increased with every day. The workshops had to be closed ; the working classes 
thereupon attempted a new revolution, seeking power for the fourth estate. This led 
June 32, lsis. to the cruelties of June, in which the advocates of the Red Republic dis- 




FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PARIS, 1848. — PROCLAIMING THE REPUBLIC. 

(B. Adam, and J. Arnold.) 



graced themselves by their ferocious brutality. They murdered the General Brta and 
Arch-bishop Affre of Paris, and filled the barricades with the corpses of their 
enemies. General Cavaignac was thereupon made dictator by the National Assembly. 
He conquered the insurgents, had crowds of them arrested and deported, and placed 
Paris under martial law. The National Assembly, under his protection, completed a 
republican constitution with a single chamber, and a president to be chosen every four 
years. They would fain have elected General Cavaignac to the presidency, but the 
Dec. to, 18-ts. nation, blinded by the splendor of the imperial name, chose Louis 
Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon, who had twice attempted the overthrow 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 



673 



of Louis Philippe, and undergone a long imprisonment as a punishment for his reckless 
enterprise. 

§ 566. The news of the Paris revolution produced an agitation in all Europe. 
In Germany, Hungary, and Italy, popular uprisings took place, that far exceeded all 
previous movements in extent and strength. A propaganda was established, with its 
head-center at Paris, to keep alive the revolutionary feeling, and to spread republican 
ideas, of a socialistic character. The first effects were seen in Baden. The Grand- 
duchy had been long distinguished for its political activity, and it now marched for- 




THE JUNE REVOLUTION IN PARIS, 1848. 

ward with the banner of progress and of reform. Urgent petitions demanded free- 
dom of the press, trial by jury, the right to bear arms, and a German parliament. 
The government of Baden conceded these points, and went even further in the 
adoption of conciliatory measures. The example of Baden affected other German 
states. In Wurtemburg and Saxony, the chiefs of the liberal opposition were called 
to the cabinet. The leaders of the liberal party in South Germany met at Heidel- 
berg, to consider the welfare of the nation, and issued an appeal to the German people, 
in which they urged the convening of a National Assembly. But the' agitation was 
march, 18*8. greatest in the Austrian Empire. An insurrection took place in 
Vienna, which led to the overthrow of Prince Metternich, who retired to En- 
43 



674 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



land. The old ordinances were soon dissolved, and the Austrian capital was 
for a while in a state of lawlessness. Freedom of the press produced a re- 
volutionary literature. The right of free assembly led to stormy meetings and dem- 
ocratic clubs. The plans of the revolutionists were greatly furthered by the vast 
number of unemployed workmen. Demagogues came into Vienna from all quarters, 
and street fights became the order of the day. The Emperor, with his court, retired to 




DEFENSE OF THE BARRICADES. 



xtay, lsis. Innsbruck, and did not return to the capital, until the Constitutional As* 

s»iy. sembly convened, which entreated him urgently to come back to Vienna. 

Berlin likewise had her days of March. Reluctantly the Prussian government conceded 

March, 7. the freedom of the press and other reforms, and promised a transformation 
of the German union. Conflicts between the soldiers and the people so embittered the 
latter, that they demanded the removal of the troops and the establishment of a citizen- 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 



675 



militia. Foreign agitators, especially Poles, increased the excitement and the bitter 
feeling by their exasperating speeches. Mobs gathered before the castle and insulted 
March, ts. the soldiers with their threats. A detachment of infantry pushed them 
back at the point of the bayonet ; two shots were fired, by whom or whence is un- 
known. These were the signal for a street fight, that raged violently for two weeks. 
The King finally commanded the military to be withdrawn, dismissed his ministry, and 
consented to the creation of a citizen guard for the defence of the city and the protec- 
tion of the castle. An amnesty was proclaimed ; all political prisoners were dis- 
charged, and all political exiles permitted to return. Three daj's after the proclama- 
juarch, si. of the amnesty, the King declared that he would govern as a constitu- 




GERMAN REVOLUTION, 1848. — MEETING OF THE PARLIAMENT. 

tional monarch, and place himself at the head of a free and united Germany. A con- 
stitutional assembly was elected by universal suffrage, and a few weeks afterward this 
assembly began the difficult work of preparing a constitution for the Prussian mon- 
archy. 

§ 567. Meanwhile all the German states were undergoing great changes. The 
Congress of the Union had been transformed by a number of Liberal ambassadors, 
and a committee of seventeen was appointed to sketch a new constitution for the 
German union. King Louis of Bavaria yielded to public opinion, and abdicated in 
siarcu, is48. favor of the Crown-prince Maximilian. The Duke of Hesse-Darm- 
stadt made way for his son. In Hanover and other states Liberals were called into the 
ministry, and set about democratic reforms, with headlong haste. In some sections 



676 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



revolutions broke out, the peasants destroying the rent and tithe-books, and the castles 
of their landlords. It was not enough for the radicals that a national assembly should 
frame a new constitution for Germany ; they were determined to found a German re- 
public immediately, and to that end Hecker and Struve called the people to arms. 
This movement took place in Baden, but ended in a speedy defeat of the insurgents. 
The National Assembly began its session on the 18th of May in St. Paul's church at 
Frankfort. It included the most talented and eloquent men of the German nation. 
Its first act was to abolish The Congress of the Union, and to establish a new 
Central Government. After violent debates, it was determined to choose an irre- 
sponsible executive who should be surrounded with a responsible ministry. The 
juiy 11, 1848. Arch-duke John of Austria was chosen such chief magistrate and ac- 
cepted the office ii: July, 1848. (Reichsverweser. Imperial Executive.) 

§ 568 Italy was the scene of similar changes and excitements. The banner of 
independence was unfurled in Sicily, and for a year a desperate struggle was main- 
tained against Naples, but without success, 
il '■} ■-.. ■',- ; i\lC .. J The King of Naples, with his hired Swiss 

lPS|ig soldiers, subjugated the Sicilians, and then 
abolished the constitution that he had 
granted to his people in the hour of his ex- 
tremity. In Rome the excitement was more 
than Pope Pius IX. could manage. He 
promised to grant a constitutional govern- 
jvof. is, 1848. ment, and convened an as- 
sembly in the eternal city, but his minister, 
Rossi, was stabbed to deatii, and the Demo- 
crats usurped all authority. The Pope fled 
in disguise to Gaeta, abandoning his capital 
to the mob, which immediately proclaimed 
Feb., i84o, a republic and confiscated 
the property of the church. Mazzini, the 
head of } r oung Italy, and Garibaldi, the cap- 
tain of volunteers, were the rulers of Rome. 
The Pope now appealed to the French. A 
French army marched to the city, and de- 
manded the re-establishment of the Pope. This was refused. The French besieged 
the insurgents. Weeks of bloody struggle elapsed before they entered the city. The 
suiy 3, is49. Republicans fled, and the old conditions were gradually restored. In 
Tuscany also the Democrats were successful, and drove the Grand duke into exile. 
But their success lasted a few weeks only. The greatest change, however, took place 
in upper Italy. In Milan and Venice the people drove out the Austrian garrisons. 
The standard of independence was thereupon unfurled in all Lombardy. Charles 
Albert of Sardinia also attempted to get possession of Lombardy and Venice. He de- 
clared war upon Austria, and, supported by Italian volunteers, he pushed the Austrian 
troops to the northern frontiers of Italy. But his success endured for a brief season 
only. On the 6th of May, the octogenarian field-marshal, Radetzky, defeated him at 
Verona, and compelled him to seek safety in flight. The next year Charles Albert 




KADETZKY DE KADETZ. 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 677 

attempted the enterprise a second time, but with no better success. In despair he 
gave up the crown to his son Victor Emmanuel, and fled to Portugal. The young 
king then made a disadvantageous peace with Austria, but he continued to pursue 
the path of liberal reform which his father had opened up. Venice, invincible by 
Ana. us, 18-to. position, resisted for several months the Austrian armies, but finally 
internal dissensions made it the prey of its former conquerors. Thus everywhere in 
Italy the old order was re-established. 

§ 569. The storm of revolution continued in German}' and in Hungary, and 
while the constitutional assembly in Frankfort was deliberating upon a new constitu- 
tion, a bloody war broke out in Schleswig-Holstein. According to ancient prescrip- 
tions, the two dukedoms remained united, the succession being restricted to the male 
line of the House of Oldenburg. But the energetic inhabitants of the dukedoms, 
foreseeing the extinction of the royal house of Denmark, desired to be annexed to 
■Germany, under their own Duke of Augustenberg. The King of Denmark was de. 
termined, on the other hand, to preserve the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The 
jwiv, is4o. inhabitants thereupon determined to rebel. Trusting to German help, 
they established a provisional government, and appealed to the Central Govern- 
ment at Frankfort. This appeal was answered by the appointment of a governor. 
The Danes then declared war. German volunteers poured into the country, expecting 
that the troops of the Union would soon follow. But Germany was without a navy, 
and the commerce of the North Sea and of the Baltic suffered greatly in the conflict. 
Russia and England also interfered in behalf of Denmark. The Prussian government 
Aug., isis. preferred diplomacy to war, and negotiated the truce of Malmo. The 
assembly at Frankfort accepted this truce with great reluctance, and the German re- 
publicans thereupon determined to break up the convention, and to proclaim a repub- 
lic. The federal troops prevented their success, but the murder of members of the 
•convention by the mob furnished a terrible example of the brutality of political 
hatred. 

§ 570. This brutality revealed itself in the Austrian Empire. Hungary was 
struggling for independence. She desired a separate government, in which she should 
have no part in the military system, state debt, the tax, or the financial legislation of 
the rest of the empire. But the Slavonic population of Hungary was opposed to this 
policy of the Magyars, and Jellachich of Croatia, took the field against them. The 
sept, isis, furious Magyars thereupon murdered the imperial commissioner, Lam- 
berg. Austrian troops were then ordered into Hungary, but the Democrats of Vienna 
hindered their departure by furious insurrections, during which they attacked and 
brutally murdered the minister of war. The Emperor abandoned his capital a second 
time, going to Olmutz in Moravia. He then empowered Windischgratz to restore 
order in Vienna. The city was besieged by Austrian soldiers, and defended for three 
weeks by the people. Finally it was stormed ; martial law was proclaimed, and 
the ring-leaders of the insurrection were put to death. Among these was Robert 
xov. », is4s, Blum, a member of the National Assembly at Frankfort, and one of 
the principal orators of the Democratic party. 

§ 571. Windischgratz now led his victorious army into Hungary. The majority 
of the Frankfort Parliament thereupon determined, if possible, to separate the rest of 
Germany from Austria, so that each might erect a new political system, and then en- 



678 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 



ter into a commercial and customs alliance. Prussia was to be the head of this new- 
German confederation. Heinrich von Gagern was the principal champion of this plan, 
and undertook, at the head of a new federal cabinet, to carry it into execution. But it 
was opposed by the Austrians, by the Catholics and by the Republicans. The Aus- 
triaus opposed it because thej r were unwilling to be excluded from Germany, the Cath- 
olics because they begrudged the leadership to Protestant Prussia, and the Republi- 
cans because they saw in it the postponement of their final triumph. Moreover the 
king of Prussia had dissolved the constitutional convention that he had convened in 
Berlin. Worn out by the agitation and excitement, the King had determined upon a 
-vol. is4s. decisive step. He appointed a new ministry under the presidency of 
Count Brandenburg, prorogued the National Assembly, fixing its next session at the 
city of Brandenburg, and when a great number of the deputies refused obedience and 
declared the collection of revenues unconstitutional, he dissolved the Assembly. At 

the same time, however, he published a 
liberal constitution of his own, which 
provided for a legislative body to con- 
sist of two chambers, and to be chosen 
by universal suffrage. 

§ 572. Austria soon followed the 
example of Prussia. The Emperor 
Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his 
youthful nephew, Francis Joseph. The 
new emperor dissolved the constitu- 
te, rsjs. tional assembly, pro- 
claimed a new constitution and a new 
code of laws. He then proceeded to 
the subjugation of the Magyars, but 
they offered a desperate resistance. 
Excited by the fiery eloquence of Kos- 
suth, and supported by Polish leaders, 
like Dembinski, the Hungarians drove 
out the Austrians and conquered all 
the fortified places. Gorgey com- 
manded their army with great skill. 
Foreign volunteers strengthened their ranks. Hungarian banknotes circulated as 
money. The independence of Hungary was proclaimed, and a provisional govern- 
.4j>wr, is*a. ment established, which was conducted by Kossuth. The Austrian 
authorities soon saw that Windischgratz was not equal to the emergency. He was- 
recalled, and the brutal field-marshal. Haynau, appointed in his place. And at the same 
time Austria asked help of Russia. Hungary was now invaded from three sides. 
From the north Paskiewitsch entered with a Russian army ; from the West, Haynau 
with Austrian troops ; and from the south, Jellachich with his Croats. The Hungar- 
ians, however, continued the contest for several months. But quarrels between the 
Polish and the Magyar leaders, and between Kossuth and Gu'rgey, destroyed their 
Aug. is-*o. strength. Gorgey, who had been declared dictator, surrendered at 
Vilagos, while Kossuth and other leaders fled to Turkey. Many were condemned to 




LOUIS KOSSt'TH. 



EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 679 

death, many languished away in dungeons, and many were compelled to perform the 
meanest drudgery of the Austrian army. 

§ 573. The fall of Hungary was the conclusion of the revolutionary movement. 
For the National Assembly at Frankfort had already come to an end. It had pro- 
March, ism. claimed the fundamental right of the German people, and had at last 
framed a constitution. The party of Gagern had prevailed by a small majority. But 
in order to do so, had compromised with the democratic radicals. The new constitu- 
tion provided that the king of Prussia should become hereditary emperor of the new 
Germany. A solemn deputation went to Berlin and offered the imperial dignity to 
the king of Prussia, if he would accept the new constitution with all its provisions. 
But the King gave at first an uncertain answer, and afterwards declined the proffered 
honor. The Prussian estates, which had been meanwhile convened, presented an ad- 
dress to the King, in which they urged him to accept the imperial dignity and the new 
constitution. The House of Representatives was thereupon dissolved, the upper 
chamber was adjourned, and the election laws so changed, that in future, representa- 
Apra, is4o. fives were chosen, not by universal suffrage, but by electors, divided 
into three classes, according to their rank and property. 

§ 574. This refusal to accept the new imperial constitution provoked new excite- 
ment throughout Germany., Insurrections and street fights took place, first in those 
states that refused to introduce the new government, — in Saxony, in Bavaria, and in 
parts of Rhenish Prussia. Next in Baden, where the government had accepted the 
May, isjb. new constitution, a mutiny occurred among the soldiers, and in conse- 
quence of this, the Grand-duke abandoned the country to the democratic and repub- 
lican leaders. In the National Assembly at Frankfort, the refusal of the German gov- 
ernments to accept the new constitution, gave the extreme left increasing influence; 
the conservative deputies leaving, either voluntarily, or at the command of their gov- 
ernments. But the Prussian army rapidly conquered peace. Prussian troops sup- 
pressed the uprisings along the Rhine; they marched into Dresden, and freed the capi- 
tal of Saxony from the insurgents; they invaded Bavaria and Baden, and suppressed 
the insurrection just as it threatened to enter Wiirtemburg. The remnant of the 
j»ie, is49. National Assembly at Frankfort now removed to Stuttgart. They were 
spoken of as the Rump Parliament, nevertheless they established an executive council 
of five members, and would have supported the revolution, had not Romer driven 
them from the kingdom. Meanwhile the Prussians had re-established order in Baden. 
The republican leaders escaped to Switzerland or to America. Soon after these events, 
the three kings of Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony, published a new imperial constitu- 
tion, which was received with great satisfaction by the moderate men of all parties. 
But Saxony and Hanover soon withdrew, and left Prussia to carry out the plan alone. 
Austria now intervened, and restored the old Congress of the Union. Prussia, for a 
while, refused to send a representative. Austria, and the others states, threatened to 
use force, and the armies were confronting each other, when, at the last moment, the 
conflict was averted by an agreement made between the Prussian and the Austrian 

xovemher, isso. ministry. This humiliation of Prussia at Olmiitz, where the minis- 
ters met, created great bitterness at Berlin, and throughout the kingdom. Various at- 

jDecembet; isso. tempts were made to establish a more perfect union, but all proved 



680 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 

fruitless. Prussia finally gave way, the Old Union was re-established, and the old 
Congress at Frankfort reconvened. 

§ 575. Affairs in Schleswig-Holstein also Iwrned out badly. In March, 1849, the 
Germans marched triumphantly to Fridericia, and beleaguered the place. But the 
garrison was strengthened, the German army was driven back, and the Danes pos- 

jfwiv, isn>. sessed themselves of the intvenchments and works of the besiegers. 
A truce followed. Schleswig was placed under neutral authority, and occupied by 
Prussian and Swedish troops, and the next year, Schleswig and Holstein were handed 
over to Denmark. But the governor, who had been appointed by the Central Gov- 

juiy, is5o. eminent at Frankfort, refused to abandon the country. Volunteers 
streamed in from all sides. The Danes were attacked, but the battle ended in the dis- 
comfiture of the Germans. The latter continued the war, but Austria and Prussia 
determined to bring it to a speedy close. They required the governor to give up his 
authority, and to make room for a government appointed by Denmark and the two 
German powers. Their wishes were fulfilled. Austrian troops occupied the land from 
Hamburg to Rensburg, and Schleswig was given over to the vengeance of the Danes. 
§ 576. The constitutional assembly of France finished its labors in May, 1849. 
A democratic republic with universal suffrage, and religious and civil freedom for everj r 
citizen, with a single legislative chamber, and a president to be elected every four 
years, were the leading features of the new system. The new legislature contained 
many democrats with socialistic tendency. These called themselves The Mountain, 
and when the French government resolutely opposed socialism at home and abroad, 
the Mountain attempted to provoke new uprisings in Paris and Lyons. These were 
speedily suppressed, and many of the leaders driven into exile, or carried off to prison. 
The socialists now abandoned their plans of revolution, but sought to increase their 
power in the legislature. To prevent this the National Assembly limited the suffrage, 
may 3i, i8so. and at the same time issued new regulations for the Press. These 
measures brought upon the assembly the hatred of the people, and Louis Napoleon 
getting possession of the army, and the civil officers, prepared to overthrow the con- 
stitution, and to make himself sole ruler. He won the clergy by great concessions, 
and when the assembly refused to alter the constitution so as to make him eligible for 
a second term, Louis Napoleon, with the help of his arm)-, dispersed the assembty, and 
struck down the parliamentary opposition. The Coup d' Etat was supported b}' St. 

2>ece>»be>- it, A maud, the minister of War, Morny, and Maupas, the Minister of 
tssi, Police. Leading members of Parliament were arrested and banished. 

Insurrections and barricade-fights took place in Paris, Lyons, and other cities, but 
were soon suppressed. The president "appealed to the people, and 7,000,000 votes 
were cast in favor of the new government, which was built upon the plan of the First 
Consulate. Louis Napoleon was declared president for ten years. He was clothed with 
royal authority, and the legislative power was made to consist of a senate and a legis- 
lative assembly. But this was only a temporary device. The empire was proclaimed 
.December a, the next year, the people voting for it by a still greater majority The 
iss2. French people, worn out and wasted by revolutions, submitted will- 

ingly to the new emperor, Napoleon III., who, with the help of police and military, 
established peace and order with an iron hand. 




(pp. 682.) ALFRED TENNYSON. 




RECENT HISTORY. 

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE TO 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR. 

I. THE WESTERN POWERS AND RUSSIA. 




THE SECOND NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE. 

HE establishment of the new empire in Franco 
filled the reactionary and conservative par- 
ties with new confidence. All fear of rev- 
olution seemed to vanish, and the aristocratic 
world abandoned itself once more to the de- 
lights of social life. The other nations at 
first maintained an attitude of reserve, fear- 
ing lest the third Napoleon might follow in 
the footsteps of his uncle, not only in his 
methods of internal administration, but in 
his foreign policy ; that he might revive the 
Napoleonic ideas and traditions, which he had 
proclaimed in his writings as the true stand- 
ards of progressive development. Gradually, 
however, they came to believe that " the em- 
pire was peace." The nephew had, to be 
sure, been sorely tried by fate, and had learned to tame and to control his passions, to 
conceal his thoughts and his plans, or to wrap them up in ambiguous expressions and 
diplomatic phrases. Nevertheless " a Napoleon of peace," as Louis Phillipe liked to 
call himself, he was determined not to become. The " grand nation " had felt itself sorely 
wounded by the conduct of the citizen-king. For the pride of France was to guide 
the fate of Europe, to control the course of history, to start new impulses, to speak 
the emphatic word, to exercise in critical moments the decisive influence. And this 

(683) 



684 



RECENT HISTORY. 



national pride Napoleon resolved to gratify. Recognizing the military character of 
the French people, he determined to give it every opportunity; and, by cherishing this 
love of glory, he revived the slumbering sympathies for the Bonapartist dynasty, es- 
tablished his throne upon strong foundations, and directed the restless and turbulent 
forces of the people to foreign issues. When the royal families of Europe hesitated 




'$Bmi. 




NAPOLEON III. 



to ally themselves in matrimony with the new ruler, Napoleon offered his hand to the 
Spanish beauty, Eugenie Montijo, Duchess of Teba, and in doing so he proudly de- 
jran.ao, issa. clared himself a sovereign "by the grace of the people." His marriage 
March ie, lsso. and the birth of a prince three years later, were both greeted by uni- 
versal applause. Napoleon announced, as the fundamental principle of his policy, the 
right of the people to determine their own destiny ; this involved, in its application, a 
resort to the ballot-box in every case of political transformation. Savoy and Nice 
were annexed to France by a popular vote ; the smaller states of Italy were incorpor- 
ated into the new kingdom by the action of the people ; and in Mexico the establish- 
ment of an empire was based apparently and ostentatiously upon the popular will. In 
the Schleswig-Holstein difficulty Napoleon urged a similar solution. Social questions 
were carefully studied by the Emperor. In Paris he created bakeries, subsidized by 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 685 

the city, where the poorer classes could obtain bread at moderate prices. In the valley 
of the Rhone he provided against inundations, by dykes, and dams, and changes in the 
bed of the stream ; and he sought everywhere to further agriculture. Splendid public 
buildings, erected at the expense of the Empire and the Cities, furnished employment to 
the masses, and at the same time created new streets and healthier dwellings. The 
great Exposition of art and industry, which was opened in May 1854, and commercial 

1854. treaties with different states, greatly increased the trade of France at 

home and abroad. Unlike his uncle, who had fettered the commerce of Europe by the 
Berlin and Milan decrees, he unloosed the bonds of the French protective system, and 
by diminishing or abolishing tariff duties, he made an important step toward free-trade. 
Notwithstanding the popularity of Napoleon's rule, his enemies remained bitter and 
numerous. The Legitimists retired from political life, and, owing to the inactivity and 
the passive nature of their chief, the childless Count Chambord, their hopes for a new 
restoration faded away. The Orleanists were represented by Guizot, who occupied 
himself with his memoirs, and his religious meditations, and by Thiers, who, though 
brought into intimate relations with the Napoleonic family by his " History of the Con- 
sulate and the Empire," had, nevertheless, become a member of the parliamentary op- 
position. But the Republicans were much more stubborn in their resistance, and their 
hatred for the new regime. Many distinguished personalities like Ledru Rollin and 
Louis Blanc, like Victor Hugo and Quinet, remained abroad, as irreconcilable haters of 
imperialism, in England, in Belgium, in Switzerland, expecting a new overturn in 
affairs. And even in France, on many occasions, as for instance, at the burial of the 

is57. poet, Be"ranger, there were outbreaks of anti-Bonapartistic feelings 

and opinions. But Napoleon III. was on his guard. He had a vigilant police, a pow- 
erful army, a splendid guard, devoted generals and officers, who repaid him with fidel- 
ity and zeal for the advantageous position that he had created for them in the state 
and in society. A corporation law, drawn with great care, gave the government the 
right to examine minutely into every form of society and every kind of meeting. The 
severest measures against the press silenced the opposition, and placed the expression 
of public opinion altogether under the control of the state. The attack of the Italian, 
Tune 14, lass. Orsini, upon the life of the Emperor, gave an opportunity for even 
severer measures. Five districts were created, and Espinasse was made minister of 
war and police. In a word, the whole empire was placed under martial law ; a military- 
police terrorism, conspicuous for arrests and deportations, held all minds imprisoned, 
and filled them with fear and alarm. This system of war, and of terror, was only 
gradually modified by conciliatory measures, and even then, the free expression of opin- 
ion in the press, and in the legislature, was greatly limited. The system of centraliza- 
tion, which placed all power in the hands of the officials, guided and determined every 
manifestation of public life, and repressed every kind of self-government, in corpora- 
tions and communities. 

Not until Napoleon had, through a new military organization, placed the empire 

iset. in a position to maintain the attitude toward other nations, due to its 

rank, and to hold in check the hostile elements at home, did he enter into freer paths. 

iseo. The dismission of Minister Rouher, the adroit champion of imperial 

absolutism, marks the transition to a constitutional system, with freedom of the press 
and of public assembly, and of actual participation by the legislative body in public 



686 



RECENT HISTORY. 



affairs. Once more the people were called upon to speak their mind at the ballot-box; 

May s, isio. the parliamentary era was adopted by a vast majority, and Ollivier 

was called to headthe new administration. But the greatest triumphs of Napoleon 

were in the field of European politics. Supported 
by England, he was able to break up the Holy Al- 
liance, and by waging successful war against Rus- 
sia, and against Austria, he restored to France 
her military glor}-, and her controlling position in 
the affairs of the civilized world. 

§ 578. The English government regarded 
with anxiet} T , at first, the restoration of the Bona- 
partist Dynasty, and its traditions, and accord- 
ingly, began to increase the defences of the na- 
tion. Harbors and coast-fortifications were placed 
^ in order, great additions were made to the nav}' 
Jg and to the army, and a volunteer soldiery was or- 
^-ganized. Indeed all the nations of the continent 
-§ were angry at England, seeing that political fugi- 

5 tives, and exiles from all lands, found a safe refuge 
-in the island kingdom, from which the} r could sup- 
's port the party of revolution in other European 

states, and from which the}' labored to overthrow 
2 existing governments. The British cabinet, how- 
jQ ever, by its moderation and adroitness, pacified 
wthe continental powers, without limiting in the 
. least the ancient freedom of the soil ; and as 
" events of great importance soon directed the gaze 
< of the world to other things, a good understand- 

6 ing was restored. France and England entered 
g into an alliance, which was kept alive by repeated 
§ visits between the ruling families and by manv 
s personal attentions. This enabled the English 
S nation to move, unhindered, along the pathway of 

reform and of intellectual progress, which she fol- 

, v.Wi- ~ , ; - ■ lows with such eagerness and success. The 

si I , ' lllillif 3sf uEffi'^W World's Fair, in the year 1851, the diminution or 

abolition of taxes, marine telegraphs and the like, 
greatly furthered trade and commerce. The law 
was even-where enforced : the slave trade was op- 
posed and suppressed ; the rights of seamen and 
of the merchant marine defended ; Jews were ad- 
mitted to parliament, and the election laws were so 
changed, as to include, among the electors, nearly 
the entire adult male population. But England 
v/as by no means~~so" fortunate and successful in her foreign policy. This was often 
one sided : the influence of the country was often frittered away in petty quarrels ; 




FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



687 



nobler policies were often sacrificed to material advantages, to the interests of trade 
and to national prejudice. With the United States of North America she quarreled 
continually, and these quarrels became so bitter that several times they threatened 
war. In the East Indies, the disregard of the religious usages and prejudices of the 
natives, the injustice and partiality of the courts, the inadequate execution of agree- 
ments, and of treaties by British officials and by British officers, provoked a rebellion in 
the army and a national war, which shook profoundly the Anglo-Indian Empire and 
brought with it most inhuman cruelties. In Delhi, the massacre of English in- 
i8S7. habitants, by the rebellious Sepoys, was revenged by streams of blood. 

The treacherous deeds, and the horrible cruelty of Prince Nana Sahib in Cawnpore, 




EXECUTION OP SEPOY LEADERS IN INDIA. (D. WeinhdUpt.) 

who had murdered, in the region of the upper Ganges, all his European prisoners re- 
gardless of age or sex, were punished by horrible executions at the cannon's mouth. 
Yet the insurrection enhanced the power of England, and led to its firmer establish- 
ment. The courageous behavior of the European armies in Lucknow, and other places 
maia Bin. of the rebellious land, the achievements of General Havelock, and other 
iss8. commanders, gave splendid proof of their superiority and military 

energy; and the subjection of the Indian empire to the immediate authority of the 
Queen, after the rebellion was suppressed, opened a new era in the public life of the 
East Indies. The fidelity with which Queen Victoria supported the parliamentary 
system in England, united government and people in confidence and affection. Only 
in Ireland was there disaffection. The Fenians in America sent their agents into the 
Emerald Isle, to provoke an insurrection, so that the English government was com- 
pelled to suspend the habeas corpus act, and to declare martial law. The head centre, 
Stephens, was arrested, but made his escape. Conspiracies, conflagrations, murderous 



688 



RECENT HISTORY. 



attacks now kept the English people in continual excitement, and provoked numerous 
prosecutions, and exceptional police laws. Yet they were not without good results, for 
the liberal party made earnest efforts, by the disestablishment of the English Church in 
Ireland, and by a reform in the land laws, to pacify the Irish people. The land legisla- 
tion, especially, was intended to set limits to the severity, and caprice, of the landlords, 
and to render possible, the conversion of a tenant farm into a freehold. The death of 
»ec. 14, isei. the Prince Consort Albert, was a heavy blow not only to the Queen, 
but to the country ; for the prince had always exercised a conciliatory and wholesome 
influence upon public affairs, and upon the court circle. Victoria was so heart-broken 
by her loss, that she withdrew herself, for a long time, from state ceremonies. King 

/>...■. /*«.-». Leopold of Belgium, the prince's uncle, died four years later ; just a 
few months after the death of the great statesman Palmerston, whose skillful 

Oct. lses. hand had so often guided the ship of state through storms and difficult 
situations, and to whose intimacy with Napoleon was especially due the maintenance 
of the alliance between France and England. A noteworthy episode in English his- 
tory, was the brief war with Abyssinia. The tyrannical king, Theodore, cast certain 
missionaries and English citizens into prison, and scorned all remonstrances and re- 
quests of the London cabinet. Sir Robert Napier was sent, with an armed force, to the 
Red Sea, to vindicate the national honor, and the rights of nations. King Theodore 

Apru isos. himself was killed at the storming of the fortress Magdella, and the 
Abyssinians were glad to accept the terms of the conquerors. 
§ 579. — Russia and the Oriental Question. 

The third Napoleon consecrated his empire with a war against the same nation 
which had triumphed over his uncle and the grand army; and in revenging the name of 
Napoleon he not only flattered French pride, but the religious prejudices of the Catholic 

clergy. The Revolution had never 







LORD PALMERSTON. 



touched the frontiers of the Russian 
Empire ; even the Poles had submit- 
ted in silent resignation to the will 
of the stern monarch in St. Peters- 
burg ; Austria had invoked his help 
against Hungary ; Prussia was his 
faithful ally ; the German princes re- 
garded him as the strong tower of 
royal authority ; the people were op- 
pressed and discouraged, public opin- 
ion reduced to silence, the party of 
reaction honored and respected. Nich- 
olas " sole autocrat of all the Rus- 
sias " was thus led to resume the 
conquests of Katherine II., and to 
bring the principalities on the Danube 
into closer relations, by the erection 
of a Russian protectorate. The Turk- 
ish empire was in a shattered condi- 
tion. The Russian Czar spoke of it, 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 689 

in a confidential conversation, as a " sick man ; " a strong blow might easily be its death- 
blow. The Czar especially relied upon the great discord between the Christians and 
Mohammedans, and upon the devotion of the Greek Christians, who looked upon him as 
the protector of their faith. True the Turkish government was not guilty of oppress- 
ing its Christian subjects. Christians of all confessions might live undisturbed, if they 
only paid their taxes. In the lands and cities south of the Danube, the Christians con- 
stituted a majority of the inhabitants. In Constantinople, and in other cities, they 
dwelt in particular sections. The government of the Sultan, however, was not always 
able to restrain the fanaticism of the Mohammedans in the outlying provinces. The 
Christians were sometimes attacked, robbed, outraged, murdered. Now there existed 
old treaties, which conceded to the Russian Czar, a certain protectorate over the Christ- 
ians of Greek confession ; and Nicholas, earnestly devoted to his church, and regarding 
its extension as his holiest duty, lost no opportunity to meddle in the religious 
quarrels of the Turkish kingdom. Russian agents were constantly seeking to bind 
their companions in the faith to the great northern power, and the Russian ambassador 
in Constantinople spoke as if the Czar were the rightful and acknowledged protector, 
of Greek Christendom in the East. The Christians of Greek confession by this action 
of the Czar, not only secured for themselves an advantageous position with Moslems, 
but they came to regard themselves as the only lawful possessors of the pilgrim-stations 
in Palestine, especially of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem ; and determined, in their 
arrogance, to exclude the Roman Catholic pilgrims from the sacred places, or to admit 
them only under humiliating conditions. Thus the Holy Chapel, at the Sepulchre 
often became the scene of bloody quarrels, between the confessors of the Eastern and the 
Western church. Now it happened that France possessed a like protectorate over the 
Roman Catholics of Palestine. But since the number of Greek pilgrims was much the 
greater, and the French government was seldom disposed to vex itself about the 
pilgrim monks in the Holy Land, the Greek Christians had obtained the advantage by 
the powerful help of Russia and by the weakness of the Sublime Porte. So Nicholas- 
determined to declare himself the protector of all Christians in the Turkish Empire, 
and thus to give a legal aspect to actual conditions ; but this would have so degraded 
the Sultan in the eyes of the Mohammedans, that if it had succeeded unchallenged, it 
would have precipitated the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. 

§ 580. Events Along the Danube., and in the Baltic Sea. — France and England re- 
solved to preserve " the balance of power " and came at once to the support of Turkey. 
The Czar, however, hoped to frighten the Sultan by energetic promptness. Prince 
Menschikoff was sent to Constantinople as extraordinary-ambassador. Stopping at 
Sebastopol he reviewed the Russian fleet and army, and then proceeded to the Bos- 
phorus. He demanded an immediate audience with the Sultan, and entered his pres- 
March 2, iss3. ence without ceremony and even without respect. His demands were as 
insolent as his bearing. He demanded for the Czar a protectorate over all Greek 
Christians. This would have m.ade Nicholas co-regent with the Sultan. When his de- 
mands were rejected, Menschikoff left the Turkish capital with angry threats. Three 
weeks later, the English and French fleets anchored in the Dardanelles to watch the 
July ■>, iss3. course of events. Nicholas thereupon commanded Prince Gortschakoff 
to cross the river Pruth with two divisions, and take possession of the Danubian prin- 
cipalities. To gain favor with the Christian po]Dulation, he issued a manifest saying 
that he came to defend the Holy orthodox faith. Sultan Abdul Medschid replied with 
44 



690 



RECENT HISTORY. 



a firman, in which he solemnly confirmed their rights, to the Christians of his domin- 
ion ; and on the 4th of Oct. he declared war upon Russia, unless the latter imme- 
diately evacuated the Danubian principalities. At the same time Omar Pasha occu- 
pied the south bank of the 




Danube with a 
army. Nicholas 



Turkish 
did not 
cross the river, but the Rus- 
xov. 30, iss3. sian fleet at- 
tacked the Turkish squadron 
in the harbor of Sinope, and 
destroyed the most of it. 
England and France, as the 
allies of Turkey, resented 
this outrage bj r declaring war 
upon the Russians. The war 
now assumed large propor- 
tions. Prince Paskiewitsch, 
the most famous of Russian 
generals, led the Russian ar- 
mies to Silistria, while* the 
English forces under Lord 
Raglan, and a French army 
under Marshal St. Arnaud 
appeared in the Dardanelles, 
and landed at Varna. At 
the same time Admiral 
Aug., issj. Charles Na- 
pier conducted an English 
fleet to the Baltic to attack 
Cronstadt and St. Peters- 
burg. The Russians were 
unsuccessful at Silistria, and 
Paskiewitsch retired from the 
war. The French, in a hasty 
march to the interior, lost 
two thousand men from heat, 
fatigue, and cholera, and the 
camp at Varna was devas- 
tated by the pestilence. The 
expedition to the Baltic had 
not much more success. Bo- 
marsund was captured, a few 
sailing vessels were de- 
stroyed and a few coast vil- 
lages devastated. 
§ 581. The War in the Crimea. — After the allies had lost fifteen thousand men, they 
determined to attack the fortified city of Sebastopol, and to destroy the Russian naval 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



691 




power in the Black Sea. North of Sebastopol itself were strong fortifications intended 
to protect the fleet lying at anchor in the harbor, and beyond these were the heights 
occupied by Prince Menschikoff, with an army of thirty thousand men. These were 

sept, no, is**, attacked by the allies and were driven from their position in the Battle 
of the Alma. Yet Sebastopol was still impregnable. Menschikoff found time to 
strengthen the city from all sides, a 
work in which he was greatly aided 
by the genius of General Todleben. 
He further added to his inaccessi- 
bility by sinking seven great ships 
of war in the harbor. The allies 
soon perceived that they must wait 
for new cannon, and instruments of 
siege ; and meanwhile must go into 
camp. St. Arnaud fell sick and 
died upon the ship that was taking 
him to Constantinople. He was 
succeeded by General Canrobert. 
The siege of Sebastopol now began 
in earnest. The first attempt to 
storm the works, by a united attack 
of army and navy, ended in a disas- 
trous retreat of the allies. Eight 

Nov. s, 1854. days later the Eng- 
lish were attacked at Balaklava, 
famous in poetry for the charge of 
the Six Hundred. On the 5th of November the battle of Inkerman was fought and 
resulted in favor of the allies. 

§ 582. The Winter Campaign in Front of Sebastopol. — But the bloody battle of 
Inkerman effected no change in the situation. A winter campaign, for which no prepa- 
rations had been made, was inevitable. Not since the Russian campaign of 1812 had 
an army suffered such misery as the soldiers in the Crimea during the winter of 1854 
and 1855. Incessant rains converted the trenches into canals, and the tents were often 
filled knee-deep with water. Clothing, food, hospital supplies were lacking; men 
were compelled to serve often without shelter ; diseases of all sorts, especially the cholera 
and dysentery, carried them away by scores. Sisters of Mercy and English women, 
particularly Florence Nightingale, made noble sacrifices to alleviate the sufferings of 
the troops. This misery of the allied armies encouraged the Russian Emperor to hold 
out. He rejected the four points which had been offered him as a basis of peace, al- 
though they were supported by Austria and Prussia. Austria, at this juncture, joined 

Jan. as, isss. the allies, and some weeks later Sardinia made a treaty with France 
and England, and sent an army of fifteen thousand men to the Crimea. Prussia and the 
states of the German union adhered to their neutrality. When the new year opened, 
the war was resumed with redoubled energy. But the Czar Nicholas was not per- 
mitted to see its close. The news that his army had been defeated by Omar Pasha so 

itiarcFi a, isss. wrought upon his health, that he died quite suddenly. His son an(f 
successor, Alexander II., was more inclined to a peaceful settlement of the terrible 



HH ;V - 



"GENERAL VON TODLEBEN. 



692 



RECEXT HISTORY. 



war. Nevertheless, respect for his deceased father required him to exert all the 
energy of the nation to bring the struggle to an honorable conclusion. The honor of 

France, and of the 
new empire, also de- 
manded more sacri- 
fices. So the allies 
approached with their 
trenches and their 
parallels nearer to 
the city, and Todle- 
ben created the cele- 
brated Malakoff tow- 
er, an almost impreg- 
nable bulwark. 

§583. The Issue 
of the War. The 
siege of Sebastopol 
lasted all summer. 
Meanwhile, a part of 
% the allied fleet sailed 
j into the sea of Azof, 
< and devastated the 
a harbor towns. Prince 
| Gortschakoff suc- 
3 ceeded Prince Men- 
2 schikoff as Russian 
2 commander, and Gen- 
h eral Pelissier s u c - 
* ceeded Canrobert in 
command of the 
French army. "When 
Lord Raglan was car- 
ried off by the chol- 
era, General Simpson 
took his place, and 
the Russian admiral, 
Nachimoff,w r as struck 
by a bullet, as he was 
inspecting the forti- 
fications. Thus death 
mowed down the au- 
thors and leaders of 
the terrible war. On 
isss. the 8th 

of September, after 

terrible slaughter, the Malakoff tower was stormed by the French, and another bul- 
wark by the English, Gortschakoff still held a strong position upon the north side 





storming the malakoff, (Sept. 8,1855). (E. Knoetel.) (pp.693.) 



694 



RECENT HISTORY. 



of the bay, but the siege of Sebastopol was ended. On all sides the longing was for 
peace. But not until the Russians had saved their honor, by capturing the Turkish 
fortification at Kars, was the Czar willing to accept the proposition to call the Con- 
jaarch 3o, iss6. gress at Paris. After weeks of negotiation, the Congress agreed upon 
the following : 

The Ottoman empire should be preserved, the navigation of the Danube made 

free, the Danubian 
principalities should 
be placed under the 
protection of the 
western powers, the 
Christians should 
have equal rights 
with Mohammedans, 
under the guarantee 
of all the contracting 
powers, and the Rus- 
sian naval force in 
the Black Sea should 
be limited. 

Napoleon III., at 
the close of the 
Crimean war, was at 
the height of his 
power. His minister, 
Walewski, a natural 
son of the first Napo- 
leon, conducted the 
Congress. All eyes 
were now directed to 
the arbiter of Europe, 
whose happiness at 
this time was in- 
creased by the birth of a son, the child of France, given to the world by his Spanish 
wife Eugenie. 

§ 584. Turkey and Greece. The Sublime Porte came out of the war exceedingly 
feeble. Neither Abdul Medschid, who died on the 26th of June, 1861, or his brother 
Ahaui A S is, and successor, Abdul Aziz, could cope with the increasing anarchy and 
1SC1-/SJ6. financial misery. The attempts at reform, made by Fuad Pasha, were 
without enduring success. The chief difficulty, however, was caused by the vassal 
states. Moldavia and Wallachia united together to form Roumania, and chose a Mol- 
davian nobleman, Alexander Cusa, as their leader ; and when he proved a tyrant, a 
rebellion broke out in Bucharest, which brought to the throne a German prince, Carl 
web., is«e. Anton von Hohenzollern. In Servia the conflicts between the Chris- 
tians and the Turks became so bloody, that the western powers were obliged to inter- 
fere so that the sovereignty of the Sultan vanished to a shadow. The next j'ear 
ises. Prince Michael Obrenowitsch was murdered at Belgrade, and his 




ALEXANDER II. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



695 



young relative, Prince Milan, was raised to the throne by the National Assembly. 
King Otto of Greece, in spite of his good will, had, in thirty years, been unable to 
acquire the affection of the people. During the Crimean war, some, enthusiasts in 
Athens sought to excite the Greeks to take the part of Russia, but Otto, partly from 
lack of energy, and partly from fear of the western powers, resisted the urging of the 
friends of Russia. This conduct deprived him of any respect still existing for him 
among the Greeks. They believed that with an enterprising man on the throne their 
"great idea" of a new Greek empire might be realized. They therefore planned the 

isea. overthrow of the Bavarian dynasty. Uprisings took place in Athens 

and Corinth, which led to the departure of the king and the erection of a provisional 
government. But the hope of getting a monarch from a powerful reigning house was 
not fulfilled. Several princes declined the offered crown. Finally a young Danish 

isos. prince was chosen at the suggestion of England and proclaimed King 

of Greece, under the name of George I. But he proved as feeble as the Bavarian Otto. 
The English government then gave up its protectorate of the Ionic islands, and consented 
to their union with the Greek kingdom. But the national and religious excitement 
continued and provoked bloody uprisings and cruel conflicts in the island of Candia 
(the ancient Crete). King George, by his marriage with a Russian princess, united 
his people more firmly to the Russians, and trusting to Russian support, the Greeks 
encouraged the uprisings in Candia. Turkey now assumed a hostile attitude, and Eu- 
rope was threatened once more with the 
Eastern question. But a conference at 
Paris restored the island to the Turks. 
The visit of the Empress Eugenie of 
France, the Emperor Francis Joseph of 

iseo. Austria, and the Crown 

Prince of Prussia, to the Suez canal, 
built under the direction of the French 
diplomatist, De Lesseps, brought the Ot- 
toman empire a step closer to the civil- 
ized world of Europe. 

§ 585. Russia under Alexander II. 
Alexander II. was crowned Czar of all 
the Russias in Moscow, on the 7th of 
September, 1856. At his coronation he 
issued a number of edicts of mercy. He 
also diminished the standing army, there- 
by relieving the countrj' of taxation, and 
setting free much wasted energy for in- 
dustrial pursuits. Commercial treaties 
promoted intercourse with foreign lands. 
A ministry of enlightenment set about improving and increasing the schools. The 
oppression of the Jews and the non-Greek Christians ceased, and the administration 
of justice was modified by the introduction of the jury system. But his great reform 
was the abolition of serfdom, and the establishment of peasant communities upon a 
landed basis, a measure which began a complete transformation of the social, financial, 
and economic conditions of the empire. At the same time, the Russian power in 




FERDINAND DE LESSEPS. 



696 



RECENT HISTORY. 



lass. Asia was strengthened and extended. Schamyl, the ancient enemy 

of the Czar in Circassia, was taken prisoner and held a captive, until he died twelve 
years afterward. 

§ 586. Parties in Poland. Alexander II. extended his reform to Poland also, 
where Prince Gortschakoff, the defender of Sebastopol, took the place of the old Prince 
Paskiewitsch. An amnesty permitted the political fugitives to return home. The 
judicial and educational systems were reorganized, the University of Warsaw was 
made a national institution, the peasants were relieved of feudal burdens, the cities 
were given home government, and an economic society was founded in Warsaw. But 
the Poles still longed to be a nation, and the patriotic party thought the time was op- 
portune to restore the " lost country." Russia was weakened by the Crimean war ; 
France had declared in favor of popular suffrage. A party of national resistance was 
organized, and secret societies spread through the land. The peasants, mistrustful of 

the Polish nobility, held apart from the 
movement. The chief supporters of the 
National party were in the old cities, es- 
pecially in the capital, Warsaw, among the 
educated youth, who. dreamed of a glorious 
nationality, among the priests who thought 
the movement favorable to their design, 
among the dissatisfied Jews who wished for 
civil equality, and among the emigrants who 
carried in their breasts as a holy inheritance, 
a consuming hatred for the destroyers of 
their beloved Poland. 

§ 587. In February, 1861, the National 
party began a series of patriotic demonstra- 
isei. tions. When the Russian 

military intervened, bloody conflicts en- 
sued. The imperial government regretted 
these events, and entrusted to a number of 
distinguished citizens the maintenance of 
public order. At the same time, Count 
Wielopolski, a high-minded Polish patriot, was appointed minister of education and of 
religious affairs in Warsaw. A Polish state council also was established. But these 
gifts were not enough for the excited patriots. They desired independence, and the 
restoration of the ancient Polish republic. Processions, public meetings, the singing 
of the national hymn by excited crowds, still continued. The authorities dissolved the 
militia and the economical union, and also increased the severity of the police. But 
the excitement increased, and in April a conflict took place between the soldiers and 
the people, in which a number of Poles were killed and •wounded. Warsaw was now 
placed by the governor in a state of siege ; the demonstrations of the National party 
were forbidden. The movement was thereupon transferred from the streets to the 
churches. The national hymns were sung within the sacred walls, and heaven was 
besought to answer with the restoration of Poland. The death of the old Prince 
Czartoryski,' the Nestor of the Polish patriots in 1831, was solemnized in Paris by a 




SCHAMYL. 






fiwrappi^~~ 






3' 

v sS ■ 
I '4' Ui 



ii*! 1 



OS 
CO 

Si 







698 . RECENT HISTORY. 

great procession and elaborate ceremonies. The state of siege was now extended by 
the governor over all Poland. The singing of the national hymn was forbidden, and 
when the churches were filled with the crowds that came to mourn for Kosciusko, the 
people were dispersed at the point of the bayonet, and the Bishop, with a number of 
well-known citizens, was sent to prison. But the Emperor hoped to overcome the 
movement by reforms and conciliatipn. He named his brother, the Grand-duke Con- 
juiie, i8e2. stantine, as viceroy of Poland, and appointed Wielopolski chief of the 
civil power. But the population of the city was under the influence of a secret 
conspiracy ; the Grand-duke and Count Wielopolski were repeatedly assailed by 
assassins. 

§ 588. The Russian government now determined upon a conscription. On the 
night of the 14th of January, soldiers entered all the houses of Warsaw, and carried.off 
the young men for military service. The blow was so unexpected, that few had escaped. 
The revolutionary party collected the fugitives and the sympathizers with the patriotic 
fraternities, in forests and remote places, and organized a popular war against the 
i8«3. Russians. They attacked the imperial troops at different places, and 

in order to win the peasants for their cause, the provisional government issued a 
proclamation, in which they promised to secure to the peasants the freeholds of their 
farms. The watch-word was given for another conflict between the Poles and the 
Russians. In England and in France the old sympathies for the outraged people 
were revived, and public opinion declared in unmistakable terms in their favor. 
European diplomacy developed great activity in favor of Poland, but the sympathies 
of the western nations did not go beyond these diplomatic notes. Meanwhile the 
Russian arms were victorious. The proclamation of the provisional government failed 
to influence the peasants. Instead of a national army, the insurgents had only dis- 
ordered groups to lead against the Russians. Every band was under a separate leader. 
General Mieroslawski, the well-known adventurer of 1848 and 1849, had returned to 
his native country, and been named dictator; but he was defeated by the Russians, fled 
across the Prussian frontiers, and then basely published attacks upon his compatriots. 
Langiewicz was nobler, and for a while more successful. But he too was soon com- 
pelled to fly. Nevertheless, the provisional government was able to keep the kingdom for 
a long time insecure, and supported by the nobility, by the inhabitants of the cities, 
and by the clergy, to establish a reign of terror. The members of this government, 
whom the Russians tried in vain to discover, astonished the world with their activity 
and their organization. They issued ordinances and laws; they collected taxes; they 
erected revolutionary tribunals in Warsaw and in the provincial cities. Two govern- 
ments confronted each other, a government of open violence, and a government of 
secret terror. But every supply of arms, ammifnition, 'and men, was cut off by the 
watch maintained upon the Prussian and Austrian frontiers. 

§ 589. The cabinet at St. Petersburg declined all foreign intervention, and re- 
jected the proposition of the Western powers for a truce. Wielopolski was removed, 
and General Berg was placed in charge at Warsaw. The Emperor Napoleon made 
another attempt to convene a European congress, but without avail. Russia proceeded 
with energetic violence ; resistance was beaten down : the activity of the provisional 
government repressed ; the voices of the patriots silenced. The Czar then determined 
to unite the Polish peasantry more firmly to Russia, by giving them free-hold rights 




VYTYPt.Ct'PHIlA 



ARMS AND ARMOR OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Needle Gun. 
Chassepot. 
Springfield Rifle. 
Martini-Henry Rifle. 
Vitterlin Gun. 
Wemdl Rifle. 
Revolver. 

Cartridge and Ball. 
Rifle Ball. 
Bayonet. 
Officer's Sword. 
Saber. 



13. Cavalry Sabre. 

14. Sabre Bavonet. 

15, 16, 17, 18. 'Standards. 

19. Drum. 

20. Cartridge Box. 

21. Trumpet. 

22. Cuirass. 

23. Knapsack. 

24. Canteen . 

25. Krupp 12-incli Gun and Cartridge. 

26. Section of Conical Steel Shot. 

27. Ramrod and Wiper. 



28. Gatling Gun. 

29. Parrott Gun. 

30. Siege Gun. 

31. 32, 33. Artillery Cartridges. 

34. Ar-nstrong Gun. 

35. Mortar. 

36. Round Shot. 

37. Sea-Coast Gun. 

38. Krupp Mortar and Carriage. 



39 to 56. 



Modern Military Caps, Hats, 
and Helmets. 



(699) 



700 RECENT HISTORY. 

iii their property, and on the other hand, to weaken the nobility and the cities by root 
ing out the Polish language, by suppressing national peculiarities, and by transplant 
ing the old families to other regions of the empire. Church property also was con- 

tses. fiscated, the independence of the Catholic church thus broken, and the 

Polish clergy stabbed to the heart. The Pope protested, and diplomatic relations be- 
tween St. Petersburg and Rome were broken off. This Polish uprising chilled the 
desire of" Alexander to reform his people and his empire, and the attempts to assassi- 

18G7. nate him, made by Russians and by Poles, rendered his life sombre and 

unhappy, while they led to further repression of progressive movements. 

2. Germany and the Two Great German Powers. 

§ 590. The German Union. — When the revolution had been suppressed through- 
out Germany, a reaction took place in church and state. The Jesuits began their 
itinerant preaching, the hierarchy concluded with each of the governments a Con- 
cordat. Church unions sprang up, and missions were preached in all corners of the 
land. Princes and nobles were eager to overthrow or to transform the new institu- 
tions, that the revolution had established. Liberal cabinets gave way to conserva- 
tives. Constitutions were purified of their democratic elements, and the daily journals 
were regulated by laws and severe restrictions. Political assemblies were either sup- 
pressed or strictly watched. And when the particular governments lacked the will or 
the strength to arrest political progress, the Congress of the Union interfered. A 
Central Commission of the Union was charged with the decision of all constitutional 
iss-t. difficulties, and this commission established a Press Lata for all the 

states of the Union. In this way, some constitutional provisions were wholly set aside 
in many states, as in Hesse Cassel, Homburg, and Lippe-Detmold, while others were 
modified rtr rendered nugatory by bold revision. In some states, as in Hanover and 
Mecklenburg, the feudal conditions of an antiquated time were restored in the inter- 
ests of the landed gentry. All this excited great indignation throughout Germany. 
But the Congress of the Union was supported, in this reactionary activity, by the two 
great German powers ; although it was no secret, that the humiliating day of Olmutz 
had made a great gulf between Prussia and Austria. The Restoration of the Con- 
gress of the Union had been the work of Austria. Prussia had consented only with 
reluctance. But the majority of the other states stood upon Austria's side. And thus 
it happened, that for a decade, the German people struggled in vain against the re- 
action, hoping to save a few remnants of their constitutional rights and liberties. The 
people desired to be saved from religious and social ruin ; they desired a political sys- 
tem, in which, notwithstanding the variety of dialects and of states, the German 
people might act as a whole, and take a position in European politics, corresponding 
to their greatness, their power, and their civilization. 

The National Union labored to unite with Prussia, and took the imperial con- 
stitution of 1849 as the goal of its efforts, while the Reform Union worked for an or- 
ganization, in which Austria would find a place with Germany and Prussia. The 
Prussian Government, it is true, showed little favor to the National Union ; but the 
German princes and rulers encouraged the Reform Union, because they feared more 
from Prussia than from Austria. When the Emperor Francis Joseph had given a con- 
stitution to his own people, he thought it a favorable moment to assemble all the Ger- 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 701 

man monarchs at Frankfort, to deliberate upon a reform of the German Union. The 
Prussian king was at that time in bitter conflict with his House of Representatives. 
But all the other reigning princes accepted the Austrian invitation. The king of 

is«3. Prussia remained away, the Grand-duke of Baden refused to sign the 

proposals of reform, and the people refused to be satisfied with the proposed assembly 
of notables, instead of a national parliament. The only result of the assembly of 
princes was to make plain that even the rulers had lost faith in the Congress of the 
Union, and that they were satisfied that some concessions must be made to satisfy the 
desire of unity so prevalent among the German people. Attempts, too, were made to 
establish a uniform financial system, uniform weights and measures, and a better mail 
service. But the great celebration of 1859, in honor of the national poet Schiller, 
was a striking proof of the feeling of brotherhood and of nationality that had 
taken possession of all sections of the German family. The hour of redemption was 
drawing nigh. 

§ 591. Austria.— The struggle of 1848 and 1849 had left the House of Haps- 
burg stronger than before. The Congress of the Union had been raised from the 
dead, and the struggle of the German people for a nobler political life had been 
strangled. Yet not without great sacrifices. The maintainance of a powerful army, 
the great expenses for police and administration had increased the imperial debt, until 
all the gold and silver disappeared from daily life, and only paper was in circulation. 
The imperial credit was ruined. Expenses exceeded revenues by many millions. As 
everywhere else in Germany, so here too, the reactionary party was determined to 
bury the achievements of the revolution. By an imperial decree, the new constitution 
was abolished, and the absolute monarchy restored. The different races had too little 
sympathy with each other to care for a form of government which they neither under- 
stood nor desired, and of whose operations they had no experience. But their failure 
to rebel was no proof of their content. A Hungarian attempted to assassinate the 

iss3. Emperor. The ancient Hungarian crown, with the crown-jewels, had 

been discovered and restored to the House of Hapsburg. But it was easier to restore 
the crown than to conciliate the people. The exiled patriots were too numerous for 
quiet to reign among their friends. Resistance often reached such a pitch, that an- 
other insurrection seemed imminent. In other lands, Austria met with resistance, but 
acted with greater wisdom, for in these the Emperor introduced great reforms, espe- 
cially in relieving the peasants from the burdens upon their holdings. This produced a 
social revolution which the government presided over, with many heavy sacrifices, and 
although the Catholic prelates brought about a Concordat with the Pope, and were 
able tb maintain it, yet even they were compelled to concede to the Protestants nf 
both confessions, civil equality with the Catholics, and the exercise of their faith and 
public worship. But absolute government was no longer possible in Austria. And 
when the Italian war revealed the utter rottenness of the system, it became clear that 
only a political regeneration could save the empire from ruin. Finally, after many 
precious months were wasted in experiments, it was determined to call the people to 
a share in the making of their laws and to erect a parliamentary system. Austria be- 

isoi. came a constitutional state in Feb. 1861. Hungary received back her 

old organization, so far as this was compatible with the new system. The other lands 
were granted legislatures of their own for home affairs, while the interests, common 



702 RECENT HISTORY. 

to all, were to be cared for by an Imperial Council chosen partly by the emperor and 
partly by these local legislatures. But it required all the energy of Schmerling, the 
Prime-minister, to break the resistance of the aristrocracy. In Hungary and in Austria, 
in Bohemia, Galicia, and other provinces there was a violent opposition to the constitu- 
tion, so that the elections to the imperial council were incomplete. In Hungary the 
opposition bordered upon anarchy and terrorism. Finally it was agreed to make two 
imperial councils, a smaller and a larger council, — the smaller for the German-Slavonic 
lands, the larger to include the Hungarians also. But even in this form, the imperial 
constitution was but partially introduced. The Slavs and Magyars opposed an ar- 
rangement that threatened to give the superiority to the German element in the 
empire. 

§ 592. Prussia. ■ Frederick William IV., took an oath to maintain the constitu- 

isso. tion, on the 6th of February, 1850. His reluctance was manifest in 

all his speeches, and this reluctance influenced all his government. Although unwill- 
ing to restore the conduct of affairs to the feudal aristocracy, he changed and inter- 
preted so much away, that the constitution shrank to an impotent bit of history, the 
ambiguous expressions of which were capable of many interpretations. In one ques- 
tion only, did Prussia pursue a successful and popular policy, namely, in the reorganiza- 
zou-verein. tion of the customs union which, in spite of the intrigues of Austria 

iss3. and her allies, was renewed for twelve years more. Encouraged by 

the peaceful attitude of the French emperor, Manteuffel, the Prussian minister, pushed 
boldly forward in the path of reaction. The landed-gentry came to the front of po- 
litical life, and making alliances with the military and the bureaucracy, they sought 
to restore the old absolutism and the old privileges of rank. The democracy was dis- 
couraged. The liberal constitutional party sought to justify its confidence in liberal 
institutions by correct behavior. During the Crimean war, the Berlin cabinet refused 
to join the alliance against " the Czar of all the Russias," although the enthusiasm for 
Russia was hardly strong enough to make them openly take his side. Prussia thus re- 
mained without influence upon the course of European events. It was an act of 
courtesy only to invite her to send a representative to the Congress of Paris. A few 
months after the peace, Prussia was greatly disturbed by an uprising in Neuenburg, in 
Switzerland. This little territory belonged to the king of Prussia. Through the me- 
diation of Napoleon, the difficulty was adjusted, and the king of Prussia surrendered 

jissj. his claim. This was the last political act of the brilliant, but unhappy 

Frederick William IV. The revolutions of 1848 had embittered his life ; the humil- 
iation of Russia, and the death of the Emperor Nicholas increased his gloom ; the 
last dike against the revolutionary deluge seemed to be swept away. In October, 
1857, it was plain that the king's reason was affected. His brother, William, be- 
came regent in October, 1858, a regency that was confirmed two weeks later by 
both Houses of Parliament. Frederick William then journeyed to Italy, but the out- 
break of the Italian war drove him home. The next year he lost consciousness 
entirely, and on the 2nd of January, 1861, he expired. 

§ 593. The New Era. Meanwhile the Prince regent had conducted the govern- 
ment in a liberal manner. The choice of his ministers, the majority of whom were 
known as progressive men, furnished a pledge that a new era had begun in the con- 
stitutional history of Prussia. Prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was minister 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FEENCH EMPIRE. 



703 



president, being a Catholic, reconciled the members of his confession to 
the new order of things, while Count Schwerin had the confidence of 
the entire people. Prince William had not the brilliant qualities of his 
brother, nor his romantic ideas, but he was practical, straightforward, 
energetic, and invincibly honest. The press, the legislative cham- 
bers, eve^ form of society, revealed the influence of the change. A progressive party 
was formed, and it was hoped that the upper House would soon be made more efficient 
and more liberal. But when the Prince Regent ascended the throne as King William 
I., a conflict took place between the all-powerful progressive party and the new mon- 



William I. t 

JBorll 

Starch 23, fS07. 

Died' 
Starch », 1SSS. 




WILLIAM I. 



arch. The progressives desired a parliamentary government like that of England. 
This, however, was in conflict with the traditions of the House of Hohenzollern. The 
King believed himself to have received his crown as a trust from Almighty God, for 
which he was indeed responsible, but not to any man-chosen parliament. The party 
of progress refused to further the reorganization of the army, upon which the King's 
heart was set. This conflict of the ruler with his legislature produced great excite- 
jwiyi*, isei. nient, which was increased to the highest pitch, when a fanatical stu- 
dent, Oscar Becker, attempted to assassinate the king in Baden-Baden. At his solemn 
coronation in Konigsberg, on the 18th of October, 1861, King William declared, with 



704 



RECENT HISTORY. 



great emphasis, that " the rulers of Prussia received their crown from God, and that 
the Houses of Parliament were called to be his counsellors." In March, 1862, the 
utarcu, isez. House of Representatives demanded an itemized budget, and the con- 
flict became so sharp that the ministry resigned, and the House was dissolved. But 
September. is«2. the ne w House was more radical then its predecessor. At this juncture 
von Bismarck Otto Von Bismarck was called to the ministry. The lower House 
Bom persisted in its refusal to confirm the King's plans, and was conse- 

Apriii, isis. quently adjourned from time to time, and then dissolved. Bismarck's 
appointment was looked upon as a declaration of war. His hatred of the radicals 
was well-known. His contempt of phrases and of rhetoric was undisguised, and as 
yet he had given no proof of his extraordinary genius, and no indication of his far- 
reaching plans. The conflict continued, and became exceedingly bitter. Government 
and legislature were unreconciled when the war with Austria broke out, and the 
glorious achievements of the Prussian army created a second new era, in which the 
old quarrel was completely swallowed up. 

§ 594. Sehlesivig-Holstein. The ancient order of succession in Scbleswig-Hol- 

stein, restricted it to the first born of the male line. 
This order was violated by the London treaty of 1852, 
which gave the sovereignty of these provinces to the 
Danish prince, Christian von Sonderburg-Glueksburg. 
As this prince was to be the successor of the 
reigning king, Frederick VII. of Denmark, the arrange- 
ment secured the integrity of the Danish monarchy. 
The estates of Schleswig-Holstein rejected this arrange- 
ment at the instance of the lawful heir, the Prince of 
Augustenburg. This created, for the provinces, a state 
of war. They were occupied by Danish troops, while 
the sons of the people were transferred to Danish gar- 
iss-t-isss. risons. During the period of reaction, 
the Danish government attempted to establish a new 
constitution that would have made army and navy, 
custom houses, post-offices and money all Danish. 
But the German feeling in the two provinces rebelled at this arrangement, and ap- 
pealed to Prussia and Austria. The German powers thereupon declared that the new 
constitution was not valid for Holstein and Lauenburg. Denmark struggled against 
this decision, but when the Congress of the German Union threatened war, Denmark 
kov. 1858. declared the constitution set aside for Holstein and Lauenburg. but 
valid throughout Schleswig ; and also that the ministers were responsible to the king 
only in what related to Holstein. By this arrangement, Schleswig was really incor- 
porated into Denmark. Holstein refused to accept the separate parliament that was 
March, 1858. offered her, and demanded her old right of union with Schleswig. The 
Danes refused to accept this plan. A diplomatic war began, but the Danes could 
Oct. i. neither be persuaded nor alarmed. Finally the Congress of the Ger- 

man Union determined upon the use of force. 

§ 595. Just at the moment when the Danish king had determined upon the 
xov. is, 1893. complete absorption of Schleswig into Denmark, death removed him and 




TRINCE OTTO VON BISMARCK. 

(Fr. Skarbina.) 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



705 



the "protocol prince," as he was called, Prince von Sonderburg-Gliicskburg, ascended 
the Danish throne as Christian IX. Frederick of Augustenburg at the same moment 
proclaimed himself Frederick VIII., Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and prepared to de- 
fend his rights. The German people supported him with all their strength. The ex- 
citement was intense, and all eyes were directed to Frankfort, awaiting the action of 
the Congress of the Union. Early in December, the troops of Saxony and Hanover 
Dec. ■>, isg3. crossed the Elbe to occupy Holstein andLauenburg. The Danes with- 
drew, and as they retired, the people proclaimed their attachment to Duke Frederick 
of Augustenburg. On the 27th of Dec, at a great assembly of the people held at 
Elmshorn, he was solemnly declared to be their duke. Hearing this, the Prince left 
Gotha and hastened to Kiel, where he was received with great enthusiasm ; but he re- 
frained from every act of sovereignty, awaiting the action of the German Union. 
Meanwhile the Danes had determined to fight for Schleswig. Relying upon England, 
they expected to win. But Austria and Prus- 
sia now joined hands, and demanded the aboli- 
tion of the November constitution, the cause 
of all the trouble. Christian IX. rejected 
these demands. The German powers there- 
upon refused to be bound by the London 
treaty, and marched into Schleswig, caring 
neither for the protest of the German Union 
or the remonstrance of the English ministry. 
lse*. In January, 1864, the troops of 

Prussia and Austria, under Field-marshal 
Wrangel, entered Holstein. The Prussians, un- 
der the command of Prince Frederick Carl, 
and the Austrians led by Gen. Gablenz. The 
Danish commander, De Meza, determined to 
give up Schleswig and to retire to the strong 
entrenchment at Diippel. Wrangel now 
ordered the Prussian main army, under Prince 
Frederick Charles to march against Diippel, and 
the Austrian army to occupy Schleswig. The Danes exerted themselves with unceas- 
ing energy to convert Diippel into a second Sebastopol. The Prussians determined to 

April, is. iso4. take the works by storm. On the 18th of April, after a terrible day, 
in which the Prussians lost twelve hundred men, including seventy officers, the works 
were in Prussian hands. 

The fall of Diippel decided the war. The Danes made no further attempt to de- 
fend the main land. On the 28th of April they embarked, during the night, in great 
haste and Wrangel was in full possession of the provinces. In May a conference was 
convened in London, but it led to no result. The war was renewed, but as England 
refused to assist the Danes, it ended disastrously for Denmark. Prince Frederick 

June, ns-no, Carl drove them from Alsen. The united armies then forced them to 

lse*. abandon Jutland. The Danish fleet was captured by the Austrians, 

and these disasters broke the obstinate spirit of the Danes. King Christian IX., 

opened direct negotiation with Austria and Prussia. The German Union was not con- 

45 




PRINCE FREDERICK CHARLES OF PRUSSIA. 



706 



RECENT HISTORY. 



suited. The result was a suspicion that Prussia intended to annex the dukedoms, and 
the treaty of Vienna did not allay these suspicions. It provided that the King of 

Denmark should cede 
all his rights to Schle- 
swig, Holstein, and 
Lauenburg, in favor 
of the King of Prussia 
and the Emperor of 
Austria. It was soon 
apparent that Prussia 
did not intend to 
give over the con- 
quered country to 
the Prince of Augus- 
tenburg. Other 
claimants to the 
throne appeared, and 
the crown-jurists in 
Berlin declared that 
i8e ■*. all rights 
Aug. i*, ises. had been 
extinguished by the 
treaty of Vienna. At 
Gastein, Austria and 
Prussia agreed to 
continue the joint oc- 
cupation ; Schleswig 
being governed by 
Prussia, and Holstein 
by Austria, while 
Lauenburg should 
pass to the Prussian 
king, for the sum of 
two and a half million 
thalers. This agree- 
ment created great 
dissatisfaction in Ger- 
many, as it contained 
the germs of new 
conflicts, and created 
an impossible situa- 
tion. 
3. The Founding of the Italian Kingdom. 

§ 596. Sardinia had twice attempted in vain the liberation of Italy. Radetzky's 
victories re-established the power of Austria, and the old oppression of the political 
and intellectual life of the Italian people. Lombardy was filled with soldiers, and held. 




o 

R 
a 



n 



xS 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 707 

■ 

down by powerful fortifications, and Austria stretched out a helping hand to the 
tyrannical princes of Modena and Parma. The constitution of Tuscany was set aside, 
and Ferdinand II., king of Naples and Sicily, harried his people with soldiers and with 
taxes to an incredible degree. Austria protected the Pope also, garrisoning for him 
the northern part of his territory, and conciliated the clergy with a favorable concor- 
dat. To break the Austrian power was the eager longing of king Victor Emmanuel, a 
man of courage and of strong national feeling. Fortunately for him, he was guided 
by his minister, the great statesman Camillo Cavour. Austria put her trust in the 
power of bayonets, the influence of the clergy, and the terrors of the police. Sar- 
dinia, on the other hand, weakened the power of the clergy by liberal and tolerant 
laws, created a free political life within her dominion, strengthened her armies, and 
sought to win the favor of the Italian people. Cavour advised participation in the 
Crimean war, in order to win the support of England and of France, and especially 
to gain a hearing at the Congress of Paris. He presented to the Congress a memor- 
ial, in which he showed that there could be no enduring peace in Europe until the in- 
dependence of Italy was recognized, the tyranny in Naples brought to an end, and 
Austria compelled to give a liberal constitution to Lombardy and Venice. These de- 
mands constituted the future program of the Italian party of progress. Unions were 
formed everywhere to promote national unity. The most active of these, was the 
National Union, which was founded by Manin and Pallavicino. Garibaldi now returned 
to Italy, and sought a home with his family in the little island of Caprera. After 
many wanderings and vicissitudes, he came back to offer his help to the National 
Union. Mazzini and his friends pursued more extended plans, but they had no dis- 
position to hinder the work of Cavour and Garibaldi. The purpose of the National 
Union was to drive out the foreigner, and to unite Italy under the House of Savoy. 
A mighty excitement soon took possession of the people. The Duke of Parma was 
murdered on the open street, armed bands marched through Naples, while anarchy 
and despotism struggled with each other for the possession of Sicily. The Sardinian 
government had no choice. It must unfurl boldly the banner of Italian independence, 
and accept the fight with Austria. But the past taught king Victor Emmanuel that 
he needed a mightier ally than Garibaldi and his Italian volunteers. 

§ 597. Magenta. Orsini's attempt to assassinate the Emperor Napoleon, had a 
noteworthy influence upon Italian affairs. Orsini confessed that he sought the French 
ruler's life, simply because he would not save Italy. He had become a hindrance to her 
freedom, rather than a help. In his earlier days, the Emperor had doubtless been in con- 
fidential relations with the Italian patriots, and was perhaps himself a member of the 
Italian secret society. He was now considered a traitor by his former companions. 
Aug. 5, isss. The same year he had an interview with Count Cavour at Plombieres. 
Plans were considered for the emancipation of Italy; and the marriage of prince Na- 
poleon Bonaparte with the princess Clothilde, the youthful daughter of Victor Emman- 
uel, was to create a firm bond between the two families. The speech of the Emperor 
to the Austrian ambassador, at his New Year's reception, and the words of the Italian 
king, at the opening of Parliament at Turin, indicated in plain words that Sardinia 
would be no longer deaf to the cries of the rest of Italy. The neutral powers sought 
a pacific solution of the difficulty, but Austria sent an ultimatum to the king of Sar- 
dinia, requiring him to reduce his army to a peace footing within three days. When 



708 RECENT HISTORY. 

this demand was refused, the Austrian Field-marshal, Gyulai, was ordered to cross the 
Ticino. This gave the French emperor an opportunity to intervene as the protector 
of his ally, Victor Emmanuel. Gyulai was dilatory and inactive, so that Sardinia had 
ample time to collect her troops about the fortified Alessandria, and to form a junc- 
xay, isr.it. tion with the French army. In May, Napoleon himself appeared in 
Italy, and although he entrusted the management of the campaign to his experienced 
generals, Canrobert, Niel, Mac Mahon, and others, yet his presence was a great inspira- 
tion for his soldiers. The Austrian commander was utterly incompetent. He had 
lost his opportunity, and must now act on the defensive. After a bloocty battle at 
Buffalora, the Austrians were utterly defeated in the battle of Magenta. The Aus- 
trian soldiers fought with great bravery, although they suffered greatly from the scan- 
dalous robbery of the contractors, who furnished their supplies. The loss of Magenta 

June 4, isso. brought with it the loss of all Lombardy. Milan was evacuated by 
Gyulai, and on the 18th of June, Napoleon entered the city, amid the acclamations of 
the people, with Victor Emmanuel at his side. The Austrians took up a new position 
on the Mincio, where they were supported by the famous quadrangle, consisting of 
four strongly fortified cities, Peschiera, Mantua, Verona, Legmigo. 

§ 598. Solferino. These disasters to Austria brought about the overthrow of 
several Italian governments. Duke Leopold of Tuscany was abandoned by his army 
and his civil servants, and compelled to leave Florence. A provisional government, 
under the protectorate of Victor Emmanuel, was immediately established. The Duchess 
Louisa of Parma, with her young son, hastened to Switzerland, and the Duke of 
Modena sought protection in the Austrian camp. Everywhere the Italian flag was 
unfurled, and annexation to Sardinia was desired. In Germany these events created 
great excitement. Austria endeavored to obtain the support of Prussia and the other 
members of the German Union. The war now raging along the Po might soon be 
transferred to the Rhine. For a time it looked as if public opinion would carry the 
German states to the Austrian side. War preparations were made ; the garrisons 
were increased, Prussia gradually placed her entire army upon a war footing. But 
many circumstances combined to dampen this war-like enthusiasm. Russia, angry at 
Austria for her conduct in the Crimean war, used her influence to withhold the Ger- 
mans from the strife. England declared, that in case of a war, she would not protect 
the German merchant ships. The liberal party was not inclined to strengthen abso- 
lutism and clerical dominion ; and it soon appeared that the German troops generally 
were in no condition for a war. The Prussian cabinet had not yet forgiven Olmiitz. 
Prussia's chief duty was to protect herself, and to be ready for possible emergencies ; 
and she lost all inclination to take part in the war, after France had given the assur- 
ance that the war would be localized, i. e. confined to Italy. Austria however deter- 
mined to try once more the fortune of battle. The Emperor Francis Joseph, took the 
field in person, but with no better success. The Emperor abandoned the "quad- 

jmic 2j, isso. rangle " and crossed the Mincio, but was defeated at Solferino with 
great loss, although the Austrians were able to withdraw in good order from the 
field. 

§ 599. The Peace of Villa Franca. The French people were wild with enthusi- 
asm for their victorious emperor, yet his position was one of difficulty and of danger. 
The French army had suffered greatly in the Italian campaign ; the excitement in 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



709 



Germany made a hostile movement upon the Rhine quite probable. The Austrians, 
moreover, were still 
in possession of the 
great quadrangle. 
True, the Emperor 
Napoleon had said, 
" Italy free to the 
Adria," but to realize 
this watchword might 
hazard all his for- 
tunes. The two em- 
perors therefore ar- 

jiay a, isso. ranged 
a peace. Austria 
abandoned Lombardy 
to the line of the 
quadrangle, that is to 
a line drawn from 
Peschiera to Man- 
tua ; Italy was to 
form a confederacy 
■under the presidency 
of the Pope; the 
exiled princes might 
return, if permitted 
to do so freety by 
their subjects. But 
when the treaty of 

iron. 10, iseo. peace 
came to be made at 
Ziirich, only the first 
of these conditions 
was maintained. 
Lombardy passed to 
the king of Sardinia, 
while Savoy with 
Nice, was ceded to 
France. But the 
people of Modena, 
Parma and Tuscany 
refused to accept their 
former rulers, and 
were annexed to Sar- 
dinia 
renounced 



Even Bologna 




the rule 
of the Pope, and sought protection from Victor Emmanuel. 



Switzerland might 



710 



RECENT HISTORY. 



protest and the Pope might excommunicate, but things took their own course. Instead 
of the Italian confederation, with the Pope at its head, Europe was compelled to recog- 
nize a kingdom of Italy, under the House of Savoy. 

§ 600. Garibaldi. The national and the revolutionary forces in Italy were 
now united for a common aim, the formation of " One Italy." The territory of Rome 
was protected from hostile attack by French troops, but the kingdom of Naples and 
of Sicily was without support. Francis II., the young and inexperienced son of the 
Ferdinand xi., tyrannical Ferdinand II., occupied the throne, and had under his 
fittay 33, is™, command a well-disciplined army of one hundred and fifty thousand 
men. But the tyranny of the Government, which opposed stubbornly all reform, had 




LANDING OF GARIBALDI AT MARSALA. ( G. Brolilig.) 

prepared the ground for the secret societies ; and the withdrawal of the Swiss mercen- 
aries robbed the throne of its strongest support, at the very moment when Mazzini 
iseo. and Garibaldi joined hands for their daring enterprise. The first up- 

risings were in Messina and Palermo. In May Garibaldi landed with a few thousand 
armed men at Marsala. He gathered about him the scattered volunteers, declared 
himself dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, and marched to the 
capital, Palermo. The population rose as one man, and supported the coming patriots. 
General Lanza, who was in command of the citadel, opened a heavy fire, destroying a 
part of the city ; but the action of the English admiral compelled him to yield. The 
monarchy was now shaken to its foundation, and the glory of Garibaldi spread over 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 711 

j»f«e »s, lseo. the world. The King restored the former constitution, called about 
him a liberal ministry, proclaimed an amnest}', and sought an alliance with Sardinia. 
But it was too late. Wherever Garibaldi appeared, the land broke into flames. Six 
fuiy is. weeks after the taking of Palermo, the dictator marched to Messina. 
The city was soon in his possession. He then landed upon the mainland with five 
Ana. %i, isao. thousand men. The garrison at Reggio at once surrendered the city 
and the castle. Everywhere the soldiers disbanded, and the cities and provinces 
formed provisional governments. Garibaldi marched triumphantly through the South, 
nowhere meeting resistance. On the 6th of September, Francis II. abandoned his cap- 
sept.v. ital, and retired to Capua; and on the next day, Garibaldi marched 

into Naples, amid the acclamations of the delighted population. The Pope fared no 
better than the King. Garibaldi declared that he would proclaim the kingdom of 
Italy in its natural capital. The Pope's friends, in the Catholic lands of Europe, ex- 
hausted every means to save the temporal power of the Pope, but the patriotic en- 
thusiasm of the Italian people was more powerful than the cries of the clericals. Gen- 
eral Lamoriciere was induced to take command of the papal army, but when the Sar- 
dinian troops, under General Cialdini, reached the frontiers of the Pope's dominions, 
a general uprising took place, and the different cities established provisional govern, 
ments. The papal troops encountered the Sardinian army and were beaten. Some 
were taken prisoners, and the entire force was dispersed. A handful retired to 
Ancona ; but when it was besieged on the following day, both by sea and by land, it 
sept. 2d. was compelled to surrender. A few days later, Victor Emmanuel ap- 
peared in the city and assumed command. He thence proceeded to Lower Italy, to 
complete the conquests begun by Garibaldi. The patriotic general, who saw in Victor 
Emmanuel, the divinely appointed liberator of Italy, resigned to the King his dictatorial 
authority, and entrusted to him the completion of his great work, the uniting of Italy 
under a free and stable government. With the words, " Sire, I obey," he gave up his 

Nov. v, isoo. command, marching into Naples beside the King, commending his 
comrades to the especial protection of the monarch, and then returning to his modest 
estate on the island, Caprera. 

§ 601. Gaeta. War operations now assumed a sharper character. After the 

xov. a, isoo. capture of Capua, King Francis, with the remnant of his troops, re- 
tired to the fortress of Gaeta. This was the last refuge of the Bourbon dynasty. 
The city was heroically defended, and its defence is the one bright spot in the short 
reign of Francis II., and his noble young wife, Marie of Bavaria. The siege of Gaeta 
lasted three months. Napoleon sought to free himself from complicity with the pol- 
icy of the Sardinian king. Like other powers, he withdrew his ambassador from 
Turin, but he went even further. He sent a French fleet to the harbor of Gaeta, and 
thus enabled the besieged to supply themselves with food and ammunition. But the 
cry of the Neapolitan king brought him no armed help; his promises and proclama- 
tions to the people of the two Sicilys brought him no favor with his subjects. A few 
reactionary uprisings took on the character of bandit enterprises, and Napoleon, think- 
ing that enough had been done for the honor of King Francis, called away his fleet. 

feo. 13, isei. On the 13th of Feb., 1861, Francis and his wife sailed to Pome on a 
French ship. The next month, Messina passed into the hands of General Cialdini ; 
the kingdom of the two Sicilys was at an end. And on the 18th of Feb., 1861, Victor 



712 



RECENT HISTORY. 



Emmanuel, surrounded by the representatives of all the states that acknowledged his 
sovereignty, proclaimed himself King of Italy. 

§ 602. The Kingdom of Italy. With the exception of Austrian, Venice, and the 
papal city of Rome, all the states of Italy were now united in a single monarch}-. 
The statecraft of Cavour, the resolute courage of Victor Emmanuel, the patriotic self- 
sacrifices of Garibaldi, the political sagacity of the cultivated classes, had united to 
achieve this great result ; and even the agitation of Mazzini, and his republican 
friends, had contributed to the great enterprise. But a difficult task was yet to be ac- 
complished. Years of rest and of peace must be obtained, to establish and to organ- 
ize the rapid conquests of recent years, and to procure the respect and the confidence 
of other nations. I taly, it is true, was not free. Rome was still in other hands. 
Cavour was urged on every side to rash and dangerous measures. The people clam- 

_^ ored for Rome and Venice, and 

were not altogether satisfied with 
a military monarchy. Even Gari- 
baldi sympathized with this clamor, 
and with these suspicions, and 
was especially provoked at the 
dilatory policy of Cavour. Yet 
the great statesman succeeded in 
reconciling the angry patriot, and 
in restraining him from inconsid- 
jujic e, 1861. erate movements. 
But Count Cavour died too soon 
for the welfare of the state that 
he had called into being, and yet 
with a sublime consciousness that 
the future of the kingdom was 
secure. But under his successors, 
Ricasoli and Rattazzi, the Italian 
government progressed quietly in 
the path marked out by him. The 
European governments gradually 
recognized the new order. The 
banditti in Naples were energeti- 
cally suppressed, even though they were supported from Rome ; and the military 
strength of the land was increased, at the same time that better laws were passed, 
and reforms inaugurated. Yet the party of action was not satisfied with this 
Gradual progress. They longed for Rome and Venice, and the agitators became so 
violent, that the government was obliged to make arrests and to disband some volun- 
tary organizations. Among the imprisoned were friends and comrades of Garibaldi, 
is62. and the latter now determined to march against Rome. He sailed to 

Palermo, where he soon gathered armed volunteers about his standard. The young 
men eagerly followed him, especially as the rumor was circulated that the government 
secretly encouraged the undertaking. But an energetic proclamation of the King 
warned all Italians to take no part in this heedless movement. Yet Garibaldi was 




victor Emmanuel. ( Metzmacher.) 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 713 

not to be dissuaded. When his way was blocked by the garrison of Messina, he 
turned aside to Catania, where he embarked with two thousand volunteers, as he said 
"to enter Rome as a victor, or to die beneath its walls." But he did neither. For 
although lie landed at Melito, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains, he 
came into collision with a detachment of the Italian army at Aspromonte. A skirmish en- 

Aug, us, iso-i. sued, in which a few volunteers were killed, and Garibaldi was wounded 
and taken prisoner. A government vessel brought him to Verignano, where he slowly 
recovered from his dangerous wound. He was an object of sympathy throughout Eu- 
rope, and there was general rejoicing when the news was published that he was out of 
danger. After this unfortunate adventure, Italy had a long rest in which to complete 

sep. ib, ISO*, her inner development. In September, 1864, France and Italy agreed 
that the capital of Italy should be transferred to Florence, and that the French troops 
should be gradually removed from Rome. The inhabitants of Turin were bitterly 
opposed to this change, but it took place in 1865. The Pope was exceedingly angry 
at the agreement of the two countries, and gave the world, as a Christmas present, 
the famous encyclical of 1864, in which he condemned the political and religious ideas 
of his age. He began also to create an army of his own, for the maintenance of his 
authority. The French troops now began to depart, and unexpected events soon made 
Venice a part of the Italian Kingdom. 

4. The Seven Weeks War. 

§ 603. The conference at Gastein created only a truce. The evident desire of 
Prussia to annex Schleswig-Holstein found no favor in Vienna. The Austrian cabinet 
sought the support of the Congress of the Union, and held fast to her joint right of 
possession. This dissension soon produced trouble in the dukedoms, for while the 
Prussian governor, Von Manteuffel, established an iron rule in Schleswig, the Austrian 
j«h. isae. governor, Von Gablenz, administered affairs in Holstein with gentle 
moderation. The Prussian ministry soon complained that this moderation favored 
revolution, and was in conflict with the convention of Gastein. But Austria refused 
to change her policy, especially as the arrival of the Italian general, Govone, in Berlin, 
created the suspicion that Prussia was seeking an alliance with Italy. War prepar- 
niarcn, isaa. ations were made. Benedek was placed at the head of the Austrian 
army north of the Alps, while Arch-duke Albert assumed command in Venice. Prus- 
sia now made counter-preparations, and the Vienna cabinet then sought the support of 
the German Union. Prussia made a secret treaty with Italy, and Count Bismarck 
declared openly that the German Union, as then constituted, afforded so little guaran- 
xarcii a*, tsae. tee for the future of Germanj^, that Prussia felt compelled to move for 
iis reform. Finally a day was appointed upon which both Austria and Prussia agreed 

April %&. to disarm. But before it arrived, Austria declared that she would 
disarm against Prussia, but not against Italy. This excited hesitation in Berlin and 
Prussia refused to disarm. Austria then offered to refer the question to the Congress 
of the Union ; this too was declined by the Prussian ministry. Terrible excitement 
now spread through Germany. Count Bismarck was the object of bitter hate ; at- 
tempts were made upon his life, one of which he escaped as by miracle. The 
European powers proposed a Congress, but Austria declined to participate, except upon 
condition that none of the states represented i n the Congress should enlarge her territory. 



714 



RECENT HISTORY. 



§ 604 Early in June the Austrian government brought the Schleswig-Holstein 
question before the Congress of the German Union, and ordered General Gablenz to 
convene the estates of Holstein. The Prussian government at once declared this to be 
a breach of the Gastein conference, and placed her armies in the field. Austria did like- 
wise, but the condition of her army was worse than it had been even during the Italian 
campaign. Von Manteuffel was ordered to march into Holstein. Austria thereupon 

insisted that the 
army of the German 
Union should be 
made ready for war. 
This motion of Aus- 
tria was adopted by 
the Congress, where- 
upon Prussia de- 
jrtine 10, istm. clared 
that the Union was 
dissolved, and 
brought forward a 
plan for a new con- 
federation, based up- 
on universal suffrage, 
and from which Aus- 
tria was to be ex- 
cluded. 

This marked the 
beginning of a new 
epoch for Germany. 
The opposition of the 
Prussian Parliament 
continued to criticise 
lseo. the King 
and his minister, but, 
in the hour of danger, 
the people rallied to 
the support of their 
monarch and his 
measures. The rest 
of Germany divided 
into two camps, the 
Austrian and the 
Prussian. The first 
had nothing in common but their dislike of Prussia and of Bismarck; the second hoped 
to see Germany united under the lead of a powerful yet peaceful state. The thought 
of civil war was repugnant to all, but the discord of Germany, and the misery of politi- 
cal plurality, could be healed only after the sword had done its awful work. 

June, isee. Benedek had stationed his army in Bohemia, forming the arc of a 




MOLTKE. 



716 



RECENT HISTORY. 



great circle on the Upper Elbe. Prussia determined therefore to unite all the states, 
north of the river Main, in a league under her control. Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse, 
were summoned to immediate decision. If they consented, they might retain their 
sovereignty within the constitution of the new union ; otherwise they would be dealt 
with as enemies. All three refused. The Elector of Hesse was led a prisoner to 
Stettin. King George of Hanover abandoned his capital and his kingdom to the 
Prussian army, and sought to break through, with his army, to the south, so as to 
June, /*««. unite wiih the Bavarians. After desperate fighting, the blind King 
George was obliged to capitulate. Meanwhile Saxony had fallen also into Prussian 
hands. The Saxon army had united with the Austrians in Bohemia, leaving the cap- 
ital and kingdom undefended. Dresden was occupied by the Prussians without 
resistance. 

§ 605. War in Bohemia and along the River Main. In possession of Saxony, the 

Prussians could now concentrate their army 
in Bohemia. Before Benedek could carry 
out his plan of moving through Saxony into 
the heart of Prussia, the Prussians had 
marched three army corps into Bohemia. 
The first days of July, King William, accom- 
panied by Bismarck and Von Roon, and his 
chief of staff, Von Moltke, arrived at the 
front and took command of the army. He 
had not long to wait for the decisive moment. 
On the 3rd of July, the decisive battle of 
j»iff 3, isoa. Konigratz (or Sadowa) was 
fought, and won for the Prussians by the 
opportune arrival of the army of the Crown. 
Prince. Toward evening the remnant of 
the beaten army was in full retreat. " The 
day of Konigratz," said the King of Prus- 
sia in his order of the day, " has cost heav} r 
sacrifices, but it is a day of honor for the 
army, and of pride for the Fatherland." 
§006. Meanwhile, Prussian generals were marching against the army of the Ger- 
man Union, which had separated into two divisions, under the command of Prince 
Charles of Bavaria, and Prince Alexander of Hesse. The former Was in North Franeonia 
and the latter just north of Frankfort. Falkenstein was ordered to push between the 
two armies and to defeat them separately. The Bavarians were first compelled to re- 
treat, whereupon the Prussian general, instead of following them, turned upon the 
army under the Prince of Hesse. When this army gave way, the Prussians entered 
Juij i4. Frankfort. The Congress fled and resumed its sessions in Augsburg ; 
heavy contributions were levied upon Frankfort, and the demands and threats of the 
conqueror so preyed upon the mind of Fellner, the Burgomaster, that he took his own 
life. 

§ 607. The defeat of the Austrians at Konigratz opened, for the Prussians, the 
way into the heart of Austria. The army of the north was dispersed ; Vienna was 




CROWN PRINCE FREDERICK WILLIAM OF 
PRUSSIA. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



717 



shaken with excitement. The Emperor, Francis Joseph, thereupon determined upon a 
surprising move. In Italy, the army of the south, under Arch-duke Albert, had won a 



j-i«ne 24. splendid victory in the battle of Custozza. 
iar his advantage 



The EmDeror instead o 



against Italy, deter- 
mined to cede Venice 
to Napoleon, so as to 
use the army of the 
south against Prus- 
sia, and to win the 
alliance of France. 
Napoleon accepted 
the unexpected pres- 
ent, explaining that 
it gave him oppor- 
tunity to mediate be- 
tween the warring 
powers. He sought 
at first to obtain a 
truce. But King 
William declared 
that he would agree 
to a truce only upon 
definite conditions of 
peace, and Victor 
Emmanuel was of 
the same mind. Yet 
the mediatorial ac- 
tivity of the French 
emperor limited the 
war in Italy to a few 
skirmishes, and led to 
negotiations between 
Prussia and Austria. 
The Austrian em- 
peror called the Arch- 
duke Albert, with 
the army of the south, 
to his assistance, and 
gave to him the chief 
command. But the 
rapid march of the 
Prussians made the 

defence of the capital impossible. A truce was agreed upon, in which Austria consented 

juiy ne, tsee. to her own exclusion from the German Union, gave up her claims to 

Schleswig-Holstein, and consented also to the transfer of Venice from France to Italy. 




718 



RECENT HISTORY. 



§ 608. This truce was concluded just as the Prussian army was about to enter 
Aug- 23. Pressburg. Four weeks later, the peace of Prague was agreed upon, 

in which Austria con- 
sented to pay the 
costs of the war, and 
to accept the changes 
of boundary insisted 
upon by Prussia 
uorth of the river 
Main. Prussia, on 
the other hand, 
agreed to restore his 
throne to the king of 
Saxony. Meanwhile 
the troops of the 
Union had been earn- 
ing no laurels. The 
men of Baden, of 
Wurtembeig, and 
Bavaria, fought 
< July 23.20. bravely 
5 enough, but they 
=, fought in vain. The 
a south-German gov- 
tj ernments finally sued 
5 for peace, and made 
a secret treaty with 
Aug. 13-22. Prussia, 
in which they agreed 
to support her in the 
event of a foreign 
war, and to continue 
the customs-union. 
Hesse-Darmstadt and 
Saxony were occu- 
pied by Prussia for 
a long time. The 
Grand-duke con- 
sented, with great 
reluctance, to the 
conditions of peace, 
sept. 3. which 
compelled him to sur- 
render Homburg and 

the province of Upper-Hesse, and to turn over the fortifications of Mayence to Prus- 
sian soldiers. And in Saxony the Prussians remained until Herr von Beust retired 





AUSTRIAN MAN OP WAR, FERDINAND MAX, ADMIRAL TEGETTIIOFF IN COMMAND, RAMMING THE 

ITALIAN IRONCLAD, RE D'lTALIA AT THE BATTLE OP LISSA, 1866- ( pp. 719. ) 



720 RECENT HISTORY. 

oct. at, tsea. from the ministry ; then King John agreed to a peace, in which he 
was required to pay the costs of the war, to become a member of the North-German 
Union, and to accept the new military organization. Nothing remained now to hinder 
the construction of the new North-German Union. 

§ 609. United Italy with her new capital, Rome. The fate of Venice was de- 
cided at the same time. The Austrians withdrew their troops, and the Italians, under 
Cialdini, soon stood in the heart of Venice. Garibaldi was at Lake Garda, earning on 
a petty warfare with his volunteers. Wherever Italian was spoken, there the standard 
of the King was to be erected. One division of the army approached Trient. A naval 

j«fj/ »o. force also was collected at Ancona. But in a naval battle at Lissa. the 
Italian fleet was so utterly defeated, that the Florentine government thought it best 

juiu as. to accept a peace. Victor Emmanuel gave up his claims to South Tyrol 
and the Austrians formally acknowledged the kingdom of Italy. An election was or- 
oct. a. dered in Venice, to determine the question of annexation. As the 

whole population voted in its favor, Victor Emmanuel entered the city in triumph. In 
December, 1868, the French troops left Rome, and for the first time in centuries, the 
beautiful peninsula of Italy was free from foreign soldiers. But Garibaldi and the na- 
tional party insisted upon the possession of Rome. He invaded once more the terri- 
tory of the pope, but his enterprise failed, and his men were either killed, dispersed, or 
taken prisoners. The French troops returned to protect the Vatican, and remained 
Bee. tseo. until August, 1870. This made it possible for Pius IX. to as- 
semble a general council in the Vatican toward the end of the year 1869. Here the 
Jesuits succeeded, in spite of a powerful opposition in the council itself, and in spite 
of the warning of the temporal powers, in procuring a declaration of papal infallibility 
in all matters of doctrine and morals. 

At the very moment in which the council declared the pope to be the absolute 
authortity in the church, the kingdom of Italy took possession of his dominions, and 
made an end of his temporal power. The French garrison had embarked hastily to- 

Beginning take part in the Franco-German war. The Florentine government im- 
sept., isio. mediately inarched to the papal frontiers, at the same time taking pos- 
session of Civita Vecchia. The Pope was offered the exclusive possession of the Leo- 
nine district, on the right bank of the Tiber, but he refused all compromise. The 
Italians then took possession of the city. A slight resistance was made by the papal 
troops, but after three hours, the city capitulated. The papal army was disbanded ; 
the foreign mercenaries were required to leave Italy ; a provisional government was es- 
tablished, and an election was ordered to decide the question of annexation. The peo- 
ple voted almost unanimously to make Rome the capital of Italy. The Italian govern- 
ment declared, in a solemn statute, that the pope should still have the dignity of the 
sovereign, and should still exercise all his rights and functions as the head of the 
church, but Pope Pius IX., replied, with the excommunication of Victor Emmanuel. 

§ 610. The North German Union. In Prussia, as in Italy, the year 1866 ended 
with a reconciliation of the monarch and his people. In his speech from the throne,at 
Aug. s, isaa. the opening of Parliament, King William asked the House of Representa- 
tives for an act of indemnity, which was passed almost without objection. The system 
of administration was then reorganized, according to the constitution, and the conflict 
peaceably concluded. A royal message announced to Parliament the desire of the 



FliOM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 721 

ministry to annex to Prussia, Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort. 
And early in September, the statute of annexation passed both Houses. In France, 
this unexpected enlargement of Prussia excited great irritation, and for a time it ap- 
peared as if the imperial government would ask for compensation, by the cession of the 
left bank of the Rhine, and of Mayence. But it was soon manifest, that not only Prus- 
sia, but all Germany would defend every inch of German territory with the last drop 
of blood ; so that Napoleon thought the price of a war too dear for so small an increase 
of power. He changed his cabinet and the war clouds dispersed. Meanwhile, the dis- 
possessed princes of Germany absolved their officers from their oaths of allegiance, and 
thus enabled them to enter the Prussian service. The Elector of Hesse was guaranteed 
certain estates and revenues. The Duke of Nassau hesitated for a long time, but fin- 
ally accepted a similar arrangement. But the King of Hanover refused all terms. In 
the course of the year 1867, the Prussian constitution, judicial and military system, were 
introduced into the conquered territory. All the lands of Germany, north of the river 

nee. is, isea. Main, now entered the North German Union, and at the end of the 

year 1866, ambassadors of all the states met at Berlin to deliberate upon the proposed 

i89i. constitution for the new confederation. The constitution agreed upon 

feii. 2-t.-A.pr. 7. by them was submitted to a diet elected by the people. After long de- 
bates and different amendments, it was adopted by the diet, and then ratified by the 
legislatures and princes of the different states. It provided that all the states north of 
the Main, should unite to form a federal union, with the same laws, the same civil 
rights, the same military system. The army was to be under the command of Prussia; 
the citizens of the Union were to have unrestricted intercourse with each other, and 
equal privileges throughout the Union. In all the important features of political and 
social life, they were to have institutions in common; — the same weights and measures, 
the same coin, the same postal and telegraphic system, the same industrial and com- 
mercial laws, the same system of revenue and of military service. A federal council, 
presided over by a chancellor to be appointed by the king of Prussia, was to consist of 
representatives of the different states. This federal council was to legislate in connec- 
tion with a federal diet. The federal chancellor was to be responsible to this diet, the 
members whereof were to be chosen directly by the people, and to serve without com- 
pensation. The army of the Union was to be an army of all the citizens, and to be sub- 
ject to the Prussian military law. The relations of the South German states were to 
be regulated by particular treaties. During the progress of this reorganization of North 
Germany, Europe was startled with the news that the King of Holland intended to sell 
the dukedom of Luxemburg to the Emperor of France. The excitement was supreme, 
but Napoleon agreed finally to abandon Luxemburg, if Prussia would evacuate the 

may 1-11, lsot. fortifications, and consent to neutralize the land. Prussia accepted and 
j«ne, iso7. the war cloud again dissolved. Germany then proceeded quietly to 
perfect her union. A customs-parliament was called into being, and in a short time 
north and south Germany were united in the same revenue system. The North Ger- 
man Diet accomplished a colossal work in the first period of its existence. A new in- 
dustrial order was created; a new criminal code, new corporation laws, and a new sys- 
tem of weights and measures. In a word, the legislation of 1868 was almost a trans- 
formation of the social and economic order of Germany. 

§ 611. But Austria also underwent a transformation. For many years the Hun^ 
46 



1-22 



RECENT HISTORY. 



garian statesman, Franz Deak, had maintained courageously that Hungary should re- 
main united to Austria, but should have an independent government, and a constitution 
based upon the old system of rights, but adapted to existing conditions. He main- 
tained, also, that Hungary should be territorially protected, by the addition of frontier 
lands in the south and the east. Not until after the treaty of Prague were the Aus- 
trians disposed to listen to such wisdom. But in 1867, the duplex kingdom, Austria- 
Hungary, came into being. Deak, and the imperial chancellor, Count Beust, agreed 
upon the new constitution, which had been formulated at Pesth, and it was then sanc- 
tioned by the Emperor Francis Joseph. Hungary received back her ancient rights ; 

Transylvania, Croatia, and other frontier 
lands were annexed, and the conditions 
agreed upon, under which the two king- 
doms should form one government. The 
appointment of a new Hungarian ministry, 
under Count Andrassj', and the solemn 
•June s, iso7. coronation of Francis 
Joseph as king of Hungary, completed the 
reconciliation. A constitutional monarchy 
had been created, in which the two king- 
doms were united in military, diplomatic, 
and economic institutions. An imperial 
ministry, with an imperial diet, were en- 
trusted with the work of administration 
and legislation, and the two nationalities 
were bound together in mutual respect 
nee. 21. and pacific co-operation. 
In Austria proper, great changes took 
place. The February constitution was 
restored, and in 1868 the first constitutional ministry was appointed, Prince Auers- 
perg serving as minister — president, while Count Beust became imperial minister for 
foreign affairs. 




FRANCIS JOSEPH I. (1889.) 



5. The Spanish Revolution of 1868. 

§ 612. -When the French empire was founded, the court party in Madrid, with 
the help of the queen mother, Maria-Christina, succeeded in overthrowing Narvaez 

Oct., tssi. and his cabinet. A concordat was then concluded with the Pope, 
which made great concessions to the Spanish clergy, and the royal authority tended rap- 
idly to absolutism. The reaction was greatly assisted by an attack upon Queen Isabella. 

weh„ iss2. made by an insane priest, Martin Marino. The press was put under 
sharp limitations, the Cortes dissolved, the constitution altered, and Carlists and cler- 
icals appointed to the influential places in the state and the army. This brought about a 
union of all the liberals, the progressives, and the moderates. A change of ministry 

July, issi. was the consequence. Espartero, Duke of Vittoria, undertook the 
formation of a new cabinet. Maria-Christina -was escorted by Spanish soldiers across 
the frontier to Portugal. But ministry succeeded ministry. Espartero, Narvaez, and 
0"Donnell, followed each other in rapid succession. The Spaniards, under O'Donnell, 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 723 

carried on a successful war against Morocco, and an attempt of the Carlists to get pos- 
session of the Spanish throne, under Ortega and Cabrera, failed miserably. Ortega was 
made prisoner and shot. Count Montemolin, the claimant of the throne, was also seized 

,ij,,n, isoo. and compelled to renounce his claims. But when O'Donnell left the 
ministry, Spanish affairs rapidly became worse. The uprisings and mutinies of the 
democrats, and of the soldiers were, with difficulty, suppressed. The ministry seemed 
to be without rudder and without sailing orders. Narvaez did his utmost to silence the 
press, to remove liberal teachers from the universities, and liberal officers from their 
position in the state. But the opposition grew in spite of his attempted terrorism. 
i8a*. The opinion had taken deep root that there was no salvation for Spain 

under a Bourbon dynasty. Republican ideas entered the minds of all classes ; even 
found access to the soldiers. One party went so far as to clamor for the union of Spain 
and Portugal under the House of Braganza. The intrigues of the palace, and the ca- 
prices of the Queen, whose wanton life and superstitious piety made her an object of re- 
pugnance to the people, finally provoked an outbreak. 

§ 613. Narvaez withdrew, and the government passed once more to the liberals, 

June isor,. among whom O'Donnell and Serrano had the greatest influence. These 
sought to conciliate the party of progress by abolishing the tyrannical measures of 
their predecessors, and by compelling the Queen to remove from court, Father Claret 
and Sister Patrocinio, the heads of the Camarilla. At the same time, O'Donnell sought 

amo. isos. the friendship of France. He visited the Emperor Napoleon in his 
camp at Chalons, and arranged for a meeting of the Spanish and French royal families. 
But the democrats and progressives were demanding universal suffrage, and the separa- 
tion of church and state. General Prim was their head and leader. Republican up- 

jan. i860. risings took place in Catalonia and Valencia, but they came to naught. 
Prim, with his seven hundred comrades, was pushed across the Portuguese frontier. 
He retired to England to wait for better times. But military uprisings broke out in 
Madrid, Salamanca, and other places. The court determined now to put an end to 
this unrest, Narvaez was recalled, a severe system of military police was adopted, the 
independence of the cities and of the provinces was abridged, education placed under 
the control of the clergy, and the Cortes filled with subservient instruments of the 
crown. Yet in spite of the interference of the ministry with the election, one hun- 
Bec. 20-30. isoo. dred and thirtj'-seven members of the Cortes petitioned for the abolition 
of the military-police sj r stem. Thereupon a number of them were arrested and 
carried to the Canary Islands. Serrano, the president of the Senate, was likewise 
March 18B7. banished. O'Donnell and other prominent liberals escaped by flight. 
The Cortes were dissolved, and the opposition editors threatened with death. A 
reign of terror spread itself over the whole kingdom. The Cortes abandoned all op- 
position. Narvaez and his colleagues yielded entirely to the Camarilla, and constitu- 
tional government was reduced to a shadow. The rumor spread that the secularized 
Teh. a. isos. cloisters were to be restored. The Pope presented Queen Isabella with 
a golden rose, as a token of his satisfaction with her religious feeling. When Narvaez 
A»rii S3, isos. died, the new cabinet, under Gonzalez Bravo, continued the reign of 
terror. Many well-known men were arrested and carried off to the Balearic and Can- 
ary Islands The Duke of Montpennsier was ordered to leave the country. This was 
the cap-stone of the reaction. The Spanish nation was embittered with the Bourbon 



724 



RECENT HISTORY. 



dynasty, and above all, with Queen Isabella ; but the discord of parties had prevented 
a general uprising. Now, however, the liberals, the progressives, and the democrats 
determined to unite in a common movement against the Queen and the hated ministry. 
sept. ises. They opened communications with General Prim, who sailed secretly 
to Gibraltar. Suddenly, while Queen Isabella was enjoying herself at San Sebastian, 
the news spread through the land that Admiral Topete had raised the flag of rebellion 
in the harbor of Cadiz, and in conjunction with General Prim had issued a proclama- 
tion, calling upon all Spaniards to forget their differences and to overthrow the tyr- 
anny. Cadiz, Seville, and other 
cities immediately answered 
with an uprising. A second 
manifest of Prim declared uni- 
versal suffrage to be the founda- 
tion of the new social and 
political regeneration. The 
Queen sought in vain to ap- 
pease the storm by a change of 
ministry, but her armies were 
defeated not far from Cordova, 
Oct. 4. ises. and a few days 
later, the victorious Serrano 
entered Madrid in triumph. 
In connection with Prim and 
Topete, he established a pro- 
visional government. The 
chiefs of this government were 
monarchists, and Serrano would 
probably have interfered in 
favor of Isabella, if she could 
have consented to exile her 
hated favorite Marfori, or to 
abdicate in favor of her son, 
the prince of Asturia. Isabella 
however was convinced that a 
longer stay on Spanish soil might prove dangerous. She therefore departed for 
France, accompanied by her feeble husband, her favorite, Marfori, her confessor. 
Father Claret, and a numerous train of courtiers. 

§ 614. When the court had departed, the old parties reappeared. While the 
government held fast to the monarchy, and, like the Belgians and the Greeks in forme? 
da}-s, looked abroad for a king, the republicans grew stronger in the south, and tht 
Carlists of the north proclaimed Don Carlos King of Spain, under the title of Charle: 
VII. The Carlist uprising had little success, but the republicans were, with difficulty, 
Nov. ises. suppressed by the Government. The election to the Cortes, in 1869, 
resulted in favor of the monarchists. But whom should they select as king? There 
were three Bourbon claimants, Prince Alfonso of Asturia, to whom his mother Isa- 
bellii transferred her rights, Don Carlos, the choice of the legitimists, and the Duke of 




ISABELLA II. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 725 

Montpensier. But no one of the three had any favor with the people. And the king 
of Portugal showed no desire for the Spanish throne, nor for a union of the two peoples. 
The government was accordingly conducted as a republic. The Cortes, after stormy 
debates, adopted a new constitution, which provided for an hereditary king, with a 
June i, isao. senate and a house of representatives, and guaranteed to the nation all 
the fundamental rights of a free people. A regency now became imperative. Mar- 
shal Serrano was called to this dignity. Prim was made prime-minister, and General 
Dulce was made captain general of Cuba, in order to reduce that rebellious island to 
submission. Many attempts were made to procure a monarch. The offer of the 
crown to the Prince of Hohenzollern was the occasion of a terrible war between 
France and Germany. Finally the Spanish constitution was crowned by the choice of 
Nov. isro. Amadeus, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy. But 
bkc. 27. before the chosen monarch entered his new kingdom, General Prim 
was assassinated. The murderers were never discovered. Possibly the " king-maker" 
was a victim of republican revenge, possibly of an assassin hired by the legitimist 
emigrants. 



II. THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR OF 1870, AND THE NEW GERMAN 

EMPIRE. 

§615. 

S we have seen alreacty, Fiance desired to annex the grand-duchy 
of Luxemburg, and sought to pursuade Prussia to give up the left 
bank of the Rhine. When these projects failed, she offered an 
alliance, by means of which she. could, herself, get possession of 
Belgium, while Germany was -to be allowed to incorporate the 
South-German states into the newly formed Union. At the same 
time, she sought to hinder the building of the St. Gothard railroad 
which was to unite Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. As all these plans failed, a 
trivial cause was made the ground of a terrible war. The Spanish people, as we 
know, drove out their queen in the year 1868, and were looking for a king. In their 
extremity they offered their crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern. This prince 
was, throuo-h his mother, nearly related to the Bonaparte family, although he belonged 
to a collateral branch of the Prussian house. The Emperor Napoleon, who would have 
been glad to have seen the throne of Spain in the hands of Isabella's son, saw, or pre- 
tended to see, in the candidacy of a Hohenzollern, an attempt to increase the power 
and influence of Prussia, and threatened war if this plan was not abandoned. The 
Prince thereupon declined the Spanish crown, and King William approved his course. 
j»i» 13, is7o. But the cabinet at Paris was not satisfied. The French ambassador, 
Benedetti. sought out the aged monarch at Ems, and demanded from him a pledge 
that he would never justify, in any event, such a disposal of the Spanish crown. The 
King, indignant at such a demand, refused to receive the ambassador a second time, 
and this refusal was regarded at Paris as a ground of war. 

§ 616. Worth, Metz, Sedan. The French government hoped and believed that 
the war would be at least confined to Prussia and France. Indeed, they hoped to 




726 



DECENT HISTORY. 



make alliances with the South German states, and the discontented princes of the 
North-German Union. But in this they were greatly disappointed. When war was 
juiy 10, is™, declared in Paris, all Germany rose against the French undertaking. 
In his speech from the throne, King William declared that he relied, with the greatest 
confidence, upon the unanimity of the German princes of the South and of the North, 




PRINCE LEOPOLD. 



and that the patriotism of the German people would not be slow to defend the national 
honor and independence. Not only in Baden, but in Hesse, in Wtirtemberg, and Ba- 
varia, the war was accepted as a necessity. The means for its prosecution were imme- 
diately and enthusiastically voted, and all the armies of Germany united under the 
banner of the Prussian king, and hurried forward to the field of battle. The 
" Watch on the Rhine " became a national anthem. Fortunately for Baden, the 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



727 



French were by no means prepared for war, and were unable to cross the Rhine. 
Under the splendid strategy of Count Moltke and his staff, the land to the west of the 
river became the theatre of war. 

In the first week of August a skirmish took place at Saarbriicken, where the 
heir to the French throne received his " baptism of fire." The French army of the 
Rhine, under the command of Marshal MacMahon, Duke of Magenta, was attacked 




THE RIDS TO THE DEATH AT THE BATTLE OP SEDAN. (E. Ruenten.) 



by the Prussians, Bavarians, and other German troops under the command of the 
Aug. 4-e, is7o. Crown-prince at Weissenbnrg, and completely annihilated at the battle 
of Worth, while the army of General Frossard was defeated by the army of Prince 
Frederick Karl in a terrible battle at Spicherer Heights, and driven into the fortified 
city of Metz. Meanwhile Bazaine pushed further westward, in order to unite with 
the troops at Chalons. To prevent this the Prussians, under Steinmetz, attacked the 



728 



RECENT HISTORY. 



French to the east of the Moselle, while the second army, under Prince Frederick 
Karl, pushed southward by forced marches to head off the French army. Bazaine 
felt compelled, under 
these circumstances, 
to deliver battle be- 
fore all the German 
armies could concen- 
trate. This precipi- 
tated the decisive 
battle at Gravelotte, 

Aug. 18, 1S70. ill which 

the French, in spite 
of their strong posi- 
tion on the left bank 
of the Moselle, were 
completely beaten by 
the German forces un- 
der the King's com- 
mand. The French 
Emperor and his son 
succeeded in escaping 
to Chalons, whither 
MacMahon had re- 
tired, with the rem- 
nants of the army of 
the Rhine. The bat- 
tle of St. Privat, 
where the victoiy 
was won by the deci- 
sive action of the 
Saxons under the 
Crown-prince Albert, 
put an end forever 
to the discord be- 
tween Prussia and 
Saxony. The bloody 
battles in front of 
Metz forced Marshal 
Bazaine first to shut 
himself up within the 
walls of Metz, and 
finally to surrender 
his entire army. But 
before he capitulated, 

the Emperor attempted to relieve him by a bold march to the north 
grave doubts of the success of this enterprise 




MacMahon had 
But the regency in Paris, in which 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



729 



the Empress Eugenie had the decisive voice, insisted upon its execution. The plan 
was clear enough to the German commanders. Their army consequently interrupted 
its march to the west, and moved northward in order to unite with the army of the 

King Enormous 
armies were now 
crowded together in 
the valley of the 
Meuse, where the 
battle of Sedan was 

Sept. 1-2, ISIO. fought 

on the 1st of Septem- 
ber, 1870. The 
French were so com- 
pletely surrounded, 
that Napoleon him- 
self offered his sword 
to King William of 
Prussia, and General 
Wimpffen, who com- 
manded the army in 
place of the wounded 
Marshal MacMahon, 
concluded a capitula- 
tion, in which his 
whole army of one 
hundred thousand 
men, forty generals 
and five thousand 
officers, with all the 
ammunitions of war, 
cannon, and horses 
was surrendered to 
the victor. The lines 
about Metz were now 
drawn still closer. 
Before the end of 
September, the Ger- 
man armies were in 
front of Paris, and 
the Prussian king 
took up his residence 
in the splendid 
salons of Versailles, 

where every picture reminded him of the glories of France. 

§617. The French Republic. But the war now took a new direction. The Emperor 

Napoleon had hardly reached the rooms at Cassel, in which his uncle Jerome had spent 




730 



RECENT HISTORY. 



six merry years, before the imperial government was destroyed by a revolution. The 
sept. 4, is7o. Empress fled to England, where the imperial prince soon joined her. 
In Paris "a Government of National Defence" was formed by members of the opposi- 
tion, and these immediately announced their determination to surrender, "no foot of 
our land and no stone of our fortresses." The war pursued its course. The memories 
of the great revolution filled the men of the third republic with the belief that they 
too would be invincible. A general conscription was ordered like that which, under 
Carnot, had led to the conquest of Europe. Gambetta, the hot-blooded young lawyer 
from southern France, organized a reign of terror. The entire male population, to 
the age of forty years, was called out, and France was converted into a camp. Every 
defeat was branded as treason. But the guillotine was not called into operation. 
The French republic unfolded an energy which astonished the world. Paris endured 
the horrors of a four months' siege, sub- 
mitting willingly to the greatest hard- 
ships, and to complete isolation from 
the rest of the world. Strong armies 
were collected in the north, and along 
the Loire, to drive the Germans from 
the sacred soil of France. Strasburg 
was surrendered on the 28th of Sep- 
tember. The starving city of Metz 
capitulated on the 27th of October. 
But the spirit of the French was still 
unbroken ; Bazaine was denounced as 
a traitor, and even Uhrich, who com- 
manded at Strasburg. did not escape 
suspicion. Gambetta, who had escaped 
from Paris, issued his edicts from Tours 
and Bordeaux. Even the old Garibaldi 
left his island, and collected a motley 
company from all lands and of all 
tongues, to fight for the independence 
of France. Many battles were fought ; 
hunger and cold and disease wasted away the suffering troops ; but they would not 
nee. m, is7o. give up the fight. Trochu, who was in command at Paris, sought to 
break through the line of the besiegers, and to reach the armies in the provinces. 
Gambetta marched armies from all parts of France toward Paris, and sent, at the same 
time, an army from the south to relieve Belfort, and to break through into Alsace, 
and across the Rhine to Baden. But it was all in vain. General Werder and his 
heroic soldiers, defended the mountain passes with a courage and endurance never to 
be forgotten. 

§ 618. The Neiv German Empire. The true reward for this courage of the German 
army must be a nobler political existence. The time had now come for the German peo- 
ples to form one nation. Toward the close of the year, Bismarck, the chancellor of the 
Union, concluded treaties with the ambassadors of the South German governments, which 
agreed that the constitution of the North German Union should be introduced into 




XEON GAMBETTA. 




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732 



RECENT HISTORY. 



Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, and into the gra.nd duchies of Baden and Hesse. The leg- 
islatures of all four states ratified these treaties. The King of Bavaria thereupon 
suggested to the German princes that the imperial crown should be offered to the King 

of Prussia-. A depu- 
tation from the 
Reichstag, headed by 
the former president 
of the National As- 
sembty, that met at 
Frankfort, in 1848, 
proceeded to Ver- 
sailles to offer their 
congratulations t o 
the aged monarch ; 
and all Germany re- 
joiced when the Ger- 
man Empire was es- 
tablished, and Will- 
iam I. was proclaimed 
the Emperor of Ger- 
many. The solemn 
proclamation w a s 
jran. is, 1871. made 
in the splendid hall 
of mirrors, in the 
castle of Versailles. 

§ 619. The Bom- 
bardment of Paris. 
During these diplo- 
matic labors, and 
great political events, 
the war proceeded 
without interruption. 
Moltke had gradually 
brought together im- 
mense stores, and can- 
non of great range, 
the like of which had 
never been seen. 
Twelve batteries, 
with seventy-six ter- 
rible cannon, were 

erected during Christmas week, and the cannonading was begun. In two clays, Mt. 

Avron, the key of Paris, was abandoned ; and terror and confusion took possession of 

the excited city, as the forts on the east were rained upon by an incessant fire. A few 

ja». s, 1811. days later, the forts on the south were overwhelmed with a shower of 




734 RECENT HISTORY. 

iron hail. Bombs exploded in the suburbs and in portions of the city itself, although 
the batteries were five miles distant. A bombardment from such a distance had been 
thought impossible. A cry of rage and of horror went up from the people, against the 
barbarians who were seeking to destroj- the metropolis of civilization. With one ac- 
cord they demanded that Trochu, who was still in command, should make an effort to 
break through the German lines. On the 19th of January, the sallv was attempted. 
One hundred thousand men were brought together, and with heroic courage made the 
desperate effort. It almost succeeded, but General Ducrot arrived too late : the vic- 
torious van-guard was beaten back after a desperate fight of seven murderous hours. 
The French returned to Paris, having lost more than seven thousand in dead and 
wounded. The next day Trochu sought for a truce that he might bury his dead. 

§ 620. The Truce of Paris. The Parisians had put their last hope in this at- 
tempt to break through the German lines. When it failed, the starving city gave way 
to desperation. Capitulation was at hand, but as Trochu had sworn that he would 
never give up the city, he turned over the command to Vinoy. Worn out with hun- 
ger, shells bursting over their heads, the lower classes of the city ready for an up- 
jvm. 23, 1811. rising, the citizens determined, with great reluctance, to send Jules 
Favre to negotiate a peace. It was perhaps the hardest moment in the life of this 
noble patriot, when he was led through the German lines for an interview with Count 
Bismarck. It was finally agreed between the two statesmen, that on the 27th of Jan- 
uary, at midnight, the firing should cease on both sides, and all the forts of Paris be 
surrendered to the Germans. A three weeks' truce should follow, in order that a 
National Assembly might be chosen, and the terms of peace agreed upon. Gambetta 
attempted to restrict the free choice of representatives, by excluding the imperialists 
from the polls ; but Prince Bismarck protested against this as a violation of the agree- 
ment, whereupon Gambetta gave up his dictatorship. In Paris, the wagon loads of 
provisions were greeted with joy. Nevertheless, the population broke out into up- 
braidings against Trochu, Gambetta, and the Government of the National Defence. 
All these were traitors. They had surrendered the city without a cause. 

§ 621. Destruction of the Army of the East. The Truce of Paris did not include 
Belfort. Jules Favre agreed to this, upon condition that the army of Bourbaki should 
also be free to continue operations. 

This was willingly accepted by Von Moltke, as Manteuffel had already received 
orders to attack Bourbaki, and to drive him to the Swiss frontiers. His retreat soon 
became a rout. The number of prisoners was fifteen thousand, and the snow fields 
were covered with dead and wounded. Bourbaki, overwhelmed with reproaches by 
Gambetta, attempted his own life. General Clinchant then agreed with the Swiss 
general, Herzog, to disband his army, if his soldiers were permitted to "cross into 
Switzerland. In long trains the disarmed troops moved through the passes of the 
Jura, and were taken care of by the sympathizing people of the republic. " This is the 
fourth French army," said King William, "which has been put out of the field." 

§ 622. Belfort and the Preliminaries of Versailles. The surrender of the forts of 
Paris, and the destruction of Bourbaki's army, brought the war to a close. Gambetta 
was denounced as " the organizer of defeats," and the people demanded peace. The 
National Assembly met at Bordeaux, on the 12th of February. Republicans and 
monarchists were both agreed that a further prosecution of the war would only in- 



736 



RECENT HISTORY. 



crease the national misery. Grevy was elected president, Jules Favre and his col- 
leagues surrendered their authority to the representatives of the people, and a pro- 
visional government was created, in which Thiers exercised the chief executive 

authority. But the truce had almost 
expired. The term was protracted, only 
upon condition that Belfort should be 
surrendered. In consideration of their 
magnificent courage, the garrison were 
permitted to march out with the honors 
of war. But as Gambetta was still lead- 
ing a war party, and as even General 
Chanzy was of the opinion that France was 
strong enough to continue the war, the 
truce was extended for a short time only. 
The new government, however, favored an 
honorable peace. The protest of the 
Alsatians was passed over, yet with great 
reluctance. A commission of fifteen 
Feh, i9,is-.i. members was chosen to 
assist the ministry in their negotiations 
for peace. These were long and difficult. 
a. thiers. Count Bismarck insisted upon the cession 

of Alsace and Lorraine, including Metz. Thiers proposed the destruction of the frontier 
fortifications, or to refer the question to arbitration, but the Chancellor refused all in- 
tervention, and reluctantly consented that Belfort should be separated from the rest of 





THE PALACE AT VERSAILLES. 



Alsace, and remain in French possession. The French agreed to pay the costs of the 
war, amounting to a thousand million dollars, the whole to be paid within three years, 
and the German troops to remain in France until the final payment was made. To 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



737 



't\ 






appease French pride, only a partial entry was made into Paris. The French were 
sagacious enough not to accept the German offer, to remain out of Paris if they were 
permitted to retain Belfort. These preliminaries were agreed upon at Versailles, on 
the 26th of Feb., and the truce prolonged until the 6th of March. The National As- 
sembly was reconvened, and Thiers began, amid painful silence, to read the conditions 
of peace ; but the emotion of the aged statesman was too great for him to finish the 
reading. Quinet and Victor Hugo protested eloquently and passionately against the 
mutilation of France, but rhetoric cannot overcome armies, and the preliminaries of 

March i, is7i. peace were adopted by a vote 
of five hundred and forty-six against one hund- 
red and seven. Thus ended the bloody war 
between France and Germany. Two hundred 
thousand French soldiers were in German 
fortresses and barracks as prisoners of war. 
^IIPllljB. Thousands of cannon had been captured and 

i ■ ^. *i» ~ T ^|aL hundreds of battle-flags and imperial eagles. 

^fe. % i^»^P"^5s3lcN*> '' H ' '' ne "'-' fortifications, extending from the 

' *fw^lllji Rhine to the English Channel, upon which the 

French government had labored for two cen- 
turies, together with the supposed invincible 
works of Paris, of Strasburg, and of Metz, 
were all in the hands of German commanders. 

§ 623. The Commune of Paris. On the 
1st of March, while the National Assembly at 
Bordeaux was voting upon the conditions of 
peace, the German troops marched into the 
western portion of the French capital. A few 
days afterward, Versailles was abandoned, and 
the German Emperor started for home. The 
treaty between France and Germany was re- 
ceived by the French population with mixed 
feelings. The monarchists, the moderate re- 
publicans, and the people of the provinces 
greeted the news of peace with thankful satis- 
faction ; but the radicals, the social democrats,. 
and the masses of the great cities, exclaimed 
passionately about cowardice and treason. And 
the dethroned Emperor added to the confusion 
and the irritation, by a manifest protesting 
against the action of the National Assembly, 
Certain sections of Paris were full of uproar, and the National Guard refused to lay down 
their arms and to obey the orders of the National Assembly. A number of republican 
representatives resigned their places, and the excitement became greater when the 
National Assembly removed the seat of government from Paris to Versailles. The 
city of Paris now broke into revolution, A central committee of the National Guard 
proclaimed the Commune of Pakis, and began an armed resistance to the govern- 
47 




THE GERMANIA MONUMENT ON THE 
NIEDERWALD. 



738 RECENT HISTORY. 

ment. A terrible civil war ensued. The insurgents murdered two generals, Lecomte 
and Thomas. They fired upon unarmed citizens ; they levied contributions upon the 
banks and the railroad corporations ; they declared the property of religious societies 
the property of the state ; they devastated the home of Thiers ; they imprisoned the 
arch-bishop of Paris Avith many other conspicuous clergymen and citizens ; they tore 
down the Vendome column, and set fire to the Tuileries, the Louvre, the Luxem- 
burg, the City Hall, the ministerial buildings ; in short, plundered and destroyed 
without thought and without restraint. The Arch-bishop Darboy and many others 
who had been arrested were cruelly shot. The streets were stained with blood and 
strewn with corpses, and when the government troops finally suppressed the Com- 
munists, military courts were established, which excited the world for months, by their 
condemnations to exile and to death. 

§ 624. The Peace of Frankfort, and the Feeling in Germany. The Germans did 
not interfere witli the civil war, as both sides carefully avoided the violation of the 
treaty. The struggle continued, and the negotiations also. At first at Brussels and 
afterward at Frankfort. A treaty was finally agreed upon, in the latter city, and the 
news was greeted throughout Germany with great enthusiasm. On the 21st of March, 
1871, representatives from all Germany, from the north and from the south assembled 
in Berlin to deliberate upon the laws, and to determine the form of the new German}' ; 
io establish a government for Alsace and Lorraine ; and to make provision for the in- 
valid soldiers, and for the families of those who had fallen in battle. 



III. HISTORICAL SURVEY. 

a. RETROSPECT OF LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 

§ 625. Literary Changes. Heine. 

OMANTICISM, with its enthusiasm for the Middle Age, soon be- 
came a mere reminiscence. Her apostles cared nothing for the 
people, and the people cared nothing for Romanticism. But the 
literature of democracy soon aroused the masses, by its attacks 
upon all existing institutions of church and state. The Jews 
were conspicuous in the radical ranks. Ludwig Borne, distin- 
guished for his diction and critical skill, and Heinrich Heine, a 
gifted poet, were the most eminent of these Semitic writers. Heine especially at- 
tracted attention by his pathos, his biting wit, his intellectual swiftness and power, the 
splendor of his diction, and the singular beauty which broke forth from pages often 
marred by coarse invective and reckless diatribes. Close upon Heine followed Young 
Germany, in the person of Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube, and many others. They 
sought a merry life rather than a nobler one ; the old pagan virtues, rather than the 
Christian ideals. With a wanton enthusiasm for their mistress, Progress, they scoffed 
at self-sacrifice, caring more for the forms of art, than for spiritual significance. They 
lacked the energy and the sagacity for statecraft, yet delighted in politics. Hence 
their shrewd and effective criticisms of existing social and political conditions. Hence, 




FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



739 



too, the vagueness of their political ideals and their feebleness in constructive re- 
forms. 

A group of serious writers came nearer to the popular heart, and wrought mightily 
as producers of unrest. Herwegh, with his " Poems of a Living Soul," Von Fallersleben, 
with his " Songs of the People," Prutz, Dingelstedt, Freiligrath, and others, gave expres- 
sion to the passionate longing of the age for social transformation, for a paradise on 
earth, for an escape from misery, and a share in material pleasure. 

Berthold Auerbach, the translator of Spinoza, and the author of " Little Barefoot," 

Anerhacn, was a Jewish child of the Black Forest. His pictures of German do- 

lsm-isss. mestic life, among the peasants, and in court circles, are a beautiful 

Kinkei, 1815-isss!. blending of reminiscences of reality and ideal suggestion. Kinkel is 

known for his political martyrdom 
and his lyrical poetry : Hebbel for 
Hehi>ei,isi3-ise3. his wild, passion- 
ate, and powerfully repulsive 
dramas. Emmanuel Geibel is 
Geiitei, 1SIS-1SS4. the poet of loyalty 
and conservative feeling ; so too 
nedwitx, it. isg3. is Oscar Von Red- 
witz. 

Paul Heyse is famous for his 
wej/se, j,. is3o-. novels and ro- 
mances " Children of the World," 
" Paradise," and for his dramatic 
poems, especially the " Sabine 
Boaenstedt, Women." Franz 
b. lsio-. Bodenstedt made 
careful studies of the Orient, which 
he reproduced in his poems. Riehl 
Meia, o. 1S23-. is the founder of 
the later historical novel, which 
has been brought to perfection by 
Felix Dahn, in his " Struggle for 
Rome." Spielhagen and Freytag 
are renowned for their novels, but 
tcentei- isto-is74. Fritz Reuter is 
easily chief of modern German humorists. His Uncle Brosig is as wonderful as Fal- 
staff, and a world more lovable. 

The first of Austrian poets in our century is Grillparzer, although his genius re- 
ceived little recognition during his lifetime. Hamerling, the author of " Aspasia," and 
Franzos, who wrote the " Struggle for Justice," are also Austrians. Among the dis- 
tinguished literary women of Germany, in the nineteenth century, were Heine's friend, 
Rahel, the wife of Varnhagen von Ense, Goethe's friend, Bettina von Arnim, the Count- 
-ess Hahn-Hahn, Fanny Lewald, and Bertha von Suttner, the author of " Ground Arms." 
§ 626. In theology, De Wette and Schleiermacher sought to reconcile the eternal 
antithesis of the natural and supernatural. But Strauss and Feuerbach, both disciples 



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ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. 



f40 



RECENT HISTORY. 



schieieimacher, of Hegel, startled the world, the former with his " Life of Jesus," the 
H6s-is34, latter with his " Essence of Christianity." This led to a reaction, 
s«»-«mss, i8os.i874. which divided into pietism and strict orthodoxy. The latter was 
strongly supported by the Prussian government. 

Baron von Bunsen struck out a freer path, and the liberal elements of the evan- 
gelical chur jh formed the Protestant Union for mutual help and protection. All ef- 
forts to enlarge and liberalize the Catholic church were thwarted by the dominant ul- 
tra montane and Jesuitical influences. 

§ 627. Philosophy found great historians in Ritter, Trendelenburg, Kuno Fischer, 
lite-isn. and most won- cr>.,,. ^"^"Ci^v ': :::> ":-. 

derful of all, Edward Zeller. 
Herbart, the successor of the 
immortal Kant, at Konigsberg, 
sought a basis for pedagogy, in 
a more thorough acquaintance 
with the workings of the human 

Sohopetiliauer, SOul; while 

i:ss-isoo. Schopenhauer 
produced his famous treatise 
" The World as Will and Per- 
ception." 

But the great triumphs of 
scientific inquirj^, outside of 
the physical sciences, have been 
in the field of history. Von 

tin, ike, Ranke, Curtius, 
i?95-isse. Mommsen, Ihne, 
Waitz, Hiiusser, Giesebrecht 
are all illustrious names. More 
recently Harnack, by his mag- 
nificent work upon Christian 
dogma, has opened a new epoch 
in ecclesiastical history. 

Savigny, with his history 
of " Roman Law in the Middle 
Ages," Bluntschli, with his 
" International Law," and 
Gneist, with his " Studies in Constitutional History," have added new lustre to Ger- 
man jurisprudence. 

§ 628. But the natural and exact sciences have surpassed all the others, even 
Aiex. Humhoiat, history not excepted. Alexander von Humboldt leads the splendid 

noo-isBo. column, and behind him come Arago of France, and Darwin of Eng- 
Banvin, isoo.iss2. land. Gauss, the founder of the new mathematics, the astronomers 
Herschel, father and son, Kirchoff and Bunsen, the discoverers of spectral analysis, 
voita, ills-ism. Volta, inventor of the famous pile, Mayer, the expounder of the con- 
servation of energy, Gay-Lussac, the chemist of France, and Faraday, the great scien- 




CHARLES DARWIN. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



741 



tific genius of England, Helmholtz, master of many sciences, and Virchow, statesman 
and physiologist, renowned in both spheres. 

l>. The Technical Inventions of Our Time. 

§ 629. The application of steam to machinery, and the utilization of electricity 
have transformed the world. 

James Watt was the first to improve the rude steam pump into an instrument of 
universal power. Arkwright followed with his power loom. And the two Stephen- 
sons with the locomotive. Robert Fulton invented the side wheel steamboat, which 
has developed into the twin and triple-screw steamship, that crosses the Atlantic in 

less than a week. The Alps are now 
crossed by four railroads, and the 
Rocky Mountains by as many. Som- 
merring and Morse, Joseph Henry, 
and George Grove, are names illus- 
trious in the history of the magnetic 
telegraph, while Bell is associated in- 
separably with the telephone ; Edison 
and Siemens with the electric light 
and the electric motor. 

§630. Political Economy. Adam 
Smith was the founder of scientific 
political economy. His " Wealth of 
Nations," published in 1776, was an 
epoch making book. Malthus fol- 
lowed with a theory of population, 
exasperatingly true, and Ricardo, 
with a theory of rent, equally irri- 
tating and irrefutable. John Stuart 
Mill synthesized their contributions 
into a system, and Bastiat, in France, 
expounded them with optimistic ad- 
ditions and modifications, and ren- 
dered them exceedingly attractive 
by his wit and eloquence. 
Fichte wrote a treatise, in which he urged a system of national restriction, and 
List followed him in his opposition to Free Trade. Roscher, of Leipzig, is the chief of 
the historical school, while Boehm-Bawertz of Vienna, has made an anatysis of value, 
which has attracted great attention. Karl Marx, in his " Capital," attempted a scien- 
tific basis of socialism, and his difficult but powerful work is the Bible of the disorgan- 
izes of the present industrial system. Schulze-Delitzsch founded in Germany a num- 
ber of co-operative societies, seeking, by practical measures, to relieve and benefit the 
working classes. A few have followed him, but the multitudes of Germany have fol- 
lowed Marx and Lassalle. In France, St. Simon and Fourier are the popular idols ; 
these taught, early in the century, their theories of communal industry, and equal dis- 
tribution of the products of labor. In Russia, Bakunin urged a system of Nihilism, or 




GEORGE STEPHENSON. 



742 



RECENT HISTORY. 



the. destruction of existing institutions as the beginning of a new social state. In 
England and America, these doctrines are gradually spreading, and their influence 
upon the democratic institutions of the two countries is watched with solicitude by 
students of political development. 

§ 631. The naturalist, the merchant, the missionary, and the journalist have dis- 
covered the " Dark Continent." Barth of Hamburg, and Vogel of Leipzig, David 
Livingstone, and Henry Stanley, have won for themselves imperishable renown, by 
their African journeys. The coasts of Africa are lined with colonies, and the Free 




DAVID LIVINGSTONE. 

State of Congo occupies the heart of the continent on both sides of the Congo river. 
Speke, Grant, and Baker discovered the long-hidden sources of the Nile in great lakes 
beyond the equator, and the snow-clad mountains by which they are fed. 

In 1884, Germany founded colonies in Africa, in spite of the savages and the 
Arabs, by whom the settlers were harassed. The troubles from these sources led to 
imperial protection in 1889. The Dutch and the English are strong in southern and 
eastern Africa, but they, too, have serious difficulty with the climate and the savages. 

§ 632. Australia, which was first discovered by Captain Cook more than a cen- 
tury ago, now consists of a number of English colonies. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



743 



Polar expeditions still have their attractions 
to the expedition of Dr. Kane, and in 
recent times Nordenskjold, Weyprecht, 
Greeley, and others have sought knowl- 
edge and fame among the ice-bergs and 
the northern lights. 

§ 633. The First Reichstag of the 
Neiv Empire and the Political Parties. 
The creation of the German Empire 
astonished and perplexed the rest of 
Europe, especially as it was accompanied 
with the military overthrow of France. 
The center of political gravity had been 
removed from Paris to Berlin, and other 
nations regarded this change with sus- 
picion and alarm. Within the empire, 
there were not a few who were opposed 
to a consolidated union under the lead 
of military Prussia. It was plain there- 
fore, that the empire must fight for its 
life. In the first debates, a number of 
representatives showed a desire to re- 
store the papacy to its old authority as 
compensation for this restoration of the 
empire. The leaders of this clerical 
party were Windthorst of Hanover, and 
Bishop Ketteler of Mayence 



The fate of Sir John Franklin led 





SIR SAMUEL BAKER. 



They called themselves the "Party of the Center," and 
gathered about them the discontented of every 
sort. But the Catholic church itself, was not free 
from dissensions. When the decrees of the Vati- 
ittaicu as, ls-si. can Council were published, the 
great historian, Dollinger, addressed a letter to 
the arch-bishop of Munich, in which he declared 
that the new dogma of the infallibility of the pope 
was contrary to the Holy Scriptures and to the 
traditions of the Church. If it were adopted by 
the Catholics of Germany, it would be the begin- 
ning of a cancer, which would destroy the new 
empire, as the old one had been destroyed. In 
most of the German states, great care had been 
taken in legislation for the schools, and the eman- 
cipation of the school-system from the church 
had been partially or wholly completed. When, 
now, the affairs of Alsace and Lorraine came 
up for discussion, the clerical party attacked, 



f44 RECENT HISTORY. 

with great bitterness, the changes which had been made in the instruction of the 
young. 

§ 634. After the adjournment of the first Reichstag of the Empire, the great tri- 
june is, isvi. umphal entry into Berlin took place. The festival was imitated in 
several of the German capitals, notably in Munich, where the King of Bavaria and 
the Crown-prince of the German Empire met together, and cemented the union of the 
south and of the north in an enduring personal friendship. Bavaria joined Prussia 
also in her resistance to the Ultra-montane clericals. In 1872, Prince Bismarck began 
the foreign policy which has preserved the peace of the empire for more than two dec- 
ades. He convinced the other nations that Germany would not be aggressive, but 
would always be prepared. New fortifications were erected at Strasburg and in Metz, 
and the military system of Germany was reorganized according to Prussian models. 
Bismarck sought also the friendship of Austria, and obtained it in spite of the hostil. 
ity of the aristocracy, of the ultra-montanes, and of the non-German races. In Russia 
the population was, for the most part, hostile to the new order of things in Germany, 
while the court was well disposed. This led Bismarck to promote the meeting of the 
September, ism. three emperors in Berlin, and led further ti the proclamation of a cor- 
dial understanding between the three great dynasties of central and eastern Europe. 
may, ism. Nor was Italy neglected. A visit of the Crown-prince and of the 
Crown-princess of Italy gave opportunity to strengtnen he alliance, to Avhich the 
House of Savoy was so much indebted. The Scandinavian kingdoms were conciliated, 
and no pains were spared to heal the wounds caused by the struggle over Schleswig- 
Holstein. 

§ 635. King Frederick William IV. had been surrounded by a High-Church party, 
who had helped him in his efforts to strengthen the Catholic church in Prussia. The 
Catholic clergy were really freer in Protestant Prussia, than in the Catholic states, and 
they had established everywhere in North Germany their monasteries and congrega- 
tions. The minister of religious affairs, Von Miihler, was one of the leaders of this 
reaction, and one of the principle supports of the Catholic party. He was finally 
January, 1872. driven to resign, and his place taken by Falk, an energetic, bold, and 
sagacious statesman, who introduced a new school law, which brought the entire sys- 
tem of instruction under the control of the state, put an end to the dependence of the 
public schools upon the church, and regulated carefully the part of the clergy in relig- 
ious instruction, and the moral education of the }'oung. This law was passed by the 
House of Representatives, but met with violent opposition in the upper House, not only 
from the ultra-montanes, but from all the forces of reaction. It required all the per- 
sonal influence of Bismarck and Falk to carry through their proposition. An attempt 
was made to conciliate the Pope, by sending Cardinal Hohenlohe to represent the Ger- 
man empire at Rome, but the Pope refused to receive him. It was proposed to abol- 
ish the embassy, but Prince Bismarck preferred, he said, to regulate the differences of 
state and church by means of legislation. It was in this connection that he made the 
famous remark, "We are not going to Canossa ! " At the same time he issued a man- 
ifest, touching the relation of the temporal government to the election of future popes. 
The German bishops now united in a declaration against the Chancellor. This pro- 
duced great excitement, and was soon followed by a law abolishing the houses of the 
Jesuits, and excluding the members of the order from the German empire. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 745 

§ 636. Reforms, in other spheres, met with like opposition. The six eastern prov- 
inces of the monarchy suffered greatly from remnants of feudal privilege. These, the 
Prussian government determined to abolish; and introduced for that purpose anew sys- 
tem of local government. This was adopted by the lower House, but rejected in the 
upper by a solid phalanx of the nobility. Thereupon the government created twenty- 
five new members, by whose help the new system was voted through. King William 
consented to this measure with great reluctance, but it was the only means by which 
the feudal spirit could be broken. In the beginning of 1873, the Prussian bishops and 
the Prussian government were in deadly strife. New laws became necessary, by which 
the rights and liberties of the citizens could be protected against a priesthood armed 
with such great powers of discipline and excommunication. These laws provided for 
the scientific education of the Catholic clergy, for the confirmation of clerical appoint- 
ments by the state, and for a tribunal, in which the conduct of the bishops might 
be revised. They were passed by the House of Representatives by a great major- 
ity, but in the House of Lords, the personal power and the impressive eloquence 
of the Chancellor were both needed to overcome the opposition. These laws, known 
as the May Laws, embittered the strife between the bishops and the state. 

§ 637. At once the bishops assumed a hostile attitude, issued addresses, memoirs, 
and declarations, prophesying that neither bishops, priests, nor believers would submit 
to such laws. They refused to permit the government to inspect the seminaries, 
in which young priests were educated, and to notify the state when they ap- 
pointed a priest to a vacant parish, as the laws required. They continued to make 
their appointments without regard to the laws, whereupon the government forbade 
their appointees to perform the Church service. This provoked a conflict, which ex- 
tended throughout the whole kingdom. Many arch-bishops and bishops were sent to 
prison; many were deposed, among them the two arch-bishops; and in the future, 
bishops were to be recognized and placed in possession of their revenues, only after 
taking an oath of allegiance, and promising to obey the laws. The first to take this 
oath was Bishop Reinkens, who was recognized by the Emperor as bishop of the Old 
Catholics, after he had been consecrated by the Jansenist bishop, Heycamp, in Rotter- 
dam. The ultra-montanes now spread the rumor that King William did not sj'mpa- 
thize with this new legislation, and the Pope addressed to him a letter, in which he 
expressed the opinion that the King did not approve of these measures, but "if he did, 
he should remember that they could only undermine his own throne." To this, 
William I. replied, " that the Holy Father was misinformed of German affairs, if he 
supposed that the German government was pursuing methods that the Emperor did 
not approve ; the constitution required that all laws must receive his signature. He 
regretted that many Catholic clergymen persisted in a course of disobedience, making 
thereby the use of compulsion necessary. But the religion of Jesus Christ and the 
truth had nothing to do with this conduct. Moreover, he could not refrain from ex- 
pressing his dissent, when the Holy Father declared that every baptized person be- 
longed to the Pope ; the evangelical faith which he, like his forefathers, and the most 
of his subjects, confessed, did not permit him to accept any mediator in his relations to 
God, except the Lord Jesus Christ." 

§ 638. A new House of Representatives for Prussia was elected in 1873 ; the 
clericals appeared with increased strength, but the House, nevertheless, passed the 



746 RECENT HISTORY. 

statute of civil marriage, making a civil ceremony obligatory upon Catholics and 
Protestants alike. But the bishops and clergy persisted in their opposition, until most 
of the bishoprics in Prussia were vacant ; the prelates seeking in every way to avoid 
the application of the laws. The prince bishop, of Breslau, removed to Austria; the 
Arch-bishop of Posen went to Rome ; and other deposed bishops left the country, in 
order to escape punishment. 

The Prussian government closed the vicarages of the disobedient priests, confis- 
cated the revenues of their parishes, transferred disobedient priests to other parishes, 
and deprived of citizenship such as persistently disobeyed the laws. The conflict be- 
tween the Church and the modern State became sharper. The Pope issued a note- 
worthy encyclical, in which he declared the May laws null and void, and excom- 
municated all priests who submitted to the government. This led to the refusal of 
the Prussian state to any longer pay the sums that had been hitherto devoted to the 
Catholic church, and the constitution was changed so as to abolish the ambiguous 
clauses, under which the Church maintained her entire independence of the State. A 
statute against cloisters and religious orders and the various congregations, dissolved 
the nurseries of ultra-montanism ; and a statute touching church property, placed the 
management of it in the hands of the laity ; while still another statute gave the old 
Catholics a share in the property of the Catholic church. 

§ 639. The Reichstag of 1874 contained, for the first time, representatives from 
Alsace and Lorraine. But the first motion made by any one of them, was a demand 
that the people of the two provinces should vote upon the question of annexation. 
At the same session, greater liberty was granted to the press, but the chief event was 
the passage of a new military law. The government proposed that an annual sum be 
isjj. determined; which the government might apply without further action 

upon the part of the legislature. This met with violent opposition. The King feared 
an outbreak of the old conflict. In the critical moment, Herr von Bennigsen offered 
a compromise, in which the annual sum asked for was granted for a period of seven 
years. This compromise was accepted, and a second conflict avoided. But the strug- 
gle between the Church and the State became all the more exciting, when Kullman 
attempted the life of Prince Bismarck at Kissingen ; the Prince escaped with a slight 
wound. In the same year, Count Harry von Arnim, a former friend and ally of 
Prince Bismarck, was convicted of removing documents from the archives of the Paris 
embassy. The Count was not satisfied with the policy of the Chancellor toward Rome 
and France, and doubtless intended to make use of the documents, of which he had 
taken possession, to the detriment of the Prince. 

§ 640. A reform next began in the evangelical church. Hitherto the power had 
been in the hands of the High-Church party, — a party distinguished for its narrowness 
and its intolerance, a party that did its utmost to cripple even the Union, the greatest 
ecclesiastical achievement since the Reformation. But during the ministry of Dr. 
Falk, a new constitution was established for the church, based upon the principle of 
self-government and the predominance of the lay element. A system of synods was 
created for the districts and the provinces, and a general synod for the whole mon- 
archy. But the High Church party opposed quite bitterly the new order, and men of 
liberal views were excluded from all important parishes, and from the theological 
chairs in the universities. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 747 

§ 641. Economic questions now pushed to the front. The Empire required 
greater revenues, and free trade was becoming unpopular. The Chancellor proposed 
an increase of the tax upon tobacco, and would have gladly made of tobacco a state 
monopoly. The more Prince Bismarck busied himself with the subject of taxation, the 
more he inclined to a system of protection. This led to a reorganization of the cabinet, 
the chief members of which had been ardent free traders. The Chancellor also pro- 
posed the acquisition of the railways by the empire, but this met with decided opposi- 
tion from the other states. The railroads were however gradually acquired by the in- 
dividual states, even Prussia purchasing most of the private lines. In 1876 a new 
code of laws was adopted for the empire, not however without a great deal of diffi- 
culty, and not until it was agreed that the imperial court should have its seat at Leipzig. 
The internal administration of Prussia was next subjected to a thorough reform, the 
purpose being to establish local government, and to introduce into the civil adminis- 
tration the co-operation of the citizens ; in other words to pass from a system of police 
to a system of self-government. 

| 642. The alliance of the three emperors produced great anxiety in France, 

and led to a great increase of the French army. The French were evidently prepar- 

is7s. ing for " a war of revenge." That peace was preserved was to no 

small degree the work of the Czar Alexander. To maintain friendly relations with 

Italy, the Emperor William made a journey to Milan, where the people received 

oet. isjs. Kaiser White-beard, as they called him, with great delight. Aus- 
tria, under the influence of Andrassy, was friendly, both to Prussia and to the German 
empire. Bismarck refrained from any interference with the oriental question, and 
pursued a policy of caution and of peace. But in 1877 he announced his determina- 
isjj. tion, to retire, declaring himself worn out with his great labors and 

fatigues. The Emperor gave him indefinite leave of absence, but would not consent 
to his resignation. Nevertheless, the nation was greatly disturbed by changes in the 
ministry, and by a great commercial crisis. Something like a panic was spreading 
may is?s. through the land, when an attempt was made upon the life of the aged 
Emperor, by Robert Hodel, a colporteur of socialist writings and newspapers. Prince 
Bismarck hastily drew up a statute against revolutionary agitators and societies, but it 
was not accepted by the Reichstag, as existing laws were deemed sufficient. But 
hardly had the Reichstag adjourned, when a second attempt was made upon the life of 
the venerable monarch. Hodel was a tramp from the lower classes, but Dr. Nobling, 
jrwne isis. the second assassin, was an educated man, and doubtless insane ; yet as 
he had moved in socialistic circles, the socialists were held accountable for his deed. 
Fortunately the wounds of the Emperor, though painful, were not serious. The 
Crown-prince acted as regent, and, during his regency, the Reichstag was dissolved. 
The new assembly was convened in September, 1878, and immediately called to 
deliberate upon statutes for the suppression of socialism. These statutes provided for 
something like martial law, and met with violent opposition from the representatives 
of the people. They were finally passed, but the period of their operation was limited 
is7o. to three years. The financial crisis and the arrest of industry had 

produced a strong reaction against free trade. An alliance between the manufac- 
turers and the owners of great estates agitated for a protective tariff. This led to an- 
other change of ministry. Falk, the author of the church and school laws, retired, 



748 



RECENT HISTORY. 



and with him other liberal ministers ; and the conservatives returned to power. But 
the people were not in sympathy with the plans of the Chancellor, as was shown in 
the next election. The ultra-montanes and the liberals returned in greatly increased 
i88i. numbers. Nevertheless, the session was noteworthy for its attempt at 

social reform, especially for its statute creating a fund for the relief of sick and in- 
jured artisans. This statute provided for an insurance fund, to be created by compul- 
sory contributions. The project for tobacco monopoly was rejected; but the economic 
unity of Germany was perfected by agreements with Hamburg and Bremen, these 
1882. two cities becoming members of the customs-union, although retaining 

for themselves a limited district, into which all goods entered free of duty. Alsace 
and Lorraine were also reorganized, ai;d a viceroy appointed to govern them as im- 
perial provinces. The colonial policy of the Chancellor met with great opposition, al- 
though he succeeded in obtaining a subsidy for certain steam-ship lines. France at- 
tempted, at this time, to form an alliance with Russia, but Bismarck maintained a 

good understanding between the two mon- 
archs, who met together in the city of Dan- 
zig, and agreed upon changes in the Russian 
cabinet, which were a guarantee of peace. 
Changes in the Austrian ministry brought 
no change of foreign policy. Austria and 
Germany continued to be friends. Italy was 
brought closer by an agreement with the 
triple alliance ; and the three emperors, with 
their leading statesmen, met together in 
friendly intercourse at the Polish town of 
Skierniewicze, on the Russian frontier. 

§ 643. Revision of the Prussian Church 
Laws. — The aged Pope Pius IX., after the 
death of Cardinal Antonelli, became still 
more subject to the influence of the Com- 
is-18. pany of Jesus, as Cardinal 

Simione, his new secretary of state, was a 
member of the company. But when Car- 
dinal Pecci became Pope Leo XIII., a. more conciliatory policy was adopted. The 
death of Bishop Ketteler of Mayence, and the retirement of Minister Falk, made 
the reaction and the reconciliation easier. The application of the May laws was 
left to the discretion of the government ; the deposed bishops were recalled ; the 
scientific education of the. Catholic clergy was no longer insisted upon ; the ecclesi- 
astical court was abolished ; the establishment of new seminaries for boys was 
permitted; and the charitable orders and congregations were allowed to return. 
isso. The Church revenues were restored, and Prussia was once more 

represented at the Vatican. In response to these concessions, the Pope agreed 
that notice should be given to the government whenever a priest was appointed 
to a vacant parish. Bishop Kopp of Fulda, afterward Prince-bishop of Breslau, 
contributed greatly to the restoration of peace, by his mild and persuausive inter- 
vention. In fact, the system built up with so much difficulty had crumbled to pieces; 




POPE LEO XIII. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 749 

the weary struggle had ended in the defeat of the State. The Poles were a strong 
support of the Ultra-montane part}-, and the Prussian government was compelled to op- 
pose, with energy, the spread of the anti-German agitation in the eastern provinces. 
This led to a vote of censure in the Reichstag, but the Prussian House of Representa- 
tives approved the action of the government, and passed a law for the encouragement 
of German settlements and the purchase of Polish estates in the eastern provinces. 

iss4, In 1884 Bismarck proposed that the manufacture of distilled liquors 

should be made a state monopoly, but the proposition was defeated. In 1886 the 

isse. the struggle was renewed for the third time, touching the organization 

of the army. Bismarck asked for increased numbers, and for an appropriation cover- 
ing a period of seven years. The Reichstag refused to extend the period beyond three 
years, whereupon it was dissolved, and new elections were ordered, which resulted in 

issi. favor of the government, and in 1887 the new military law was 

adopted by a large majority. To meet the expenses required by this legislation, a 
heavy tax was levied upon distilled liquors. A change was made also 'in the time of 
military service. The members of the Laudwehr were required to serve to" their 
thirty-ninth year. And the members of the Land-sturm until the close of the forty- 
fifth year. Prince Bismarck, in the discussion of the military laws, pointed out the 
threatening situation of Europe, and developed, with great frankness, the principles 

isss. of his foreign policies. " We Germans," he said, "fear God, but noth- 

ing else in the world ! " In 1888 the legislative period for the empire was extended 
from three to five years, and the Prussian constitution was altered in the same way. 
The frequent elections had caused so much excitement, and developed so much bit- 
terness, that it was hoped in this way to subdue the political fever that was consuming 
the nation. 

§ 644. Events in Bavaria and Brunswick. King Ludwig II. was a prince of 
noble endowment, and of great patriotism ; but in 1886 his eccentricities developed 
into insanity. A regency became necessary, and as his only brother, Prince Otto, was 

isse. also insane, his uncle, Prince Luitpold, was entrusted with the govern- 

ment. The people were informed by proclamation of the tragic condition of affairs, 
and it was necessary to break the matter to the King. With difficulty he was per- 
suaded to go with his physician to the Castle Berg, at Lake Starnberg. Arrived there 
he went with Von Gudden, his physician, for a walk in the park. His medical at- 
tendant left him for a moment, but returning, discovered the King in the lake. He 
plunged in to save him, but the King, with his tremendous strength, held him under 
the water until h,e drowned, and then drowned himself. Prince Luitpold was for- 
tunately a sagacious and beneficent prince, whose conduct and bearing enabled Bavaria 
to pass through this critical period without a revolution. In 1884 Duke William of 
Brunswick died unmarried, and with him expired the elder House of Guelph. The 
Duke of Cumberland, son of the deposed King of Hanover, was the next heir to the 
throne. But the imperial council declared that a government, by the Duke of Cum- 

iss4. berland was not compatible with the imperial constitution, in as much 

as he claimed the throne of Hanover, and refused to recognize the imperial consti- 
tution. The election of a regent was ordered, and the choice fell upon Prince Albert 
of Prussia. 

§ 645. The Death of Emperor William. On the 9th of March, 1888, William, the 



750 



RECENT HISTORY. 



isss. first emperor of the new empire, was gathered to his fathers in the 91st 

year of his age. A rich life, full of marvelous successes, was thus brought to an end. 
The recollections of the monarch reached back to the days when Prussia la}' in ruins 
at the feet of Napoleon. The shame of Jena and Tilsit were his first memories, and 
yet he was called, in his old age, to lead his people to a pinnacle of greatness, of which 
the boldest had hardly ventured to dream. He remained to the last simple and 
straightforward, benevolent and gentle, always industrious, always faithful and con- 
scientious. His last words were characteristic of his whole life. " I have no time 
now to be tired." A soldier, to his heart's core, he strove to preserve the peace of the 

world, and to obtain the 
blessings of peace for 
his beloved country. It 
was reserved for him, 
after great unpopularity 
and misunderstanding, 
to fulfill the dream of 
the patriots, and to es- 
tablish the empire, in 
which united Germany 
might work out a glor- 
ious destiny. 

§ 646." The death 
of the aged monarch 
was all the more tragic, 
because of the certainty 
that his only son was 
soon to die also. The 
crown prince was suffer- 
ing from a cancer of the 
throat, to cure which, 
physician s exercised 
their skill in vain. He 
was staying at San 
Remo, when the death 
of his father called him 
to the throne. He left 
the sunny south, travel- 
ed quickly to Berlin, 
and assumed the reins of government. Frederick III., the imperial sufferer, bore his 
pains with composure and fortitude, but his government lasted only ninety-nine days. 
A proclamation to the people, and a communication to Prince Bismarck, explained 
the principles by which he would be governed. A universal amnesty was granted. 
June is, isss. Von Puttkamer, the reactionary member of the ministry, was dismissed 
for his interference with elections. On the 15th of June, 1888, Frederick died saying, 
" Learn to suffer without complaining." The imperial and the toj&\ crown passed 
to his oldest son, William II. When the new emperor opened the Reichstag, and in 




EMPEROR WILLIAM II. 



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FREDERICK III. 



(pp. 751.) 



752 RECENT HISTORY. 

his speech declared that he would proceed along the path marked out by his grand- 
father, he was surrounded by nearly all the princes of Germany — at their head the 
Prince-regent of Bavaria, and the King of Saxony. 

§ 647. The dying advice of William I. related to Russia. A good understand- 
ing with the Czar, seemed to him essential to the welfare and safety of German}-. 
This too was the policy of Prince Bismarck. Great therefore was the consternation in 
Europe, when the distinguished statesman resigned the chancellorship that he had 
created and made illustrious. The aged Moltke had already retired, but he could no 
longer " mount a horse." Bismarck, though, was still vigorous. The immediate 
cause of his retirement is not yet known, but the differences seem to have concerned 
domestic, rather than foreign policy. General Capiivi succeeded to the vacant position, 
and Miquel became Minister of Finance. At first it was feared and believed that the 
changes portended war, especially as Russia and France seemed to be approaching an 
alliance. But the young Emperor, in spite of startling speeches made at military 
banquets, has acted with great circumspection in his dealings with other nations. He 
has renewed, to some extent, the friendship of his grandfather with the Czar, and 
maintained the triple alliance with Austria and Italy. The army was further increased 
and strengthened, although the Reichstag had to be dissolved, and new elections 
ordered, before this could be accomplished. The statutes against the socialists have 
been modified, a commercial treaty with Russia negotiated, the state of the schools in- 
quired into, by a convention of distinguished educators, great public buildings and 
monuments erected in Berlin, and attempts made to improve the condition of the 
working classes by legislation and royal influence. Prince Bismarck, whose retire- 
ment has not withdrawn him from public interest, accepted recently (1894) an in- 
lssj. vitation to the imperial court. His appearance in Berlin produced an 

ovation, and his formal reconciliation with his sovereign excited the feeling, if it 
lacked the significance, of a great political event. 

§ 648. Austria. In Feb., 1871, Austria was astonished by the appointment of a 
isii. ministry notoriously hostile to the new German empire. They prom- 

ised to establish a " truly Austrian policy. Their plan was to increase the power of 
the individual legislatures, to make the provinces more independent, and to diminish 
the rights of the imperial council and the imperial ministry. The predominance of the 
German element in the west was to be overcome by a federal system, in which the Sla- 
vonic peoples would have the decisive word. To accomplish this, the legislatures al- 
ready in session were dissolved, and new elections ordered. At the very moment 
when the two emperors met together, and the two imperial chancellors were seeking to 
bind together Germany and Austria, Francis Joseph signed the degree which forced 
the Germans of Austria to fight for their political existence. " The United States of 
Austria" did not however manage to get born. When the Bohemian constitution was 
laid before the Emperor of Austria, he refused to confirm it, declaring that all changes 
must be made upon the basis of the existing constitution. The ministry at once re- 
signed. The action of the Emperor was attributed to the influence of Count Beust; 
great was the surprise, therefore, when he was removed from his position as chancel- 
lor, and sent as ambassador to London. But as he was not Austrian-born, as he was a 
Protestant, and did not belong to the old nobility ; as he had abolished the concordat, 
and entered into friendly relations with the German empire, he had become exceed- 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 7,53 

ingly unpopular with the court party, and he was sacrificed to appease their 
wrath. 

§ 649. Nevertheless, Beust's policy was continued by his successor, Count An- 
drassy. Prince Auersperg became minister-president of Austria, and the two states- 
men determined to support the constitution and the empire against the decentralizing 

issa. influences of the Slavonic peoples. In 1872 a reform bill was passed 

by both Houses, which gave the election of the imperial council to the people, instead 
of the state legislatures, and which limited the latter to purely domestic affairs. This 
bill was bitterly opposed, but supported by Count Andrassy, it received the imperial 
sanction. The relations of Church and State were regulated no longer by negotiations 
with Rome. Statutes were prepared, which abolished the concordat, and protected the 
rights of the State against the Church. These statutes were passed by the imperial coun- 

is73. cil, and signed by the Emperor. In 1873, Austria was shaken by a 

financial panic, a consequence of extravagant speculation, and the hunger for riches 
everywhere prevalent. All classes of the people suffered heavy losses, and many 
families were completely ruined. The World's Fair, which was opened the same year, 
could neither conceal nor repair these losses, although it surpassed in magnificence, 
all that had been done hitherto in this direction in London or in Paris. 

§ 650. The creation of the duplex kingdom Austria-Hungary excited the centrif- 
ugal forces in the mixed races along the Danube. Not only the Magyars in Hunger, 
but the Slavs in Bohemia strove for political independence. The creation of Franz 
Deak found many enemies in the extreme Magyar party. These would fain have broken 
the bonds that united the two sections of the empire, and have obtained 
for Hungary a political independence, in which she would have shared nothing in 
common with Austria, but the personal authority of the Emperor. But Tisza, the leader 
of this party, found it best to modify his demands, and in 1878 a new agreement 
was reached, touching the economic affairs of both states. Deak died in 1876. Events 
in the East made it still more difficult to preserve peace in Hungary, the Magyars 

lsis. wishing the empire to form an alliance with the Turks, while the 

Slavs insisted that the empire should co-operate with Russia. But Andrassy carried 
the government safely through the crisis. His policy was not to abandon the lands of 
the Balkan to Russia, but to maintain the free navigation of the Danube, and to secure 
the Austrian frontiers against Slavonic agitators. This led to closer relations with 
Germany, and Andrassy's successor, Count Kalnoky, pursued the same policy. In 

isjo. 1879 however a reaction took place. The old federal-clerical party 

obtained the upper hand. Slavs and Magyars became powerful enough to drive the 
German language and German literature from the schools, and even the University of 
Prague was so changed, that lectures were delivered in the Bohemian as well as in the 

isss. German language. The common-schools and gymnasia in Hungary 

and Transylvania were threatened with destruction, and a great bitterness broke out 
among the Germans of the empire. The imperial house was greatly afflicted by the 

is8o. sudden death of the Crown-prince Rudolph, the only son of the Em- 

peror. He died by his own hand. 

§ 651. Russia. The Czar Nicholas strove for the dictatorship of Europe, but his 
son, Alexander II., sought to reform Russia, and to bring it up to the level of other 
civilized nations. The emancipation of the serfs brought with it great changes of so- 
48 



754 RECENT HISTORY. 

cial life. The army too was reorganized; universal service was introduced, and sub- 
stitutes were no longer accepted. The railroads were increased in number, and car- 
ried to completion. The system of taxation was improved ; the privileged classes 
were taxed, and the different classes of society were brought nearer to a civil equality. 
Great attention was given to the improvement of the laws and of judicial administration, 
to the development of commerce, of industr}-, and to the education of the 3 - oung. Al- 
exander II., also desired to alleviate the miseries of war, and to that end convened a 
congress of statesmen in Brussels, in the year 1874 to determine upon the outlines of 
international law. But while Russia was pursuing a policy of peace toward the west, 
it was extending its territory in the distant east. The Khan of Khiva had captured some 

is73. Russian subjects, and refused to give them up. Russia regarded this 

as a case of war. The Prince was conquered, and the Russian military authority was 
established in central Asia. The Russian columns, under General Kaufman, marched 
to the capital of the country under incredible difficulties and fatigues, and on the 10th 
of June, 1873, Gen. Kaufman entered the city as a victor. This campaign greatly in- 
creased the authority of Russia in central Asia, and England looked with anxiety at 
the Russian advances. In the following year, Russia annexed Ferghanistan. This 
isso-issi. opened the way to Merv, long regarded as l> the key of India." 
§ 652. The Netherlands and Scandinavia. The Dutch and the Scandinavians 
have in recent times, little influence upon European politics. In Holland the two 
sons of William III. died early, and left the king a young daughter, who, according to 
the constitution, might rule in Holland, but not in Luxemburg. A bitter war took 
place between Holland and the Sultan of Atchin at Sumatra. The Sultan, trusting to 
English protection, had inflicted great injury upon the commerce and the colonies of 
the Dutch. Holland thereupon declared war, but at first suffered great losses. Fin- 

i8i3. ally she was victorious, and the entire island came into her possession. 

Belgium, under the enlightened King Leopold II. was disturbed by a violent struggle 
L,eopoia n. ises- between the liberals and the ultra-montanes. The schools were the 
bone of contention. Cabinets changed frequently, now composed of liberals, and now 
of clericals. Repeated labor troubles at the great industrial centres added to the con- 
fusion and the excitement. In Denmark, under Christian IX. conservative ministries 
christian ix. have quarreled uninterruptedly with the liberal majorities of the House 

ise3- of Commons, over the army and the appropriation bills. This has led 
to frequent dissolutions, changes of ministry, and refusals of supplies. In Sweden, 
where Oscar II. succeeded Karl XV., in 1872, the main questions have been the reor- 
oecar ii., is?*- ganization of army and navy, and the reform of the revenue system. 
Norway, which is almost independent in its legislation and administration, although 
united to Sweden nominally, has maintained, in recent times, its old dislike to Sweden, 
and its inclination for republicanism and for independence. 

§ 653. France, Thiers. After the Commune of Paris had been suppressed, the Na- 
tional Assembly in Versailles presented a picture of confusion and despair. The re- 
publican form of government was distrusted by the representatives and by the people. 
Legitimists, Bonapartists, Orleanists, and Republicans of many varieties united to es- 
tablish a republic, because they could unite to establish nothing else. But this was 
regarded as a transient expedient, from which each party hoped to emerge a conqueror. 
The German armies were still in France. The costs of the war were yet unpaid. But 



FROM THE FOUNDATION" OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



755 



Thiers had moderation enough to subdue the passions of the people, and to suppress 
the cry for a war of revenge. A disturbance of the existing order, it was plain, could 
lead only to anarchy, and to civil war. Thiers was therefore indispensable. And his 
threat to retire brought the Assembly more than once to terms. He was thus able to 
retain, for the government, the appointment of the mayors of the largest cities, and he 
managed to keep on good terms with the republicans and monarchists. The brilliant 
success of the national loan showed that he possessed the confidence of the people. 
ists. The subscription for this loan proved the exhaustless wealth of the na- 

tion and the splendid credit of France abroad. This enabled Thiers to pay off the 
war indemnity, and to hasten the removal of the German soldiers from the country, 
and also to bring order into the National finances, and to fill the empty treasury. 

§ 654. Thiers next proceeded to reorganize the French army. He hesitated to 
introduce universal ser- 
vice, and compulsory 
attendance at school, 
and the richer and more 
cultivated classes could, 
under the new system, 
escape from service in 
the army. When Jules 
Simon introduced a s 
school law of a liberal 
character, it was so :. ^ 
fiercely attacked by the 
clergy, that it was with- 
drawn. The increased 
army required increased 
revenues. An income 
tax was decided upon, 
but as this was extreme- 
ly unpopular among the 
wealth}' classes, Thiers 
determined to return to 
the old protective sys- 
tem, which had been 
abolished under the second empire. The opposition to this was so violent that 
Thiers and the whole ministry resigned. But it was impossible to agree upon a 
successor, and a compromise was reached, according to which the revenue laws 
were adopted with some amendments, and the existing commercial treaties were 
abrogated. With this increase of revenue, it was possible to reorganize the army. 
But it soon appeared that the National Assembly no longer represented the nation. 
The filling of vacancies gradually increased the power of the republicans, but the mon- 
1872. archial elements combined to lay aside the republican character of the 

government, and they baffled all attempts to establish permanently a republican sys- 
tem. On the other hand, the republicans, with their leader, the fiery Gambetta, were 
little content with the conservative republic. They demanded new elections, declar- 




CASIMIR PERIER. 



756 



RECENT HISTORY 



ing that the existing assembly had been called to make peace only. Great as were the 
services of Thiers, he found but little recognition among the violent partisans of either 
side. The royalists united with the clericals to bring about his overthrow. The Bon- 
apartists were hunted down by military tribunals. The French were certain that they 
had been conquered, not by German superiority, but by the treason of their own com- 
manders. Even Uhrich, the hero of Strasburg, was censured by a military court, but 
Bazaine was chosen as the chief victim. His surrender of Metz was charged as trea- 
son, and he was held 
responsible for all the 
sufferings of France. 
For months he was held 
a prisoner, and then 
brought to trial in a 
court-martial, presided 
over by the Due d' Au- 
male. But before the 
trial was begun, Europe 
was busy with the fate 
of President Thiers. At 
the very moment that 
he was paying off the 
last installment of the 
war indemnity, he lost 
all favor with the French 
Assembly. When the 
Emperor, Napoleon III., 
died in 1873, the sup- 
porters of the old mon- 
archy became even more 
active. Thiers, who had 
declared for the conser- 
vative republic, the re- 
public of "honest men," 
was forced to rely upon 
the left, the conserva- 
tives having gradually 
abandoned him. But 
the left had in it a large 
number of radicals. Thiers' position was rendered more difficult by the opposition 
of the church. Pilgrimages had been revived ; superstition was rife ; the Protestants 
were attacked. This conduct of the clericals excited great opposition among the 
republicans. Gre'vy resigned his position as president of the National Assembly. 
This was the prelude to the fall of Thiers. When he called the moderate repub- 
lican, Casimir Pcrier, into his cabinet, the assembly passed a vote of censure. 
Thiers then sent in his resignation, which was accepted, and Marshal MacMahon 
was chosen president of the republic. The Due de Broglie, the soul of this 




MARSHAL MACMAHON. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



757 



intrigue against Thiers, was now charged with the construction of the new ministry. 
is?3. The schools were left in the control of the clergy, and pilgrimages to 

miraculous places were organized as national festivals. 

§ 655. The ruling party in the National Assembly next tried to form a fusion of 
the two Bourbon parties. The Count of Paris traveled to Frohsdorf, in the name of 
the Orleans branch, to make submission to the Count de Chambord, the head of the 
family. But the fusion was by no means complete. One party desired the grandson 
of Charles X. to be called back without conditions ; the other demanded pledges and 
assurances that King Henry V. would govern as a constitutional monarch. At last 
they united in a program which recognized the principle of a hereditary monarchy, 
but reserved the essential rights of a constitutional state, with two legislative cham- 
bers, and also re- 
served for France the 
tri-colored flag. But 
the Count declared 
to his friends that he 
must retain the white 
standard of the Bour- 
bons, that he could 
not become the legit- 
imate king of the rev- 
olution. Thus the 
great scheme, which 
had cost so much, 
was shattered to 
Oct., 1873. pieces 
■upon the obstinate 
•apathy of an aged 
prince, without am- 
bition and without 
-energy. Thus there 
never was in France 
a King Henry V. 

§ 656. Reluctantly enough, the monarchists now united to confer upon MacMahon 
the dignity of president of the republic, for a period of seven years. While Mac- 
Mahon was thus elevated to the chief magistracy of France, Bazaine was a prisoner, 
defending his life and his liberty before a military court. He was found guilty, and 
condemned to death with the loss of his military honors. But his judges united in a 
recommendation of mercy. MacMahon thereupon commuted the death-punishment to 
twenty years' imprisonment, upon the island of St. Marguerite, opposite Cannes. 
Aug., is«. Bazaine's rich Mexican wife successfully planned his escape from the 
island, and Bazaine died in Madrid, in 1888. 

§ 657. The Duke de Broglie now attempted a change in the constitution, but 
his plan for a senate found no favor in the eyes of the Assembly, and he was obliged 
to retire. A period of confusion followed, out of which slowly emerged the party of 
Republicans, who established the constitution of 1875. This provided for two chain- 




Up** 



DUC DE BROGLIE. 



[58 RECENT HISTORY. 

bers, a chamber of deputies elected by the people, and a senate of three hundred 
Fei>., lsis. members, of which seventy-five are elected by the National Assembly, 
and the others by electoral colleges, in the different departments. The two chambers 
unite to elect the president for a period of seven years. A president may be re- 
elected. He is commander-in-chief of the army ; he appoints all officers ; receives all 
ambassadors ; executes the laws : and appoints his cabinet, which is responsible to the 
Senate and to the House of Deputies. The elections of 1876 were strongly Republican. 
A liberal ministry, under Dufaure, came into power, and sought, by opportune reforms, 

is7g. to promote the national welfare. Waddington, the minister of educa- 

tion, was especially active to improve the school system. The hierarchy had denied 
the right of the government to establish universities and to confer degrees, 
and had acquired this latter right for themselves. Under Waddington it was reclaimed 
for the state. 

§ 658. The president, swept away by the republican excitement, attempted to 
conduct the government with the help of the liberals. But the clericals began to in- 
crease, and to acquire a great influence with him. This produced a crisis with the 
Assembly. Dufaure retired, and Jules Simon took his place. The clerical conservative 
party made desperate efforts to restore what it called "the government of moral or- 
der." The bishops and the Catholic priests declared that it was the duty of France 
to defend the independence of the pope, and even Pius IX. issued an address, de- 
scribing himself as a prisoner. The Chamber of Deputies petitioned the government 
to put an end to this agitation of the bishops, and Jules Simon, in the debate, ex- 
pressed the opinion that the so-called imprisonment of the Pope was a fable. The 
result was that Simon was reproached by the president for his conduct, and compelled 
to resign. A new cabinet was formed, with de Broglie as president. The chamber 
now declared upon Gambetta's motion that the representatives of the people had no 
confidence in a cabinet that was not free in its actions, and not determined to govern 
according to republican principles. A message of the President thereupon prorogued 
the chamber for a mc^th, in order that "the excitement might subside." Meanwhile 
the government would maintain the public peace. This was a prelude to a dissolu- 

isjj. tion. With the cry, " Vive la republique," and with a dignified ap- 

peal to the people against " this policy of reaction and of adventure " the repre- 
sentatives dispersed. 

§ 659. Now began a reign of proscription. Republican officials were dismissed 
by the score ; the state's attorneys were commanded to prosecute the journals for 
every disturbance of the public mind. Next came the dissolution of the Chamber of 
Deputies. The liberal members answered with an address to the people, urging them 
to stand by the republic in the coming election, to take place within three months. 
The watch-word of the Republicans was "re-elect the three hundred and sixty -three." 
The agitation was furious, and the excitement reached fever heat. The sudden death 
of Thiers stirred the heart of the whole nation. His last writing was a defence of the 
republic, and a refutation of the charges made against the liberals by the conservatives. 
The government and the clergy strained every nerve to win the victor}', and although 
only three hundred and twenty Republicans were elected, in October, they were so 
greatty in excess of the conservatives, that they were able to compel the President 
either to govern according to the constitution, or to resign his position. Finally, as 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 759 

the commercial and financial world became exceedingly restless, Marshal MacMahon 
determined upon a parliamentary government. He named a cabinet composed entirely 
of Republicans, in which Dufaure was president. Waddington was minister of foreign 
affairs, Leon Say minister of finance, and Bardoux minister of instruction. This was 
the greatest and most dangerous crisis that the republic had encountered, but it was 
successfully overcome. The executive and the legislative departments were brought 
into harmony, the appropriation bills passed, and the revenue system perfected. The 
great Exposition was then determined upon, and laws were passed to prevent the re- 
currence of arbitrary government. The public schools were withdrawn more and 
more from the influence of the clergy, and put into the hands of lay teachers. But 
all this was repugnant to the feelings of MacMahon, and when it was proposed to 
make changes in the command of the arm}', he resigned and retired to his estates. 
The two chambers came together and elected to the presidency Jules Grevy, the pres- 
ident of the House of Deputies. Gambetta was chosen president of the chamber. 
The aged Dufaure retired from the ministry, giving up his position to his colleague, 
Waddington. 

§ 660. Gambetta's Ministry and Death. The new cabinet was moderately pro- 
gressive. Concessions were made to the public demand for an amnesty of the con- 
demned communists, and a steady resistance was made to the ultra-montane excesses. 
Ferry, the minister of education, proceeded energetically against the Jesuits, and the 
other orders of the church. Feny's measures were rejected by the Senate, yet the govern- 
ment did not lack weapons wherewith to resist these dangerous societies. Gambetta 
now began a violent agitation for election reform. He proposed to abolish the dis- 
tricts, and to elect deputies by departments, hoping thereby to destroy or to neutralize 
local influences, and thus to increase republican strength. The Senate however re- 
jected the measure, greatly to Gambetta's chagrin. But the elections were so strongly 
in his favor, that he was made minister president in a cabinet composed wholly of his 
issi. creatures. His career was brief. The Chamber of Deputies refused 

to support him, and he resigned in disgust. He died a short time afterward of a 
wound, the origin of which is wrapped in mystery. 

§ 661. Foreign Entanglements. The Neiv President. France perceiving with 
jealousy the growth of other powers in the Mediterranean Sea, turned to Tunis for 
compensation. The Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate. In Mada- 
gascar, an island of eastern- Africa, a war broke out, which cost great sacrifices and 
1882-1885. brought little glory. The Tonquin expedition was not more fortunate. 
The French had obtained a footing in eastern Asia, and established a colony in 
Cochin China. Eager to possess the Red River, they pressed forward, until they came 
into conflict with the Emperor of Anam, and afterward with China. They succeed- 
ing in retaining Tonquin, but at great expense. The expedition and its consequences 
wrecked the ministry of Feriy, and also that of Brisson. 

§ 662. The two chambers united in 1884 to revise the constitution. The repub- 
lss-t. lie was declared permanent and final. The members of the dynastic 

families were made ineligible to the Presidency. A new system, for the election of 
senators, was adopted, and Gambetta's project of election by " list " was agreed to. 
GreVy was re-elected president, and a new cabinet was formed, in which Freycinet 
and Boulanger were the chief figures. General Boulanger, the minister of war, had 



760 RECENT HISTORY. 

become exceedingly popular. Many looked upon him as the coming Napoleon, who 
would soon bury the outworn republic. In 1886 the princes of the former reigning 
families were expelled from France. But in 1887 a scandal was discovered in the 

issi. highest circles, which led to the resignation of President Gre"vy. 

His son-in-law, Wilson, was deeply implicated in a shameful traffic in decorations, 
offices, and public contracts. Grevy was guiltless, but the people clamored for a sac- 
rifice. Sadi Carnot, the grandson of the famous general of the revolutionary epoch, 
was elected to the vacant place. He is a man of spotless reputation, moderate views, 
and staunch Republican ideas. Floquet, a radical Republican, became the president of 
the new cabinet. 

§ 663. Switzerland and Italy. The Swiss Confederation was also the theater of 
violent troubles between Church and State. In Geneva, the home of Calvinism, 
Mermillod was made bishop by the Pope. This provoked a violent agitation among 
the Protestants, and the government resolved upon energetic resistance to the ultra- 
montane aggressions. In Basel and Solothurn, Bishop Lachat excommunicated and 
deposed a priest, because he would not accept the doctrine of infallibility. Thereupon 
the cantonal government required him to reinstate the priest, and when he refused, 
the Bishop was himself deposed. The conflict in Berne was even more violent, but 
these efforts of the ultra-montanes found little support outside of the German Catholic 
districts. A revision of the constitution had long seemed necessary to sagacious and 
patriotic men. The federal authority was too weak ; it was necessary to confer upon 
the federal government, the control of the army and of the public schools, to establish 

isitt. justice, and to create a uniform system of revenue. The first proposi- 

tion for an amended constitution was defeated by the ultra-montanes and the defenders 

is?*. of states rights, but the second attempt succeeded, and the new con- 

stitution was adopted. The federal government assumed control of the railways, and 
the manufacture of distilled spirits was made a federal monopoly. Switzerland also 
assisted in the building of the St. Gothard railroad, joining with Germany and Italy 

iss2. to support the company, by which this magnificent work was projected 

and completed. 

§ 661. Italy and the Vatican. The position of the Pope in Italy, in consequence 
of the guarantee law, and of the principle of "a free church in a free state," was 
really more advantageous than that held by him in the days of his temporal sover- 
eignty. Nevertheless, he spoke of himself as a prisoner, and pleaded poverty. Mean- 
while, the Italian court took possession of the Quirinal, the foreign ambassadors took 
up their residence in the eternal city, and the constitutional government developed 
tranquilly. The names of Victor Emmanuel, Cavour, and Garibaldi appeared in the' 
public places and in the main streets, while their statues and medallions were seen in 

isto. many places. The Mont Cenis tunnel was completed and opened for 

travel about the same time that the Italians entered Rome. This was intended orig- 
inally to unite Italy and France. But the course of events promoted an alliance be- 
tween Italy and Germany. The Italian army was strengthened and reorganized, and 
new fortifications were erected. Thus protected against attack, the government pro- 

is38. ceeded to abolish the monasteries in the old papal states. In spite of 

the opposition of the clerical party, and the threats of a new crusade, the statutes 
were adopted almost unanimously by the lower House, and with little opposition in 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 761 

the upper House. While the French were on the point of declaring the Count de 
Chambord King of France, a ministerial change was taking place in Italy, which 
seemed to favor the ultra-montanes and a French alliance. General La Marmora 
published a pamphlet at this juncture, reflecting upon Prussia. Nevertheless, the 
people clung to Victor Emmanuel, and Victor Emmanuel adhered firmly to the 

isis. alliance with Germany. But in 1878 the first king of modern Italy 

was gathered to his fathers, and Pope Pius IX. soon followed him. Leo XIII., the 
new pope, was more conciliatory. The new king, Humbert, inherited his father's 
popularity, and also his father's earnest desire to maintain the constitution and the 
liberties of the people. The land was not free from socialistic agitation, and the 
people were startled and indignant when the King was attacked by a Neapolitan 
assassin, and his minister Cairoli severely wounded. The death of the old hero, Gar- 

isss. ibaldi, liberated Italy from many difficulties. But the party struggles 

in Parliament led to many ministerial crises that were injurious to the public welfare. 
Depretis, a patriotic liberal, was entrusted no less than eight times with the constitu- 

issi. tion of a ministry. When he died in 1887, Crispi, a man of great 

ability, became minister president and minister for foreign affairs. Touched with the 
spirit of the time, Italy was active in establishing colonies. One of these brought the 
government into conflict with King John of Abyssinia, a conflict which lasted several 
years, and exposed the Italians to serious loss. 

§ 665. Spain. King Amadeus struggled for eighteen months with the Cortes and 
with the Spanish army, and then resigned his throne. After his departure for Italy, 
the Spaniards determined upon a republic, in which Castelar, Figueras, and Salmeron 
were the conspicuous figures. They determined to call a constitutional convention, 
and to establish the fundamental law of republican Spain. Meanwhile, an executive 
committee, chosen by the Cortes, should assist the government with their council. 
The members of this committee desired a conservative republic. Castelar and his 
companions desired a republic like that of the United States of America. This pro- 
voked a sharp conflict, and the two parties in Madrid appeared armed. This was a 

isi3. signal for Figueras to dissolve the executive committee. Serrano and 

his adherents fled across the frontiers, and the election for the constitutional conven- 
tion was completed. As the Conservatives stayed away from the polls, the Democrats 
were triumphant. When the convention met, it started to transform the ancient Span- 
ish monarchy into a federal republic of thirteen states, each of the latter having a 
separate government. But while the convention was debating, the land was approach- 
ing anarchy ; and to make things worse, Don Carlos had marched into the mountain 

is73. regions of the north, proclaimed himself to be King Charles VII , 

and demanded the allegiance of all Spain. He soon commanded an army of twelve 
thousand men, led by bandits and fanatical priests. The Basque population of the 
Pyrenees, which delighted in civil war and adventure, easily lent itself to the cause 
of reaction and of religious bigotry. Supported by English moneys, and favored by 
the French government, Carlos conducted a cruel civil war against the Spanish repub- 
lic. But affairs in the south and in the populous cities of the coast were no better. 
The federal republic, for which the Cortes had decided, created some strange illusions, 
and the population of the south declared their independence of the government at 
Madrid. In Cadiz, in Malaga, in Carthagena, in Barcelona, the lower classes took pos- 



762 RECENT HISTORY. 

session of the government, and began to attack the lives and the property of the 
wealthier classes. Castelar's ideal republic became a horrible caricature of the Amer- 
ican system. The ministry was powerless, the Carlists victorious in the north, the red 

is?*. republic triumphant in the south. The government was now compelled 

to make great changes. The centralized monarchy was retained, and the federal sys- 
tem abandoned ; martial law was proclaimed in the rebellious provinces ; Salmeron re- 
turned to the government, and soon restored tranquility, except in Carthagena, where 
civil war continued. Castelar was now convinced that his policy was not feasible. 
He assumed once more the presidency of the ministry, and clothed with dictatorial 
power, he proceeded against the insurgents with great energy. Yet the agitation con- 
tinued in the south for a long time, while the Carlists, secretly supported by the mon- 
archists of France, extended their power and their influence in the north. And now 
the Cubans rebelled, seeking to separate "the pearl of the Antilles " from Spain. 
Castelar steered bravely through this sea of difficulty, though men doubted whether he 
was strong enough to master the radical and democratic elements in the Cortes. Conse- 
quently, the men of the revolution of 1868, Serrano, Topete, and others quietly formed a 
committee, and determined to proclaim a dictatorship, if the socialists made it necessary. 
§ 666. And it became necessary soon enough. Castelar was not able to main- 
tain his authority against the Carlists and the insurgents. His army was too weak, 
and his leaders too untrustworthy. Moreover, Salmeron, the president of the Cortes, 
had no faith in Castelar's policy ; and when the legislative assembly stood by their 

iss4. president in a vital matter, Castelar resigned. The army now came 

forward with a proclamation against anarchy. This was brought about by the com- 
mittee already spoken of, formed by Serrano, Topete, and Sagasta. Pavia, a determ- 
ined young general, marched into the hall of the Cortes, at the head of a few soldiers, 
and dissolved the assembly. He then assembled the chiefs of all parties, and urged 
them to create a new government. Alfonso, the son of Isabella, was too young to ad- 
mit of the restoration of the monarchy, so a kind of military republic was established. 
Marshal Serrano became the head of the executive power, and Sagasta, the president 
of the ministerial council. The Carlists were still powerful in the north. Moriones, 
the republican general, had been compelled to retire southward, but under the new 
government, the Carlists were driven back. The thought of a Bourbon restoration be- 

isjj. came now the topic of discussion. On the 30th of December, 1874, 

General Campos raised the monarchical standard, and proclaimed Alfonso XII. King of 
Spain. The army of the east was soon joined by the army of central Spain ; the min- 
isters protested, but resigned; a new government was formed by Canovas del Castillo. 
Serrano hastened to France, and the young King entered Madrid in triumph. The new 
King was little inclined to the ideas of the time, but he saw that it was impossible to 
rule Spain in the spirit, or by the method of his mother Isabella. Only with the 
standard of constitutional monarchy could he hope to triumph over Don Carlos. The 

isie. Cortes were convened to establish a new constitution, while he himself 

proceeded with the army to put down the insurrection of the north. Don Carlos 
was defeated, and compelled to abandon Spain. Meanwhile the government and the 
Cortes were restoring to the kingdom its former character, the Catholic religion 
was not re-established just as the papal nuncio desired, but a number of Protestant 
communities in Madrid and in the provinces were dissolved, and the universities 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



763 



deprived of their newly acquired liberty. The revenues of the clergy were 
increased, and the instruction of the children placed in their hands. Foreigners of 
Protestant confession might practice their religion and erect their schools in Spain, 
but bigotted officials and bishops reduced these rights to a shadow. Spain was 
distressed financially, the Cuban insurrection having deprived the mother country 
xs78. of much revenue, and the insurrection having led to great outlay. In 

1878, King Alfonso was married to Marie Mercedes, daughter of the Duke de Mont- 
pensier. But the young and beautiful queen died a few months after. King Alfonso 
was at first completely under the influence of Canovas and his reactionary ideas. But 
growing weary of this tyranny, he turned to the liberals and called Sagasta to the min- 
istry. In 1885 a Spanish mob attacked the residence of the German minister in Mad- 
rid ; the Spanish cabinet apologized, but 
maintained its right of sovereignty over 
the Caroline islands, which were claimed 
by Germany. Prince Bismarck offered 
to refer the matter to Pope Leo XIII. 
The Pope decided in favor of Spain, 
1885. though giving to Germany 
freedom of navigation and of the fish- 
eries, and the right to use the island as 
a naval station. But in 1885 the young 
King died. It was a great loss to the 
unfortunate land, for he had shown 
unusual capacity for government, a 
clear head, and a strong will. His 
second wife was Maria Christina of 
Austria. After his death, she assumed 
the regency, and soon gave birth to a 
prince, who, as Alfonso XIII., is the 
heir of the Spanish throne. 

§ 667. The Eastern War and Russia. 
The inability of the Sublime Porte to 
establish peace and to maintain order in 
the empire, the shattered condition of mukhtar pasha. 

the Turkish finances, and the abuses in the provinces, were used by Russia to separate 
to herself the provinces back of the Danube, between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. 
The deep gulf between the Mohammedan land-holders and the Christian peasantry, 
naturally furthered the Russian agitation. Sometimes the appeal was made to re- 
ligious prejudice, and sometimes to race hatred. Insurrections began in Herzegovina, 
1875. and in Bosnia. Women, children, and old men fled with their herds 

and their possessions into Austria and Montenegro, while the young and middle aged 
men under Mukhtar Pasha, marched against the Turks. Volunteers hurried to them 
from Servia and Montenegro, and they were soon in possession of all the mountain 
passes. Austria urged the mediation of the powers. The mediation was without suc- 
cess. For the insurgents refused to accept the promises made in Constantinople, 
unless the European powers became responsible for their fulfillment. Meanwhile 




764 . RECENT HISTORY. 

Austria, Russia, and Germany united to restrain the insurgents, and to relieve the in- 
habitants of Turkey in Europe from their wretched situation. A note was prepared 
by Count Andrass}% and submitted to the Turkish government. But although sup- 
ported by all the great powers, it was without practical effect. Hostilities were re- 
newed with even greater energy. Bulgaria and Prince Milan appeared ready to join 
the insurrection. The Slavonic population looked to Russia for guidance and for 
freedom. The three imperial powers were therefore persuaded that further steps were 
necessary. Bismarck, Gortschakoff, and Andrassy united in a memorandum which was 
submitted to the Porte. The Turkish government was urged to carry out the prom- 
ised reforms in the interests of peace, and intimations were given in the memorandum 
that delay would lead to energetic action, upon the part of Austria, Russia and 
Germany. 

§ 668. But the uprisings of the Christians and of the Slavs had meanwhile 
stirred up the fanaticism of the Mohammedans and the hatred of the non-Slavonic 
races. German and French ambassadors were attacked by Turkish mobs, and even in 
the cit} r of Constantinople fanaticism attacked the Sultan Abdul Aziz, who, in the eyes 
of the Moslems, was the source of all calamity, and should therefore be deposed. The 
softas, or pupils of the priestly schools, marched to the palace, and demanded the re- 
moval of the Grand- Vizier, Mohammed Pasha. The frightened Sultan yielded, but 
isie. eager for revenge, he retired to his innermost apartment, when his 

ministerial council determined to depose him also. The Sultan was attacked at night, 
and murdered in his own apartment. A few days afterward, two leaders of the revo- 
lution, Raschid and Hassein Amri, were themselves murdered. These events provoked 
a terrible excitement, especially in the army. The uprising in Bulgaria was put down 
amid horrors that drove Europe into excited protest. The rulers of Servia and Mont- 
enegro, relying upon the help of Russia, had joined the insurrection, and were march- 
ing against the Turks. But they were not equal to the combat, and in Constantinople 
they were determined upon resistance, because they expected help from England. 
The Tory government sent a fleet to the Dardanelles. The war in the west and in the 
north continued, while Russian and English diplomacy contended with each other in 
Constantinople. Murad V., the successor of Abdul Aziz, was now deposed, and the 
crown given to his brother, Abdul Hamid II. The new Sultan was welcomed as "the 
reformer of Turkey." Meanwhile the Turkish arms were successful. The Russians 
proclaimed Prince Milan King of Servia, but the Turkish commander Abdul Kerim 
broke through the Servian army and marched toward Belgrade. The Czar Alexander 
now assured himself of the support of Germany and Austria, at any rate, of their 
friendly neutrality. The European ambassadors, eager to avert war, proposed a series 
of reforms, to be carried out under the supervision of a European army of six thousand 
men, stationed in the oppressed provinces. To this the Turkish government would 
not accede. The conference, which had been convened, was dissolved because of this 
isii. refusal ; the ambassadors left Constantinople, and the Czar Alexander 

believed that the time had come to follow the voice of his people. 

§ 669. In April the Czar left his capital for the armj r , and the Pruth was crossed 
at night at three different places. Prince Carl of Roumania declared his kingdom in- 
dependent, and marched to the field with the Russians. At the same time, Russian 
troops from Asia crossed the Turkish frontier, and attacked-Ardaehan. The neglect 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



765 



of the Turkish commander-in-chief, Abdul Kerim, made it easy for the Russians to cross 
the Danube, also and to compel the Turks to retreat. Early in July, the Russians 
were in possession of all the' land from Sistova to Gabrova, so that the Arch-duke, 
Nicholas, could establish his headquarters at Tinova, and Prince Tscherkaszky could 
undertake the re-organization of Bulgaria. Nicopolis was besieged and taken. 
General Gurko next captured the Schipka Pass, and the Russian cavalry were soon 




X' 

ABDUL IIAMID. 

in the vicinity of Adrianople. It looked as if the campaign would be over in a few 
weeks, and the Russians be in Constantinople. At this juncture, Abdul Kerim and the 
minister of war, Redif Pasha, were removed from their places and banished. Mehemed 
Ali was appointed to command the army of the Danube, and Osman Pasha took 
possession of Plevna and surrounded it with strong entrenchments. The Russian 
general, Krudener, sought in vain to drive the Turks from these fortifications. He was 



766 RECENT HISTORY. 

forced to retire, after losing eight thousand men. Osman Pasha now surrounded 
Plevna with a ring of fortifications, which made the city almost impregnable. General 
Skobeleff displayed great military genius, but not until General Todleben took part 
in the siege, was any impression made upon the Turkish defences. He determined to 




GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS. 



hold them fast and starve them out. It looked as if the catastrophe of Metz would be 
repeated. But Osman Pasha was a braver soldier than Bazaine. When food and 
powder failed him, and hunger and disease was waisting his troops, he determined to 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



767 



venture all upon a sortie. If he must capitulate, he would capitulate on the battle- 
field. After a desperate struggle with the Russians and the Roumanians, he was 
driven back into Plevna, and compelled to surrender. He had defended the city for 
six long months, and fell covered with glory ; but his fall decided the war. Turkey 
was in its last gasp. A circular letter to the powers of Europe besought their in- 
tervention. 

§ 670. The Russians did not delay to make the most of their victory. In spite 
ism. of the weather and of the winter, they marched forward, surrounded 

the Turkish troops in the Schipka pass, and compelled then to surrender. Thirty thou- 
sand men fell into the hands of Russia, Adrianople was takeu, and the Turkish line of 
retreat cut off. Suleiman Pasha moved 
southward with the remnant of his 
army, hoping to escape by sea. The 
truce of Adrianople was signed by 
Turkey in despair, and a few weeks 
afterward the peace of San Stefano was 
agreed upon, in which Servia, Rou- 
mania, and Montenegro were declared 
independent, and Bulgaria was raised to 
a tributaiy, but otherwise self-existent 
princedom, with a Christian government 
and a native militia. Turkey was also 
required to pay fourteen hundred mil- 
lion rubles as war indemnity, or if she 
preferred, to cede to Russia certain 
territories in Asia. Bosnia and Her- 
zegovina were to have a government 
of their own, with reforms guaranteed 
by the European powers. Bessarabia 
was to be returned to Russia. Eng- 
land, angry at the conduct of Russia, 
demanded a congress, and Russia 
, thought it best to yield. An assem- 
bly of notables convened in Berlin, 
the like of which had not been seen in 
Europe, since the famous Congress of Vienna 
represented the three empires 




SULEIMAN PASHA. 



Bismarck, Gortschakoff and Andrassy 
Beaconsfield appeared for England, Waddington for 
isjs. France, Corti for Italy, Mehemed Ali for Turkey. After violent de- 

bates, it was agreed that Servia and Montenegro should retain their old boundaries, 
but Bessarabia remain in the hands of Russia. All confessions were to have equal 
rights, (even the Jews,) in the new independent princedom. Russia was to retain Batoum, 
but Bulgaria was shorn of nearly all that was given to her in the treaty of San Stefano. 
In a word Turkey in Europe was restored. The treaty of San Stefano would have de- 
stroyed it. Nevertheless the fortresses on the Danube were razed to the ground, and 
the Danube made free to its mouth. South Bulgaria or East Roumelia, as it has since 



768 



RECENT HISTORY. 



c 
1=3 



n 



Turke}', 
without 



- 
o 

z 
Q 
S 
- 



- 






been called, remained to Turkey, but its future welfare was guaranteed by the Euro- 
pean powers. 

§ 671. The Princes of Servia and Montenegro expected to win Bosnia and Her- 
zegovina, the provinces in which 
the rebellion began, but they 
were disappointed. Andrassj r 's 
policy was to incorporate these 
provinces with Austria, and this 
plan met with the favor of the 
Congress, for the government at 
Vienna obtained permission to 
occupy both provinces ; in doing 
so, however, they encountered 
a stubborn and a bloody resis- 
tance. The following year 
Austria, with the consent of 
occupied Novi Bazar, 
prejudice to the 
sovereign rights of the Sultan. 
The Albanese formed a league 
to prevent this, but Turkey, 
acting in .conjunction with 
Austria, sent Mehemed Ali to 
put down the insurrection. 
He was attacked by the peo- 
ple and murdered. England 
was not satisfied to go from the 
Congress with empty hands. 
She obtained from Turkey the 
island of Cyprus, and the prom- 
ise to introduce reforms into 
Asia Minor. In return, the 
English ministry pledged them- 
selves to support Turkey in 
retaining her Asiatic provinces. 
Yet the Congress of Berlin had 
not established lasting peace. 
The pan-slavic party was not 
satisfied. Many said openly 
that Russia should defy the 
Congress. The party of peace 
prevailed, and a separate treaty 
was made with Turkey, touch- 
ing the costs of the war and other unsettled questions. The Congress however 
created a coldness between Petersburg and Berlin. Prince Bismarck was accused of 
luke-warmness toward Russia, and the Prussian king of ingratitude ; and the meeting 



3 



S 




770 RECENT HISTORY. 

of the two emperors did not remove the misunderstanding. Bulgaria framed a 

isi9. parliamentary constitution, and chose the Prince of Battenberg, a 

nephew of the Czar, as hereditary monarch. The Prince accepted the election 
after it had been ratified by the European powers and in Constantinople. But 
the new state had to pass through many crises and parliamentary storms. The well- 
meaning Prince found his position one of great difficulty and danger. The separation of 
Bulgaria into North and South Bulgaria was a source of great confusion. The inter- 
ference of the Russians kept the land in turmoil. Russian generals entered the Bul- 
garian ministry ; civil and military offices were held by the Russians to such an extent 
that great jealousy resulted. At last an insurrection broke out in Philipopel. The 
union of the two Bulgarias, North and South, was proclaimed, and Prince Alexander 
declared ruler in East Roumelia. This was an open violation of the treatj- of Berlin, 
but Russia, formerly so earnest in the creation of a united Bulgaria, now looked on 
quite coldly after the national feeling had turned against Russian interference. But 
the extension of Bulgaria created anxiety in Servia, and the government at Belgrade de- 
clared war against the neighbor state, alleging a violation of her frontiers. She was 

isse. soon glad to make peace, and Prince Alexander reached an understand- 

ing with Turkey, by which he became ruler over East Roumelia. This completed vir- 
tually the union of the two Bulgarias, yet in spite of his success. Prince Alexander be- 
came the victim of a Russian conspiracy ; he was attacked by soldiers and carried into 
Russian territory. He returned to Sofia and received an enthusiastic welcome from 
the people, but his humble letter to the Czar received such ungracious answer, that he 
abandoned all hope of a friendly relation with Russia, and gave up his throne. The 

iss->. Bulgarian parliament then chose Prince Ferdinand of Coburg to be 

their ruler, but Russia refused to recognize him, and the Bulgarian confusion contin- 
ued. 

§ 672. While Russia was thus discontented with the results of the war, she was 
suffering also from the terrors of revolution. The Nihilists had declared war against 
all existing institutions in state and society. The mixture of civilization and of bar- 
barism among the wealthier classes greatly furthered this revolutionary movement. 
The corruption of the administration and of the aristocracy drove many of the better 
minds into opposition. Outbreaks among the students, murderous attacks upon those 
in high place, defalcations and bribery in office, were all proofs of internal disease. The 
chief of police, General Trepoff, was shot by a j'oung girl named Vera Sassulitsch, and 

1878. his successor, General Mesenzeff, was murdered by an unknown hand. 

Vera Sassulitsch was acquitted by the jury and, with the help of her friends, escaped to 
Switzerland. Prince Krapotkin fell a victim to a Nihilist assassin. The Czar himself 
was attacked in the vicinity of his palace, and within two months his life was at- 
tempted, once on a railway journey to Moscow, and once in the winter palace in St. 
Petersburg. Finally Count Loris Melikoff was made chief of police, and clothed with 
the powers of a dictator. For a while peace and safety reigned, and the twenty-fifth 
year of the reign of Alexander II. was celebrated with great pomp and rejoicing. But 
this jubilee was the last happiness of his life, and the last pleasant incident of his event- 

i88i. ful reign. The next year he was mortally wounded by an explosion of 

dynamite, and carried dying to the imperial palace. The trial of the perpetrators dis- 
covered an abyss of crime and of conspiracy, which included all classes of Russian so- 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



771 



ciety. The Arch-duke Alexander now became czar. Prince Gortschakoff, who had 
iss3. conducted Russian affairs for thirty years, died not long after. The 

new reign fluctuated between absolutism and liberalism, between peace and war, be- 
tween pan-slavonic ideals and alliances with western powers. The old understanding 




ALEXANDER III. 



with Germany could not be restored, and in the Baltic provinces a crusade was begun 
against German speech, German school, and German church. Russia, externally im- 
mense, and internally diseased, is one of the startling problems of the modern world. 
§ 673. England under Gladstone. England, as we have seen, reaped great advant- 



772 



RECENT HISTORY. 



ages from the Napoleonic wars, but, with the exception of the Crimean war, she has, 
since 1815, kept aloof from continental entanglements. Nevertheless, her neutrality 
has not been so carefully guarded as to prevent misunderstanding. Her sympathies 
were evidently witli Denmark, but it did not help the Danes; and Russia took advantage 
of the Franco-German war to set aside important articles of the treaty of Paris. The 
sympathies of England were also with the Confederate States of America in the war 
against the Union, and led to the Alabama question, which was finally submitted to arbi- 
tration, and decided against Great Britain. This peace policy was not caused alto- 
gether by a regard for the interests of commerce and of manufacture, but the English 

army was neither as strong nor as well 
organized as the armies of the Continent, 
and the English Parliament was little dis- 
posed to follow the examples of the mili- 
tary powers. Indeed the House of Peers 
was not to be persuaded to abolish the pur- 
chasing of commissions in the army, so 
that the evil custom was finally destroyed 
by royal warrant. And yet the progress 
that Russia was making in Central Asia, 
and the increasing confusion in Turkey, 
made war at any moment possible. More- 
over, ever since the Khiva war, the English 
have watched Russia with exceeding jeal- 
ousy. England likewise has had her con- 
flicts with the Roman Catholic church, and 
these conflicts have acquired new signifi- 
cance .through the Oxford movements, 
which began in 1833. John Henry Newman, Henry Manning, William George Ward, 
and other powerful leaders of the Anglican church, became Roman Catholics ; and of 
late years the ultra-montanes have acquired great influence among the English people. 
It was hoped that the disestablishment of the English church in Ireland would lead to 
peace, but the hope was disappointed. The conciliatory policy of Gladstone, in the 
Irish question, provoked much opposition in England, while it bore but little fruit in 
the Emerald Isle. The Tories enlarged their influence, and looked confidently to 
is?-!:. the next election, and their confidence was well founded. In 1874 

the Tory leader, Benjamin Disraeli, was summoned by the Queen to form a new 
ministry. Gladstone retired to private life, to his classical and religious studies. He 
startled both his friends and his enemies by his powerful attack upon the Vatican 
decrees. Meanwhile the new minister turned away from domestic affairs, and devoted 
an attention to foreign politics, unknown in England for many years. 

§ 674. The English in Africa and their Colonial Policy. In her naval and colonial 
system, England held fast to the traditional policy by which she had become the might- 
isi3. iestof maritime and commercial peoples. As formerly in Abyssinia, so 

now in 1873, on the west coast of Africa, she established her power anew with the native 
Ashantees. The rich coast, which stretches from the Gulf of Guinea to Sierra Leone, 
and which comprises the " golden shore," has been the scene of commercial activity 




BENJAMIN DISRAELI, LORD BEACONSFIELD. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



773 



ever since the discoveries of the Portuguese. Different nations have established col- 
onies, built factories and forts along this coast ; among the rest, Portuguese, Dutch, 
Danes, and Englishmen. The neighboring negro tribes were subjugated or made trib- 
utary to the Europeans. Among these, the wild and warlike Ashantees occupied the 
chief place. In the course of years, the English became most powerful on the " gold 
coast," but entered into a war with the Ashantees, which threatened to destroy them 
in West Africa. Finally the 
savages were compelled to 
yield. General Wolseley, 
with strong forces and pow- 
erful artillery, defeated them 
in a series of battles. They 
were weakened by disease 
and lack of supplies, and 
finally compelled to retire to 
their principal city Kumasi. 
The English now determined 
to conquer this city, and to 
attack the King in the heart 
of his country and of his peo- 
ple. In spite of the difficul- 
ties of the territory, inter- 
sected as it was by swamp 
and thicket, the march was 
undertaken and brought to a 
successful conclusion. The 
natives fled at Wolseley's 
approach, and abandoned 
is?-*. Kumasi, set- 

ting fire to it as they fled. 
The King perceived the 

futility of further warfare, as all the neighbor tribes had joined the English. He 
sued for peace, renouncing all his claims to the British territory, and agreeing to pay 
fifty thousand ounces of gold to defray the. costs of the war. The English also com- 
pelled him to abandon human sacrifice, the traces and monuments of which had filled 
them with horror. A brilliant reception greeted the governor and his troops when 
they returned to England. A few years later, the same General Garnet Wolseley 
sailed again to South Africa to put down the Zulus. These had made war upon the 
English, under their cruel king, Cetewayo. When the Transvaal republic was incor- 
porated into the English territory, they claimed a portion of the frontiers for them- 
selves. They fought desperately, but were finally defeated, and Cetewayo was carried 
a prisoner into Cape Town. Among the volunteers who fought with Wolseley was 
isio. the young Prince Napoleon. In a reconnoisance, he met an early death. 

But the English government found its chief difficulty in Egypt. Ismail Pasha, 
the Khedive of Egypt, had beggared himself and his country, by mad extravagance 
and hateful misrule. To escape from his difficulties, he sold his share in the Suez 




THOMAS CARXYLE. 



774 



RECENT HISTORY. 



canal to the British government, and thus brought the canal under the joint control of 
the English and the French. The European powers now meddled with the administra- 
tion of the country. This produced great dissatisfaction among the Egyptian people. 
They attempted, by a military insurrection and a revolution, to escape this foreign in- 
fluence. Ismail 
Pasha was deposed, 
and his feeble son, 
Tewfik Pasha, 
brought to the 
is7o. throne. 
But the national 
party, which de- 
sired the absolute 
independence of 
E gyP fc ' grew 
every day more 
dangerous. The 
head of this party 
was Arabi, who, 
by an uprising 
of the soldiers, 
compelled the 
Khedive to change 
his ministers, to 
establish a new 
constitution, and 
to create a par- 
liament. Arabi 
himself became 
the minister of 
war. The Egyp- 
tian fanatics now 
began a tumult 
in Alexandria, in 
which the English 
consul was wound- 
e d , and many 
Europeans were 
murdered. There- 
upon the English 
war vessels bom- 
barded the city, 
isss. and Arabi withdrew his troops to Cairo. Alexandria, half consumed, 

was occupied by the English. Arabi was deposed by the Khedive, but as he was sup- 
ported by his army, he continued to rule the land ; and he would have given the 
English great trouble, if he and his troops had not revealed an incompetency and a 




Z 

- 

O 
02 

H 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



775 



cowardice that exceeded all expectation. At Tel-el-Kebir, the Egyptian army was 
utterly defeated by General Wolseley, Arabi himself taken prisoner and banished to 
Ceylon. England then proceeded to bring the land into closer relations, but the task 
was exceedingly difficult, es- 
pecially when El Mahdi, the 
false prophet, lifted the stan- 
dard of rebellion in Nubia. 
The English General Gordon 
was shut up in Khartoum and 
isss. lost his life. 

Her colonial system is the 
glory of England. All par- 
ties agree touching her for- 
eign possessions, especially 
touching the Indian empire, 
which is governed with the 
utmost sagacity. The re- 
markable journey that the 
Prince of Wales made to 
India, in order to acquaint 
himself, by personal observa- 
tion, with the vast empire of 
the East, strengthened the 
bond between England and 
her colonies. Upon his re- 
turn, the imperial title was 
added to the English crown, 
a triumph, which brought to 
Disraeli his title of Lord 
Beaconsfield. In the years 
1878 and 1879, Afghanistan, 
a frontier land of India, and 
its great trading cities of 
Kabul and Kandahar, were the scenes of bloody conflict and rebellion, in which 
doubtless the Russians played their part. The English finally predominated, but only 
after a costly and difficult campaign. Burmah too, where the bloodthirsty and insane 
king, Thibau, spread about him a reign of terror, was conquered in a short campaign 
and annexed to the British empire. 

§ 675. Yet in spite of these successes, the public opinion of England was opposed 
to the expensive war policy of the Tories. Parliament and press were soon in opposi- 
tion. To be wandering abroad, while so many wounds were bleeding at home, created 
discontent; and the imperial policy of Beaconsfield, which increased only the glory of 
the administration, was in conflict with parliamentary traditions. The Prime-minister 
was quick to perceive the public mind. He determined to dissolve the lower House 
and to order a new election. But irj vain. The majority of those elected were Whigs, 
Liberals, and Radicals. He saw that his time was out, and he resigned his office. The 




L^Siso **^j > *~~^' s 



776 



RECENT HISTORY. 



Queen summoned Gladstone, the head of the Liberal opposition, to form a new cabinet. 

isso. Disraeli devoted himself to literature. His romance, Endymion, the 

background of which is the party life and the political current of his time, was the 

fruit of his literary activity, and the conclusion of his long life. He died on the 19th. 

of April, 1881. Gladstone however 
gave all his strength and experience 
to the pacification of Ireland. Con- 
spiracies and secret societies tor- 
mented the land. Agrarian murders 
and outrages of all kinds were daily 
events. The authority of the law 
had vanished; society was drifting 
to anarchy. Home rule was the 
battle cry of the Irish independents. 
Parnell, the Irish leader in the Eng- 
lish Parliament, represented the 
cause of his people, while the land 
league in Ireland wielded a power 
| greater than that of the government. 
Gladstone sought to pacify the 
country, partly by reform measures, 
and partly by coercion. An Irish 
land law was framed, with a view to 
restore humane relations between 
the tenant and the landowners. But 
pacification seemed impossible ; uni- 
iss3. versal horror spread 

through the British kingdom, when 
the state secretary Lord Cavendish, 
and the under state-secretary Bourke 
were murdered in Phoenix Park, Dublin. Gladstone was successful in the passage of 
a reform bill, perfecting the act of 1867. This bill increased the number of electors, and 
the representation of the cities. To obtain the parliamentary support of the 
Irish, Gladstone was inclined to grant Home Rule. He proposed a separate Parlia- 
ment and a separate ministry, some such relation as now exists between Austria and 
Hungary. But this project of Gladstone appeared to the English people too bold, too 
violent, and too dangerous. When new elections were ordered, he was defeated and 
immediately resigned. Lord Salisbuiy now formed a Tory- cabinet, but the tumult in 
Ireland continued. Frequent conflicts took place between the government and the 
Irish mal-contents, which became the subject of violent debates in the House of Com- 
mons. Parnell, after a triumphant defense of himself against the charges of the Lon- 
don Times, was driven, from public life by an exposure of his private immoralities. 
This led to a division of the Home Rule party. In 1893 the Liberals returned to 
power, but early in 1891 Mr. Gladstone was compelled, by increasing infirmities, to re- 
tire from the ministry and from active life. Lord Roseberry succeeded him as Prime- 
minister, and Sir. "William Harcourt as leader of the House of Commons. 




WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE. 



§ 676. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
IV. POSTSCRIPT. 

1. Germany. 



777 




flLLLIAM II. succeeded to the thrones of Prussia and the German 
Empire, June 15, 1888. His father had been greatly beloved, and 
his tragic death caused sincere and almost universal grief. This 
sorrow was mingled with anxiety, for the young Emperor was be- 
lieved to be rash, ambitious, greedy of power, restless, and un- 
reliable. Field marshal, Count Moltke, resigned the command of 
the army in August, and Count Waldersee was named as his suc- 
isss. cessor. In September, the publication of extracts from the diary of 

the late emperor produced great excitement ; and this was not allayed in the speeches 
of the ruling monarch, and the conduct of Prince Bismarck. Widespread strikes, in 
the coal regions of Westphalia, increased the public concern, especially as the Em- 
peror's movements were so uncertain. Early in the year 1890, the Reichstag rejected 
Jan. as, is9o. the bill against the socialists, and was thereupon dissolved. In the 
same year, an International Labor Congress convened at Berlin at the instance of the 
Emperor ; but the fruit produced was poor and scanty. On the 18th of March, Prince 
ata,ch is, i89o. Bismarck resigned his posts. He ceased to be chancellor of the 
empire that he had created, and prime minister of the Prussia that he had saved. General 
Caprivi was appointed to succeed him, but the excitement in the country was very 
great. The settlement of the Westphalian strikes relieved the people of one reason 
for alarm, and the policy of the new chancellor toward the socialists gradually justi- 
fied itself by its results. Laws protecting the laborer were enacted, and the employ- 
ment of women and children was regulated by carefully framed statutes. On the 
other hand, the national pride was soothed by the cession of the little patch of island 
held by Great Britain, in return for German possessions in Africa. Heligoland be- 
tsoo. came German territory in 1890. The next j'ear the sequestrated 

funds of the Roman Catholic church were released, and the accumulated $40,000,000 
Feb., isai. appropriated to church uses. Count Moltke died the following April, 
deeply regretted, because so greatly beloved. Few great soldiers have been so 
revered ; few have been so simple in their lives, and so little elated by their 
triumphs. 

In June, 1891, the triple alliance, between Austria, Italy, and Germany, was re- 
laot. newed for a period of six years, and when the pass regulations on the 

French frontier were greatly relaxed, the people began to believe in peace. Con- 
fidence in the young emperor, and his good intentions, gradually gained ground. 

The new ministers, however, found their task a hard one. The representatives of 
iso3. the people, who are divided into numerous factions, opposed their pro- 

jects, and they were finally forced to appeal to the nation. After a bitter contest, a 
majority for the new army bill was obtained, and Caprivi still remains in power. 
Recent events point to a better understanding with Russia, a new commercial treaty 
is94. having just been completed between the Kaiser and the Czar. And 

Bismarck, who in his retirement, has been a somewhat savage critic of his successor's 



f78 RECENT HISTORY. 

policy, made, in 1894, a journey to Berlin, in which great pains were taken to pro- 
claim the reconciliation of the monarch and the former minister. 

2. France. 

§ 677. The two great events in the history of France, since 1888, are the rise 
and fall of General Boulanger, and the bursting of the Panama mud volcano. Gen- 
eral Boulanger managed somehow to get himself adored by a great following. Puffed 
up with popularity, he defied his superiors, who answei'ed with a court of enquiry. 
march 30, iss8. The General, though found guilty, was powerful enough to overthrow 
the existing ministry, and to bring in M. Floquet. In July, the exasperated soldier 
offered a resolution, demanding that Parliament dissolve ; and when this was rejected 
almost unanimously, he ostentatiously resigned. A duel with M. Floquet cost him no 
little blood, and much reputation ; for the soldier was wounded severely, and the 
lawyer escaped unhurt. Nevertheless, he was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies, 
and succeeded in defeating the Floquet ministry, and driving it from power. 

The Tirard cabinet, which followed, proved equally hostile to his intrigues. And 
lsse. Boulanger, fearing arrest, fled to Brussels. In August 1889, the 

Senate, acting as a High Court of Justice, found him guilty of plotting against the 
state, and sentenced him to imprisonment for life. In the October elections, the 
Boulangists dwindled to forty-five deputies, and when the hero of unfought campaigns, 
the great soldier of to-morrow, committed suicide, his party, once so pretentious, per- 
ished like a dream. 

If Boulanger had been a man of pith and purpose, instead of an inflated ad- 
venturer, the Panama Canal excitement would have made him great. For it nearly 
wrecked the French republic. The Exposition of 1889 had been a notable triumph. 
In spite of the absence of crowned guests, the capital had rejoiced in multitudes of 
visitors, and in a brilliant series of fetes and spectacles. The Pope moreover had sig- 
nified his acceptance of the republic, and the uprising in Paris and vicinity, had been 
suppressed with ease. The republic had fairly gotten itself established, when the 
Panama explosion covered it with mud, and threatened to shatter its foundations. In 
iso2. May, 1892, the company reported that 900,000,000 francs were 

necessary to complete their undertaking; just before this, the United States had pro- 
tested emphatically against the control of the canal, by a non-American state. The 
supposed suicide of Baron de Reinach, led to many startling disclosures, implicating 
members of the cabinet in gigantic schemes of corruption and bribery, along with 
senators and deputies, de Lesseps and his son, Eiffel, the great engineer, and many 
others. Ministry succeeded ministry in quick succession, and desperate efforts were 
made to implicate President Carnot. Fortunately for France, the latter had clean 
hands, and the republic survived the crisis. 

Like Germany, France has returned to the system of protective tariffs, and has 
negotiated a commercial treaty with the United States ; like Germany she has greatly 
enlarged her army, until it includes practically the able-bodied men of the nation. 
Each citizen must serve three years, students of science and arts alone excepted; and 
the total period of service now covers twenty five years. 

Like Germany, she has her social troubles also, her strikes, her bomb-throwers, 
and her anarchists. Nevertheless, the republic is now in the twentj'-fourth year of its 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 779 

existence, a fact of no mean significance, in a country which has been without a stable 
government ever since the revolution of 1789. The first empire lasted only fifteen 
years, the second just nineteen. The restored monarchy endured but fifteen years, and 
the Orleans dynasty a scant eighteen. If France can abandon schemes of conquest 
and revenge, and devote her genius to the triumphs of philosophy, of art, of literature, 
and of peace, she will resume her place at the head of civilization, and in the van of 
human progress. 

3. Italy. 

§ 678. The aggressiveness of the church authorities led to a statute, making it 
i88s-is8o. *a penal offense to claim for the pope any sovereignty in Rome. But 
the difficulties have not been lessened, and the Roman question is still an irritating and 
a dangerous problem. The chief difficulties of Italy, however, are financial in their 
character. Cavour covered the infant kingdom with a colossal debt, and the triple 
alliance involves enormous outlay for military purposes. Crispi, a man of great 
Jan. 1891. ability, succumbed to the opposition ; who brought in the Marquis di 
Rudini with a policy of retrenchment, and possible re-action. Rudini proved unequal 
to the task, and Crispi has just been summoned to his former place. For a brief 
1803. period, the relations of amity between Italy and the United States were 

interrupted by the murder of some Italians in New Orleans. The United States dis- 
avowed the outrage of the lynchers, and proffered compensation. Similar difficulties, 
though not quite so grave, have disturbed the relations of Italy and France. Popular 
outbreaks in both countries have led to diplomatic explanations. But no nation in 
Europe is likely to provoke a war for trivial causes. Europe is a camp, in which the 
nations sleep upon their arms. 

4. Spain and Portugal. 

§ 679. Trial by jury was introduced into Spain in 1888. In 1890 the Cortes 
passed the bill, granting the elective franchise to every Spaniard of full age, and in 
possession of civil rights. Sagasta was succeeded by Canovas del Castillo, and the 
latter was defeated in 1892, for his course in connection with the municipal scandal in 
Madrid. 

Spain has been seriously troubled by anarchistic disturbances, especially in 

isott. Barcelona, where labor riots have proved quite serious, and required 

i8»3. the use of military force. 

The only event in Portuguese history, of great moment, since 1888, has been her 

difficulty with England ; this resulted in a treaty delimiting and restricting the re- 

isoi. spective territories and spheres of influence, for Portugal and Great 

Britain, on the continent of Africa. 

5. Austria — Hungary. 

§ 680. Vienna was the scene of ugly riots in 1889; these could be suppressed by 
the military only. A new army bill provoked a bitter struggle, and led finally to a 
reconstruction of the Tisza cabinet, and to the ultimate retirement of Tisza as prime 
minister. In 1891, Count Taafe found himself so hampered by difficulties, that the 
Emperor dissolved the House of Deputies, and ordered new elections. 



780 RECENT HISTORY. 

The death of the crown-prince, Rudolph, has left the empire in great uncertainty 
as to the future, and the death of the present monarch is likely to produce a desperate 
crisis. Hungary is still restless ; the Slavs tend toward Russia : the Germans are dis- 
satisfied, while the Jews are most bitterly hated. 

Meanwhile, the empire is seeking to establish her currency upon a gold basis, and 
to improve her commerce by treaties with Italy and Germany. She clings to the triple 
alliance, and does so with reason, for she is most in danger, if Russia and France ever 
combine to crush the Germans and the Italians, and to divide the rest of Europe with 
each other. 

6. Russia. 

§ 681. The great empire of the north is still in the throes of inward revolution. 
In 1888 the universities were closed by a decree of the Czar ; hundreds of students 
were imprisoned, and scores of them exiled to Siberia. Count Tolstoi's efforts to 
alleviate the condition of the peasantry, received however the earnest support of 
xsso. Alexander III. The Baltic provinces and Finland have been Russified 

is9o. by harsh and cruel measures, and the Jews have been expelled in 

droves from Russia. 

The Trans-Siberian railway was begun in 1891, but the loan of $100,000,000 
floated by the government for its construction, produced unusual excitement in finan- 
cial circles, and led to serious political irritation. The German bankers refusing their 
support, Russia turned to France, where she proved successful. 

Famine next afflicted the empire, but, owing to the rigid censorship of the press, 
and the merciless police regulations of the country, the exact condition of the people 
could not be learned. 

Russia quarreled with Turkey about the Dardanelles, but did not go to war, as 
is»2. she did with Afghanistan, in a dispute about frontiers ; although she 

finall}' withdrew her forces from the invaded territory, and gave up the contention. 

During recent years, Russia and France have seemed to have a mutual under- 
standing, but the Czar, like his grandfather Nicholas, has no liking for republics. 
is9±. Hence the commercial treaty, recently negotiated with Germany, may 

indicate a return to the policy that held the emperors, Alexander II. and Kaiser Wil- 
helm, in bonds of cordial friendship, and soothed the ancient hatred of Slavonian and 
Teuton. 

7. Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland. 

§ 682. Belgium has adjusted her boundary disputes with the Netherlands, but 
isss. has been the scene of much domestic trouble. Anarchistic outbreaks 

led to an abortive prosecution that disgraced the government, and the laboring classes 
isoi. resorted to wide-spread strikes, in order to compel, from Parliament, 

the passage of a universal suffrage bill. Parliament refused to yield, but measures 
for the revision of the constitution were submitted by the ministry. The elections of 
1892 resulted in a victory for the advocates of universal suffrage. 

Anarchistic outrages continuing, some of the leaders have been at last convicted. 
But the little kingdom is shaken by frequent agitations, in which the clergy and the 
socialists are most conspicuous. The liberal ministry, suffering defeat in the first 
election held under the new constitution, resigned from office. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 781 

The king, becoming physically incompetent to reign, Queen Emma was appointed 
Oct., isoo. regent, a few days before the king's death. 

The government of the anti-liberals proved unpopular, and the elections of 1891 

drove them from power. The only important enactments of their term were the laws 

affecting the laboring classes, determining the hours of the labor-day, and regulating 

work in factories. The liberals, upon their return to office, passed new election laws, 

isoa. and a new army bill. 

The canal, connecting Amsterdam with the Rhine provinces of Germany, was 
opened in 1892, and marks the beginning of closer intercourse between the two 
peoples. 

The Swiss Confederation has been sorely troubled by anarchists and political 
refugees. This led to the expulsion of certain Russian Nihilists in 1889. 

Then again Wohlgemuth, suspected of being a spy, appealed to Germany after 
may, is9o. his banishment, and a correspondence ensued, which ended amicably 
in a treaty between the empire and the Confederation. 

Ticino, one of the provinces near Italy, revolted in 1890 ; after intense excite- 
ment, order was restored. A council of conciliation was held at Berne, and amnesty 
was granted to all the insurgents. The introduction of the referendum, i. e. the sub- 
mission of new statutes to a direct vote of the people, has done much to quiet party 
strife in Switzerland, and the people, after years of agitation, are living in compara- 
tive prosperity and peace. 

8. Denmark, Sweden, Norway. 

§ 688. The struggle in Denmark for genuine parliamentary government re- 
sulted, in 1892, in the defeat of the liberal party. This was due, partly to the alarm- 
ing development of socialistic tendencies among the radicals, and to the great increase 
of socialistic strength at the polls, as revealed in the elections of 1890. Important 
poor laws have been enacted, and the revenue system has been carefully revised. But 
the constitutional crisis of 1888 may be regarded as overcome, at least for a brief 
period. 

Sweden had adopted definitely the system of protection, having passed a corn 
law, and a general tariff law in 1888, and having overthrown a ministry too lukewarm 
in its prosecution of protective measures. In 1890, the Gothenburg license system 
was established in the kingdom, for the better regulation of the liquor traffic. But 
the great event of recent Swedish history has been the complete reorganization of the 
Swedish army. The King and his cabinet, alarmed at the rumors of war, and the 
mighty armaments of neighboring countries, convened the Diet in extraordinary ses- 
sion, and the measures of the minister of war were adopted in November, 1892. 

The Norwegians are restless under a Swedish king. Bjornson, the poet, and his 
followers seek the independence of Norway, and desire a republic. The radicals are 
in a majority in the Storthing, and the Steen cabinet is in sympathy with them. A 
resolution passed the house, demanding co-equality of Norway with Sweden, and an 
independent consular service. This resolution King Oscar refused to sanction. Steen 
and his colleagues thereupon resigned, and the Storthing adjourned. The King re- 
fused to give way, but was unable to form a new cabinet. The excitement in Christi- 



782 RECENT HISTORY. 

ania and vicinity increased to an alarming extent. Finally the Storthing renewed its 
sessions, agreeing to postpone the consular question, if the Steen ministry were re- 
called. King Oscar consented, but the agitation for independence and for an extension 
of the elective franchise still continues. 

9. Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia. 

§ 684. King George, like King Oscar, has had no little trouble with his cab- 
inet. Delyannis proved a failure. The financial condition of the kingdom grew 
rapidly worse under his management, and the King asked him to resign. Delyannis 
i89i-i8os. refused, and the King dismissed him. The Boule, or legislative coun- 
cil, sustained the minister, and denounced the conduct of the King. Popular upris- 
ings followed. The King thereupon dissolved the Boubi, and in the elections that fol- 
lowed, Tricoupis triumphed by a large majority, and at the King's summons, formed 
the present cabinet. 

The chief event in recent Turkish history has been the insurrection of the Yemen 
tribes of Arabia. After a desperate and bloody struggle, they were finally defeated 
by the Turkish troops, under Ahmed Fehzy Pasha. Hamid Eddin, the false Iwaum, 
was killed, and along with him, twenty other chiefs, who acted under him in rebellion 
against the Turks. 

King Ferdinand of Bulgaria has not yet been recognized by the Sultan, although 
his last words upon the subject held out hope to the Bulgarian minister. Russia con- 
tinues to make trouble, but there is no pro-Russian party in Bulgaria, except that pro- 
duced by panic or pay. Stambuloff was sustained by the elections of 1890, but all 
Bulgarian leaders are nationalists when in office. An attempt to murder the ministers 
led to an exciting trial, in which Russia was seriously compromised by documents that 
the Russian authorities denounce as spurious. Bulgaria, for a while, threatened Servia 
with war, but the Sultan intervened successfully. France, too, seemed eager to pro- 
voke a conflict over the expulsion of a newspaper correspondent from the kingdom, 
but consented later to be appeased. 

The farmers and peasants of Roumania have been relieved by a state loan sys- 
tem. The relations of the country with England had become more intimate, and a 
diplomatic difficulty with Greece has kept her statesmen busy and excited. 

In Servia, King Milan and his queen, Natalie, have been the objects of much 
intrigue and curious legislation. The King agreed to stay away until Aug. 1, 189-4, 
when the prince attains his majority, but the Queen refused all propositions, and was 
finally expelled from the kingdom. Servia is in sore financial straits, and a recent con- 
flict with the metropolitan bishop revealed the weakness of her ecclesiastical system. 
The regency will soon expire, and fresh troubles probably begin. 

10. England. 

§ 685. The county governments of England and Wales have been reconstituted 
since 1888, and a local government bill for Scotland was enacted in 18*9. 

Strikes and lockouts, expensive and exciting, have borne witness to the defective 
character of the existing industrial system of the world. The chief of these was the 
isso. strike of the London dock laborers, in 1889 ; this resulted in favor of 

the strikers. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 



783 



An anti-tithe war occurred in Wales, in 1890, where a league was formed, which 
isoo. waged a bitter but unsuccessful opposition to the payment of tithes. 

The failures in Australia and in South America produced a financial crisis in 
is93. London, in which the great house of Baring was involved, and in 1893 

the action of the Indian government, suspending silver coinage, still further aggra- 
vated the fever in commercial circles. England has been, however, free from difficul- 
ties with other nations, excepting with Portugal and the United States. The former 
related to boundary disputes in Africa ; the latter to the fisheries of Newfoundland, 
and seal hunting in the Pacific Ocean. 
In 1893, a court of arbitration de- 
cided the controversy between the 
United States and Great Britain, but 
the two countries are still discussing 
the details of the court's award. 

The main feature of English poli- 
tics however has been, of course, the 
Irish question. In the summer of 
1888 grave charges were made against 
Parnell, the leader of the Irish party, 
by the London Times. Parnell vindi- 
cated himself triumphantly before a 
committee of investigation, appointed 
by the House of Commons. But 
hardly had this trial ended, when the 
revelations of the divorce courts 
drove him, after a desperate struggle, 
into defeat and disgrace and death. 
The Irish parliamentary party divided 
into factions, Parnellites and anti- 
Parnellites, and the cause of Home 
Rule suffered severely. 

Mr. Balfour's management of 
Irish affairs had been bold and par- 
tially successful; his land-purchase 

bill, passed in 1891, had meritorious features. Yet the riots of Tipperary, and the 
continued use of force to accomplish evictions, distressed the liberals of England, 
and led to their program of 1892, the chief feature of which, was local government 
for Ireland. 

The Liberals obtained a majority of forty-two in the parliamentary elections of 
iso2. 1892, and Mr. Gladstone returned to power. The Home Rule bill 

passed the House of Commons after a protracted and vehement struggle, but was 
thrown out by the House of Lords. Mr. Gladstone then turned to other measures, 
but his growing infirmities compelled his retirement, and Lord Roseberry, the minister 
of foreign affairs, succeeded him as prime minister. The liberals are still in office, but 
on the edge of defeat. 

The retirement of Mr. Gladstone, like that of Prince Bismarck, rounds out an 




GEORGE TEABODY. 



784 



RECENT HISTORY. 



epoch of modern history. The former has created a new England, the latter a new- 
Germany Gladstone has been a man of peace, of domestic ideals, seeking the glory 

of England, rather in the concilia- 
tion of conflicting elements at home, 
than in startling conquests abroad. 
Bismarck has been the man of blood 
and iron, seeking for Prussia the 
leadership of Germany, and for Ger- 
many the control of Europe. Glad- 
stone cared rather for human progress 
than for national glory ; Bismarck, 
on the other hand, believed all prog- 
ress dependent upon the development 
of the state, and the security and 
glory of the throne.. The English 
statesman stood for a conservative 
democracy, for government by the 
masses, made stable, not by bayonets, 
but by enlarged intelligence ; the 
German chancellor for progressive 
monarchy, for government by princes, 
made stable by a mutual fidelity and 
loyality, the king being the chief ser- 
vant of the people, and the people 
the faithful dependants upon his 
energy and paternal care. Each was 
an idealist ; each was also a man of 
practical sagacity, content with the 
feasible and the possible. Along with Cavour and Lincoln they constitute the con- 
summate flower of modern statesmanship. 




RICHARD ARKRIGHT. 




(pp. 786.) 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 




A. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 

I. THE EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 
1. THE SPANISH SETTLEMENTS. 



a. Florida and New Spain (Mexico and the Califoenias.) 



k Y a papal bull issued- May 4th., 1493, all newly discovered 
countries were divided between Spain and Portu- 
gal ; the line of demarcation, traced by Pope 
Alexander VI., was subsequently modified by 
treaty and moved to a point 370 leagues west of 
the Cape De Verde Islands. This gave Spain all 
of North and South America except Brazil. But 
the religious struggles of the sixteenth century 
made the papal authority, which had never been 
absolute in political affairs, of less than ordinary 
moment. Yet this being the period of Spanish great- 
ness, she was able to establish her power in Florida 
and in New Spain, which latter included Mexico, 
New Mexico, Texas, and both Californias. She con- 
trolled of course the West Indies and ruled all of South 
America, by her governors, except Brazil; and when 
Portugal became subject to her neighbor kingdom, 
Brazil also was under Spanish authority from 1582 to 
1640. 
Florida. — Florida had been discovered by Ponce de Leon, who attempted, 
isi2. nine years afterward, the founding of a colony. But instead of dis- 

covering there, as he was told he would, the fountain of perpetual youth, he was 
mortally wounded by the hostile natives and died soon afterward in Cuba. Ponce de 
Leon was followed by Pamfilo de Narvaez who perished miserably in a futile search 
is27. for gold. Ferdinand De Soto, who had been with Pizarro in the con- 

is39. quest of Peru, now obtained the royal permission to conquer Florida. 

He and his strange companions, priests and cavaliers, traversed great portions of 

(787) 




667. 



788 



AMERICA 




Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and in the third year of their wanderings reached 
the banks of "the great river." De Soto died from fever, and his body was sunk in the 
waters of the mighty stream down which his starving comrades floated to the Gulf of 
Mexico. Notwithstanding these and other -misadventures, Spain looked with bitter 
jealousy upon every attempt of her great rival France to gain a foothold in this vast 
domain ; for by Florida she meant all the country between the Atlantic and New Mex- 
1524. ico and from the gulf to the Polar 

1*91. Sea. France claimed it through the 

discovery of Verrazzani : England claimed it through 
1565. the discovery of the Cabots; and now 

iaes. France attempted to colonize it with 

a settlements of Huguenots, who built Fort Caro- 
line (hear St. Augustine). These were massacred 
by Menendez in 1565, a massacre swiftly and 
thoroughly avenged by Dominique de Gourgues in 
1568. Menendez founded St. Augustine, and eigh- 
teen years later Francis Drake, then at the height of 
his strange career discovered and attacked the 
Spaniards at St. Augustine and burned their town. 
From this time forward conflicts took j)lace between 
the Spaniards of Florida and the English settlers of 
the South until Florida was ceded to Great Britain 
in 1763. In the twenty years of English occupation P0NCE DE LE0N - 

twenty thousand immigrants arrived who nearly all withdrew when Florida was ceded 
back to Spain in 1783. In 1821 the Spanish king ratified reluctantly the treaty by 
which it became the territory of the United States of America. 
b. Mexico and New Spain. 

§ 668. Cortez withdrew from Mexico in 1510, and New Spain continued under 
i55o. the sway of her first viceroy Antonio" de Mendoza until 1550. He 

baptized the natives and wore away their strength by hardships 
in the mines. Rapacious laws and cruel tyranny depopulated 
whole towns. Las Casas, the one true friend of the people, 
appealed in their behalf so urgently that new laws were estab- 
lished by imperial decree, to mitigate the horrors of the Vice- 
regal dominion, and Yalasco, the successor of Mendoza, in spite 
of opposition, executed these decrees with fidelity and some 
success. He also witnessed the founding of a University at 
ises. the capital of Mexico. In 1568 the English 

began to harrass the Spaniards along the coast, and the Span- 
iards began the torture of the natives with the Inquisition, 
Ian. which was regularly established in 1571. Pirates 

on the sea, floods on the land, robbers on the highway, and 
natives to be christianized kept the Viceroys busy. A nest of English buccaneers 
was established at Jamaica, and a gang of French free-booters had their rendezvous at 
coronaao. St. Domingo. Vera Cruz was raided by them in 1681. Meanwhile 
i54o. the monks and Jesuits had pushed their missions forward into New 




FERDINAND DE SOTO. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



789 



Mexico, Arizona, and the regions of the upper Pacific coast. Tucson in Arizona is 

said to be, after St. Augustine, the oldest European settlement in North America. In 
iiey. 1767 the Jesuits were expelled, but their labors were renewed by the 

Franciscans and Dominicans, who founded mission stations in upper California. 
*7«». San Francisco Bay was discovered in 1769, and in 1806 the Spaniards, 

isoe. pushing northward, encountered the Russians from Alaska pushing 

toward the South. 

During all this period Spain ruled the people exclusively in the interest of the 




BURIAL OF DE SOTO. 



Spanish crown. Only the Spaniard born in Europe could bear authority in church or 
state, and no attention was paid to the interests of the Creoles or of the natives. Trade 
was so restricted, that the products of the colonies could be sold to Spaniards only, and 
the colonists were allowed to deal in none but Spanish commodities. Tobacco was a 
royal monopoly; the products of Spain, such as wine and oil, the colonists were for- 
bidden to raise ; they might not plant sugar-corn, or cultivate the silk-worm, or open 
up their iron mines. All commodities that came from Spain were subject to oppres- 
sive import duties. The governor of the province, a born Spaniard, had the privilege 
of " Repartimientos," that is, he sent to every village a quantity of commodities with 
fixed prices, which the inhabitants were required to buy. 

No schools were established ; the agents of the Inquisition were extremely vigilant; 
and with comparatively few troops the Spanish rulers were able to suppress every at- 



790 



AMERICA. 



tempt at insurrection. Nevertheless the population of Mexico increased greatly, and 
many European arts and modes of life were introduced. 

2. New France. 

a. The French in North America. 

§ 669. The Normans, the Bretons, and the Basques discovered quite early the 
cod-fish banks of Newfoundland. The Basques had been there before the voyage of 
Cabot in 1497, and in 1517 fifty Castilian, French, and Portuguese vessels were fishing 
there at the same time. From that day to this, these fisheries have been an object of 
contention : at first, between French, English, Spanish, and Portuguese and in later 
times, between English, French, and American. 

Francis I. of France, notwithstanding the Papal bull, sought a share of the treas- 
ures of the New World, and sent out Verrazzano with four ships, which sailed from 
Dieppe in the winter of 1523. This Florentine navigator reached the shores of what 




OLD SPANISH GATE AT ST. AUGUSTINE, FLA. 

is now North Carolina, and coasted the sea-board from the 34th. to the 50th. degree of 
i534. north latitude. Returning to Dieppe on the 8th of July, 1524, he 

wrote to the French king the earliest known description of the Atlantic shores of 
North America. The subsequent fortunes of Verrazzano are unknown, but the rumor 
of his discoveries led to the expedition of Jacques Cartier, who sailed from St. Malo, 
is34. April 20th, 1534. Cartier passed through the straits of Belle Isle and 

sailed up the St. Lawrence to Anti Costi. Returning to St. Malo, he received a fresh- 
commission ; and with three vessels,. the largest of them not above 120 tons, he steered 
again for the St. Lawrence which was called by him, the great river of Hochelaga. 
At Stadecone the Indians told him of their great metropolis Hochelaga, after which 
they said the river was called. Stadecone and Hochelaga were the Indian names of 
the now famous sites, Quebec and Montreal. Jean Francois de la Roque, Sieur de 
Roberval was, upon Cartier's return, made Viceroy of New France, as the newly dis- 
covered country was called. Cartier as captain-general of a new expedition, preceded 
him to his vast dominions ; but the colony of Roberval perished from dissensions and 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



791 



from famine, and Roberval himself disappeared from history almost without a trace. 
In 1578, there were 150 French fishing vessels at Newfoundland, but the thrifty sail- 
ors and merchants of St. Malo had by this time discovered new treasures in the fur- 
trade, and held it firmly until La Roche, with his band of convicts, attempted a colony 
which proved ruinous to all concerned. But in the early days of the reign of Henry 
IV., Aymar de Chastes "resolved to proceed to New France, in person, and dedicate 
the rest of his days to the service of God and his king." Champlain had just returned 
from the West Indies, and De Chastes under whom he had served in the Royal navy, 
offered him a post in the new company. Champlain sought eagerly the king's consent, 

1603. and in 1603 embarked with Pont Grave, a Breton merchant, for the 

Western world. The little vessels in which they sailed were 'of twelve and fifteen tons 
respectively. But they outrode the rough Atlantic seas and reached Hochelaga, to find 
hardly a trace of the savage population that thronged about Cartier and his compan- 
ions sixty-eight years before. When De Chastes died, the Sieur de Monts petitioned the 
king for leave to colonize La Cadie (Acadia). The region thus designated extended from 
the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude. In spite of the opposition of 
the sagacious Sully, King Henry appointed De Monts lieutenant-general, with Vice- 
regal powers, and gave him the monopoly of the fur-trade. He sailed from Havre, 

tea j. April 7th, 1604, with a motley collection of vagabonds and volunteers ; 

the latter consisting of noblemen, catholic priests and Huguenot ministers. Pont- 
Grave was to follow a few days after. De Monts reached and explored the Bay of 
Fundy, and chose the Island of St. Croix as the sight of his colony. Scurvy soon 
broke out among his people and, 
weary of their ill-fated island, they 
embarked upon a fruitless search 
for a better habitation. Finally 
they removed to Port Royal, and 
De Monts returned to France. For 
the merchants and fisherman of 
Brittan and Normandy had at- 
tacked his monopoly and, in spite 
of all his efforts, his patent was an- 
nulled. But Port Royal had been 
given by him to Pontrincourt, who 
was resolved upon a New France, 
and this grant was confirmed by 
the king. Accordingly in 1610, 

1010. Pontrincourt sailed 

from Dieppe, followed by the Je- 
suits, whom he vainly tried to 
elude. In 1613, this colony at 
Port Royal was attacked by Sam- 
uel Argall, an English sea-captain, 
who turned part of it adrift in an 
open boat and carried the rest of it in captivity to Virginia. This was the beginning 
of the struggle between France and England for the possession of North America. 




SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN. 



792 AMERICA. 

Champlain, who had abandoned Port Royal when the patent of De Monts was re- 
voked, returned to Canada in 1608 once more, at the instance of his former chief, whose 
fur monopoly had been revived for one year. He founded a city at Quebec (the Nar- 

teos. rows), ascended the Richelieu river, discovered the Lake which bears 

ieoo. his name, fought the Iroquois Indians, incurring thereby for himself and 

his countrymen their unquenchable hatred, discovered Lake Huron, and won for him- 
self and for France the undying attachment of the Huron Indians, discovered Lake 

tots. Ontario also, and, crossing the forests of New York to Lake Oneida, 

penetrated to the heart of the Iroquois settlements. On his way back to Quebec, he 
umpired a desperate quarrel between the Huron and Algonquin tribes that threatened 
the destruction of the commerce of New France. Arrived at Quebec, lie found few 
signs of growth, and much discord and disorder. The Huguenots outside the colony, 
chiefly merchants from Rochelle, were carrying on defiantly an illicit traffic along the 
St. Lawrence ; the Huguenots within, although the exercise of their religion was pro- 
hibited by royal edict, were singing lustily their heretical psalms. Greed and bigotry 
made Catholic and Huguenot hateful to each other, yet both united in a hearfrv hatred 
of Champlain. But the latter was no common adventurer; his purposes were high, 
his energy and fortitude exceeding great; every year he went to France in the interest 
of the colony, but his efforts both at Quebec and at Paris were altogether fruitless. 
In 1627 the mighty Richelieu became supreme in France. He, learning of the mis- 
management in America, annulled all privileges, and created the Company of New 
France, consisting of a hundred associates, with himself as president. The company 
bound itself to convey to the colony before the j r ear 1643, at least four thousand per- 
sons of both sexes, who were to be lodged and fed for three years at the companies' 
expense, and subsequently to be allotted lands for their support. These settlers were 
to be French men and Catholics. The Huguenots were excluded forever. But the 
Huguenots of France were a sore plague to the colony which they were forbidden to 
enter. The revolt of Rochelle', their strong city, brought the English King Charles 
into conflict with Richelieu and his royal master. Quebec was approached b}^ an 
English fleet in command of David Kirk, a Huguenot of Dieppe, who summoned it to 
surrender. Champlain refused, although the wretched colonists were almost dead 
from famine. Kirk sailed away, but his brother Louis returned and the starving rem- 
nant capitulated. But New France was soon restored by the English and Emery de 
Caen was sent to reclaim Quebec. He landed in 1632 and Champlain. re-commissioned 
by Richelieu, followed in 1633. The Recollet priests were now virtually excluded, and 

1633. the Jesuits who took their places, soon converted Quebec and in fact 

all New France, into a mission; — a mission to explore the vast interior country, and a 
mission to conquer the savage tribes for the cross of Christ and the crown of France. 

1635. Champlain died on Christmas day, 1635. He is the noblest figure of 

this early time : his splendid courage was tempered bj r a chastity that excited the 
wonder of the Huron chiefs ; though credulous he was simply and nobly truthful ; 
patient always, yet sagacious and daring to the last. For just before he died, he peti- 
tioned Richelieu for men and means to exterminate the Iroquois. 

Port Royal was founded in 1605, but the contests of ambitious leaders and the 
incessant invasions of the English, so retarded the French settlements in Acadia, that 

tea*. in 1686 the whole population, including thirty soldiers, was only 915. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



793 



toss. Cromwell had it subjugated in 1654, but it was ceded back to France 

leoo. in 1668. It was attacked again by Sir William Phipps, who sailed 

from Boston in 1690; and when Phipps in 1692 became the first Royal governor of 
leas. Massachusetts, Acadia was a part of the domain included in the new 

charter. But in 1697 it was once more ceded back to France. 

b. French Discoveries Along the Great Lakes. 

§ 690. Etienne (Stephen) Brule of Champigny was the first white man to pene- 
iois. trate the region beyond Lake Huron, which he did in 1618. Jean Nicol- 

ie34. let in 1634 passed through the straits of Mackinaw, and discovered 




MARQUETTE AND JOLIET DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI. 



Lake Michigan. But the death of Champlain in 1635, and the ravages of the terrible 
Iroquois, led to the abandonment of the French trading ports on Lake Huron and 
Lake Michigan, and there were no further discoveries until after the peace of 1654. 
In 1659 Groselliers and Radisson learned from the Hurons of a river as large as the 
St. Lawrence, lying further to the westward, (and, if we may believe Perrot), Father 
Menard, and his faithful servant Jean Gue"rin, saw the Mississippi twelve years before 
the great river was seen by Joliet and his companions. Joliet reached the straits of 
Mackinaw in 1672; there he found Marquette. These two, with five companions, pro- 
ceeded in birch canoes to the valley of the Fox River and reached the Wisconsin by 
a short portage. Following its course they entered the Mississippi on the 17th of 
1973. June, 1673 ; they descended to the mouth of the Arkansas and then 



794 AMERICA. 

returned up stream to the Illinois. On the west bank of one of its tributaries Joliet 
discovered a curious mound of clay, sand, and gravel which he called Mont Joliet.* 

c. Discovery of the Mississippi and Settlement of Louisiana. 

§ 691. In 1672 Count Frontenac arrived at Quebec, governor and lieutenant- 
general for the king of all New France. Louis XIV. and his great minister, Colbert, 
had spent great sums in building up the empire beyond the sea. New settlers were 
shipped annually to the St. Lawrence, until the drain upon France threatened disaster 
to the army ; wives were supplied by royal bount} 7 ; farms and new houses were given 
freely to the immigrants. So that when Frontenac assumed control, it was possible 

lets. for him to form the Three Estates of Canada, which he convoked Oct. 

23, 1672. He then set himself to establish a municipal government, with town meet- 
ings every six months. These were at once abolished by the angry King, and the 
Jesuits refused at the same time to co-operate with him in his plans to civilize the In- 
dians. It was in the midst of these and other difficulties, that Frontenac became ac- 
quainted with La Salle. Each was eager for fortune, fame, and power, and the two 

ie?7. joined hands. In 1677 La Salle appeared at the court of the Grand 

Monarch, who authorized him to build and own as many forts as he saw fit, provided 
it was done within five years. He was to discover the country, and find a way to 
Mexico. But the King gave him no money. He therefore found it where he could, 
and in Sept., 1678, he with Tonty, an Italian officer, La Motte, a French nobleman, 
and thirty men arrived at Quebec. Father Hennepin, the adventurous friar and his- 
torian of the expedition, came down from Fort Frontenac to meet him. In 1679 La 
Salle was on the upper lakes, in 1680 on the Illinois, whence he sent Accan to explore 
the Mississippi, whom Father Hennepin, a Franciscan Monk, volunteered to accompany. 
i«so-iesi. These penetrated to the country of the Sioux and discovered the Falls 
of St. Anthonj', as they were called by the mendacious Franciscan. La Salle reached 
Lake Huron in October, 1681. His experiences had been of the most trying character, 

test. but his spirit was undaunted. About Christmas time he crossed from 

Fort Miami on Lake Michigan to the Chicago river. The streams were frozen. Tonty 
and d'Autry had gone before him. They crossed from the Chicago to the Illinois, and 
dragging their canoes on sledges, they reached at last open water below Lake Peoria. 
Trusting to their canoes, they floated clown the quiet river until on the 6th of Feb- 
ruary ; then drifted into the floating ice that was sweeping down the mighty Mississippi. 
For a week they could get no further. Resuming their course, they came to the 
muddy torrent of the Missouri. They passed the Ohio and the Arkansas, and on the 
6th of April they arrived at the three great channels. La Salle kept to the west, Tonty 
took the middle passage, and d'Autry drifted to the east. Tonty was the first to be- 
hold the mighty bosom of the Gulf. All three united on a spot just above the mouth 
of the river, where they erected a column inscribed "Lonis le Grand, Roy de France et 
Apra o, i6S2. de Navarre, rtgne ; le Neuvieme Avril, 16S2." The new country was 
called by La Salle, Louisiana. In the the map of Franquelin made in 1684, it stretches 
from the Alleghanies to the Rock}' Mountains and from the Rio Grande to the head 
waters of the Missouri. 

* This is forty miles southwest of Chicago, near the city of Joliet, and is the only station marked on Joliet's map 
that still retains the name he gave it. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 795 

§ 692. "Louisiana," wrote Charlevoix, "is the name which M. de La Salle gave to 
iesz. that portion of the country watered by the Mississippi, lying below the 

river Illinois." When the discoverer returned to Paris, Louis XIV. dreamed splendid 
dreams of conquests and colonization, of gold and silver and precious products. He 
gave La Salle a commission to found a colony, and fitted him out with vessels and 
other requisites. But the expedition ended disastrously. The voj'agers reached the 
Gulf of Mexico, but were compelled to land on the coast of Texas. La Salle per- 
ished mysteriously, and his associates were massacred by the Indians. 

Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville, a native of Canada, accustomed to adventure and 
danger from boyhood, was the first to renew the interest of the French court in the 
settlement of the " Great River." He was provided with a small fleet, and succeeded 
in finding the entrance to the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico. He chose the 
ieos. sand banks of Biloxi Bay for his emigrants, about two hundred in all, 

a choice that proved fatal to their fortunes. No green thing could live on the fine 
white sand. Supplies had to be brought from France. After the death of Louis 
XIV., the regent grew tired of the sickly and expensive colony, and sold it, along 
ni2. with exclusive privileges of trade, to Sieur Antony Crozat. This 

wealthy speculator hoped to make a fortune from his grant, and for a while worked 
wonders ; but was finally compelled to assign his rights to the 

1717. "Company of the West," the famous " Missis- 
sippi Bubble," of the canny Scotchman, John Law. The 
bubble burst ; Law became a fugitive, and almost a pauper. 

1718. But during its irridescent glory, the city of New 
Orleans was founded, and Louisiana became the scene of active 
emigration. In 1721 the population had reached five thousand 
four hundred and twenty, of whom six hundred were negroes. 
In 1731, when the colony reverted to the king, the white 
population numbered five thousand, and the negroes two 
thousand. In 1762, the French King presented the colony to 
his dear cousin, the King of Spain, although the gift was made 

. . . ° ° HENRY HUDSON. 

in secret. But it was just in time to prevent its acquisition 

by the English, when Quebec was captured, and New France passed forever into other 

hands. 

3. The Dutch Settlements on the Hudson and the Delaware. 

§ 693. The Dutch, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, had established 
a great republic. Their heroic struggle with Spain led them to strike their adversary 
everywhere, and naturally they bethought them of the lands across the sea. William 
Usselinx, a merchant of Antwerp, proposed a West India Company, as early as 1592, 
and ships of the Greenland Company are said to have entered the Hudson and the 
Delaware rivers in 1598. The scheme of Usselinx was revived in 1606, but political 
considerations led to its rejection by Oldenbarnvelt, who was then the ruling mind of 
Holland, and who eagerly desired peace. In 1608 Henry Hudson, an English sailor, 
was employed by the Dutch East India Company to search for a north-east passage to 
ieos. the East Indies. He sailed from the Texel in the yacht " Half-moon " 

in April, 1609. But encountering much ice and fog, he changed his plan into a search 




796 



AMERICA. 



for a north-west passage, at about the fortieth degree of latitude. He landed suc- 
cessively at Newfoundland, Penobscot Bay, and Cape Cod. In August he entered 
the Delaware Bay, and on September 4, sailed into the " Great mouth of the great 
river " of New Netherland. 

The West India project of Usselinx was now organized into a reality. And the 

Company sent Captain Mey to 
the South River (Delaware), 
and Tienpont to the North 
(Hudson) as directors. 

Mey erected Fort Nassau, 
four miles south-east of what 
is now Philadelphia, and 
io2e. Tienpont built 
Fort Orange, where Albany 
now stands. In 1626 Peter 
Minuit, the successor of 
Tienpont, bought Manhattan 
island from the Indians, for 
which he gave them about 
twenty-four dollars. 

Under the charter of 1621, 
a council was organized, but 
in 1629 the States-General' 
minuit, sanctioned a 
1620-1033. new charter of 
" freedoms and exemptions." 
The latter however were for 
the director^ of the Company, 
and not for the colonists. 
Vast purchases of land were 
now made from the Indians, 
and as rapidly' as possible set- 
tlers were conveyed to the 
plantations. The owners of 
these tracts, the Cortlandts, 
Livingstons, Schuylers, Van 
Rensselaer, were called 
"patroons," and their hold- 
ings were known as manors. 
On the South (Delaware) River, the settlements were destroyed by the Indians, but 
van Turner, revived again under the administration of Wouter Van T wilier , who, 
i e 33 io3, by his efforts at expansion, brought the colony on the North (Hudson) 
River into conflict with the English. Van Twiller so abused his position, that he was 
^ K ie/t displaced by William Kieft, in 1637. His conduct however led to the 

isslie^. investigation of the colony by their High Mightinesses, and to a change 
in its administration. The monopoly of the company was abolished, and the cultiva- 




HENRY HUDSON IN NORTH RIVER. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



797 



tion of the soil opened up to every migrant. Throngs now flocked to New Nether- 
land. From Europe came peasant farmers and wealthy educated families, looking for 
new homes and larger fortunes ; from New England the disfranchised -victims of eccle- 
siastical tyranny ; from Virginia and the South, the indented servants whose period of 
bondage had expired. In 1643 eighteen different nationalities were already repre- 
sented in New Amsterdam (New York). 

But Kieft's administration was one of tyranny and folly. He provoked an Indian 
war: he quarreled with the burghers of New Amsterdam; he exposed the colony to 
a dangerous and ruinous conflict with the people of New Haven. 

Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, a man of experience and energetic 










1sBB 



W^M 










sflpb 



mm 



■&::;• 




DUTCH TRADERS AT MANHATTAN. 



stuyvesant, courage. The colony was revolutionized and liberalized, the rights of 
leu-lee*. the settlers to a share in the government freely acknowledged, the car- 
rying trade thrown open, and morality restored. 

Stuyvesant remained for seventeen years, and had his means been ample enough, 
his administration might have been a great success. But hostile Indians drained his 
resources, and reduced his army to one hundred and fifty soldiers, scattered from 
Albany to Philadelphia in four little garrisons. He had moreover espoused the cause 
of Kieft, and thereby incurred the hostility of the settlers. Then came an order to 
admit only the Dutch to public employment. The people clamored for a general 
assembly of the towns, to which Stuyvesant consented reluctantly and too late. So 



798 



AMERICA. 



i66j. when the English came, as they did in 1664, the colonists insisted upon 

the surrender, and New Amsterdam became New York. It was retaken by the Dutch 

coive, in 1673, but after a foolish administration by Anthony Colve, as gov- 

ie73-iet-i. ernor, it was given back to England, and reorganized as an English 

province in 1674, although a provincial assembly, with limited popular representatives, 

was not established until 1684. 




PETER STXJYVESANT. 

4. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware. 

§ 694. The Swedish settlements in America are only an episode in the 
occupation of the Dutch. Thej r were projected by Willem Usselinx, the chief 
founder of the Dutch West India Company, who induced Gustavus Adolphus 
to institute the Australian Company, with special privileges of trade with 
America. The death of the great king, and the thirty years' war postponed 
the settling of New Sweden, but in 1638, Peter Minuit, as commander of a 
Swedish expedition, sailed up the Delaware Eiver, and purchased land from the In- 
dians living near the river Schuylkill. A fort was built and called, in honor of the 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



799 



less. Swedish queen, Fort Christina. " The country is troublesome to de- 

fend," wrote Campanius Holm, " both on account of the savages and the Christians, 
who inflict upon us every kind of harm." 

By the Christians he meant the English, and especially the Dutch. The latter 
claimed the regions of the Delaware, and Peter Stuyvesant determined to make good 
the claim. He sent "a ship well manned and equipped with cannon," to close the 
river to the Swedes; and when this failed he came from New Amsterdam himself. He 
did not, however, subjugate New Sweden, until 1655, when he besieged Fort 
toss. Christina, and compelled the governor to surrender. The Swedish 

government made futile efforts to recover the colony, from both the Dutch and the 
English. But no trace of connection with the mother country endured, except the 
Gloria Dei church, in Philadelphia, which had a Swedish pastor until 1831. 



5. The English Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. 

§ 695. The English settle- 
ments in North America were 
destined to absorb all others ; 
planted in the beginning, along 
a comparatively narrow strip of 
the Atlantic sea-coast, they have 
come to include the whole con- 
tinent, from the Arctic Ocean to 
the Gulf of Mexico, and from 
the stormy waters of the Atlantic 
to the immense expanse of the 
Pacific Ocean. 

a. The Southern Colonies. 

§ 696.— The Early English 
Voyages. — "10£ to hym that 
found the new isle." Thus 
reads an entry in the expense 
account of Henry VII., of En- 
gland. Sebastian Cabot was 
meant by "hym," and the "new 
isle " was St. John, discovered 
by " hym " in 1497. 

But not until Hore's ill-fated expedition, in 1536, did voyages to America excite 
isae. the adventurous spirit of the English gentry. A few years later, 

Drake and Frobisher prowled along the American coasts. In 1565 Sir Humphrey 
ises. Gilbert projected a colony in America, in which " to settle such needy 

people of our own as now trouble the commonwealth, and through want at home, are 
enforced to commit outrageous offenses, whereby they are daily consumed by the gal- 
lows." He made two voyages, both of which were unfortunate. In the latter he per- 
ished by shipwreck, saying as he parted from his friends, " We are as near heaven by 







SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 



800 



AMERICA. 



sea as by land." Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, obtained a patent in 1584. He then 
iss4. sent out Barlow and Armidas to select a site for his colony. They 

soon returned with glowing accounts of a country, which Queen Elizabeth is said to 
have named Virginia. Raleigh was knighted by his royal mistress, and settlers were 
sent out to Roanoke island. But this plantation perished from Indian hostility and 
lack of supplies. A second colony failed as wretchedly, and Raleigh, after fifteen 
years of failure, and a loss of ,£40,000, abandoned hope. 

§ 697. TJie Settlement of Virginia. — No plantations were attempted again, until 

1606, when certain London 
merchants and West-coun- 
try gentlemen formed the 
Virginia Company, "to 
establish plantations in- 
America." On New Year's 
ieo?. day, 1607, 

Captain Christopher New- 
port, with two ships and a 
pinnace, carrying one hun- 
dred and forty-three emi- 
grants, sailed for Virginia, 
touching at the West 
Indies. On May 13, 1607, 
they selected for their 
colony, a peninsula, which 
they named Jamestown. 
Among the emigrants was 
Captain John Smith, the 
son of a Lincolnshire gen- 
tleman, who had learned 
war in the Netherlands, 
been thrown into the Med- 
iterranean by French pil- 
grims, fought with a Turk- 
ish champion in Hungary, 
been sold into slavery and, 
escaping from bondage, 
had traveled through 
every civilized country of 
Europe. This remarkable 
man, to whose writings we 
owe our knowledge of 
early Virginia, was put in 
irons during the voyage, but released at its termination. He then went among the 
Indians, who held him captive for a while, and then- sent him back to Jamestown. 
There he was in more danger than he had been from the Indians, and their chief, 
Powhatan, whose daughter Pocahontas, according to the well known but contested 




SETTLERS AT JAMESTOWN. 



802 



AMERICA. 



lait-itiio. 



story, saved him from imminent destruction. But he overcame the hatred of his ene- 
mies, became soon the actual, and finally the titular head of the colony. 

§ 698. In 1609 Lord Delaware was appointed governor, " of the colonies to be 
laoo-iaii. planted in Virginia." Five hundred emigrants were also sent out by 
the company. " They were," wrote Smith, "unruly gallants packed thither by their 
friends to escape ill destinies." Smith unfortunately was injured seriously by the ex- 
plosion of a powder-bag, and obliged to leave the colony, to which he never returned ; 
and it was about to disband, when Lord Delaware arrived. But he too was soon 
sir Thomas Dale, driven home by ill-health. Dale succeeded him and ruled with a high 
hand, but under his energetic management, the colony prospered. 

s«»iue{ Aigaii. Argall who was little 
lttia-iGio. better than a pirate, 
ruled in similar fashion. 

Yeardley succeeded Argall, and 
sir Georae his coming is an 
rearaiey, epoch in Amercan 
ieio-i62i. history ; for under 
the instructions of the re-organized 
ieio. Virginia Company, 

the new governor summoned an 
Assembly op Burgesses from the 
various hundreds and plantations. 
This was the first representative legis- 
lative body in America. The mem- 
bers of it were elected by the free- 
men of the settlements, each county 
returning two. The functions of the 
Assembly were : 

1. To give legal form to the in- 
structions of the Company. 

2. To supplement them by laws 
of their own. 

3. To petition the Company upon certain points. 

In England, Sandys, the real manager of the Virginia company, and the great mis- 
sionary, Patrick Copeland, had revived interest in the American settlement, and in 
the conversion of the Indians. The latter, however, had no desire for religion, and 
the settlers had no missionary zeal. During the life-time of Powhatan, however, the 
natives remained friendly to the settlers ; but after his death, under his brother 
lean. Opechancanough, they nearly exterminated the plantation. In 1624 the 

patent of the Virginia company was revoked, and the colony reverted to the king, 
not. without a protest from the colonists. 

§ 699. Virginia Under Royal Rule. — King Charles I. proclaimed a new constitu- 

1925. tion for Virginia, May 13, 1625. This provided for two councils, one 

resident in England, the other in Virginia. Public servants were made dependent on 

the crown. The House of Burgesses was not even mentioned by the King, that 

"found his Cromwell." The governors, however, found it wise not to suppress the As- 




CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



803 



sembly, and in 1639, they were bold enough to send the King a remonstrance against 
the restoration of the Virginia company. They had already offended Charles, by their 
energy and courage, in a quarrel with Lord Baltimore, but this action of 1639 restored 
is3o. them to the royal favor. The colony had now become quite prosper- 

ous, numbering 10,000 souls. These consisted of freemen, indented slaves, and negro 
slaves, the second class, the bondsmen for a term of years, being more numerous than 
the Africans. 

" 20 Negars came in a Dutch man-of-war about the last of August, 1619." 
But at first the increase of them was slow, and their value small. But they and their 
value increased with the discovery that cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar flourished, 
-especially with slave labor. The eleven plantations, of which the colony consisted, 




INDIAN ATTACK. 

lay between the York and the James rivers, except one on the eastern shore of the 
Chesapeake. These were prosperous enough to export food to New England, and to 
excite the cupidity of hungry office-seekers in the " Old Home." 

§ 700. Sir Wm. Berkeley was appointed governor in 1641. His administration 
sir wm. Berkeley, was noted for changes in the constitution, and a second Indian 
M4i-wn. massacre. The latter led to energetic action by the assembly, and the 
conquest of a peace that lasted thirty years. The former, by exempting councillors 
from taxation, separated the financial interests of the large planters from those of the 
general community, and thus created an aristocratic and a popular party. Berkeley, 
though by no means a fool, thanked God that there were in Virginia, " no free schools nor 
printing," and hoped " that there would be none there for a hundred years." Unfor- 



804 AMERICA. 

tunately his hope was too well grounded. During the protectorate of Cromwell, 
Berkeley retired. At first Virginia showed symptoms of opposition to the Common- 
wealth, but soon yielded to the men that killed the king. The House of Burgesses 
now increased their power, but about the same time the aristocratic element was re- 
cruited by the arrival of cavaliers, from England, the Lees, the Washingtons, and 
others. Nevertheless, when the Governor came into collision with the Assembly in 
1658, the Burgesses asserted stoutly, and even strengthened their authoritj\ This 
House was indeed the worthy ancestor of the House that passed the Stamp Act 
resolutions. Four times already it had claimed for itself the exclusive right of imposing 
less. taxes in the colony, and now in 1658, it denied the right of the Governor 

to dissolve its sessions. It thus prepared the way for Patrick Henry and George 
Washington, for Thomas Jefferson and Richard Henry Lee. 

§ 701. Bacon's Rebellion. — Berkeley and Harvey seconded the wishes of Charles 
I. to establish a regular army in Virginia. But the colonists were a ready-made 
militia. Charles lost his head, and the popular party in Virginia gained in conse- 
quence. But the restoration sent Berkeley back as the king's governor. The As- 
sembly acquiesced without a murmur. 

But the "navigation act " of the protectorate was not repealed. Colonial produce 
must be exported in English bottoms; no one might establish himself in the colonies 
as a merchant; certain enumerated staples might be exported, but only to England or 
to English dependencies ; the colonists were not allowed to receive any goods in 
foreign vessels. And to make things worse, the statute of 1672 provided that goods sent 
from one colony to the other must pay the same duties as if sold in England. This 
drove Virginia to depend wholly upon tobactfb. And every cargo of this product 
must run the risk of seizure by a Dutch privateer. Discontent was therefore rife 
among the Virginians. And when the long Assembly, whose members were enjoy- 
ioie. ing large stipends, continued sitting until 1676, this discontent broke 

into open murmurs. Moreover official fees were exorbitant, and public office was 
already private spoil. At this juncture, Charles II. rewarded Culpepper and Arling- 
ton with large grants of Virginia territory. These grants made all land tenures in- 
secure. The colonists were alarmed and angry, but an arrangement with the 
grantees, by which the rights of settlers could be safe-guarded, was nearly completed, 
when an outbreak of popular rage shook the whole community. This began in a 
quarrel with the Indians, and developed into a war that involved Maryland as well as 
Virginia. Berkeley behaved badlj', and the angry colonists demanded a commission 
for Nathaniel Bacon. Berkeley refused their demand. The Indians, soon after this, 
murdered Bacon's favorite servant. Gathering about a hundred planters, Bacon invaded 
the Indian country, but half of his men deserted him. He was short of supplies, and 
in his exasperation, he burned a village of friendly Indians, murdering the inhabitants. 

§ 702. Berkeley proclaimed him a rebel, dissolving the long Assembly, and issuing 
writs of election for a new House. Bacon was elected for his own county, but held a 
prisoner by the Governor. He was soon pardoned, however, and restored to his seat in 
the Council. The Assembly then attacked abuses. The light to vote was restored to 
every free man, and the laying of all taxes transferred to the Assembly. One thous- 
and men were raised, "for carrying on a war against the barbarous Indians," and 
Bacon was nominated to the command. Suddenly however Bacon disappeared. He-. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 805 

had returned home (dreading perhaps some destructive scheme of Berkeley,) and in four 
days he was in full march upon Jamestown, with four hundred men. With these living 
arguments he persuaded Berkeley to give him a commission, and the Assembly to pass 
an act of indemnity, condoning his previous offences. Berkeley left for Gloucester ; 
Bacon marched against the Indians. Berkeley again proclaimed Bacon a rebel ; 
Bacon replied with a manifesto, reciting the grievances of the colonists, and summon- 
ing a convention of freemen. The convention met; the attendance was large; an 
oath to support the " rebel " was taken by the freemen present. But Berkeley knew the 
power of promises. The planters of Accomac should have the confiscated estates of the 
rebels, and be exempt from all taxes except church dues, if they would only stand by 
him. And then the servants, and the slaves of the rebels who joined him, should have 
their freedom for their loyalty. He gathered thus a thousand men. But Bacon be- 
sieged Jamestown, captured Lady Berkeley, drove her husband away, and set fire to 
the town. He then went across to Gloucester and to Accomac. But his health gave 
way, and he died quite suddenly, and the rebellion died with him. Berkeley glutted 
his ferocity with the death and ruin of his enemies, although the assembly seems to have 
supported him in his vengeance. The commissioners, sent out from England to inves- 
tigate the rebellion, found their chief task to be defending the insurgents from the 

ten. furious Governor, and in 1677 he was recalled to end his days in dis- 

grace. But the colonists were very angry when the burden of a military establish- 
ment was put upon them, and material distress sharpened their exasperation. 

§ 703. Lord Culpepper. The grantee of Charles II., regarded in the colony as an 
ioT.-ies±. enemy and an extortioner, was made governor in 1677, but came to 

io82. the colony in 1682. His instructions were to restrict the franchise, 

and to leave only the shadow of self-government. All laws were, in the future, to 
originate with the governor and the council, then to be submitted to the crown and 
only when approved, considered by the Assembly. Yet even here one important ex- 
ception was made: "money bills" were left to the colonists. Culpepper, however, 
ioi-n liowiini. failed to enforce the royal authority, and was replaced by Lord 

ies4. Howard, the most pliant of all the useful implements of the Stuarts. 

His instructions forbade the setting up of a printing press in Virginia. Yet even he 
recognized the exclusive right of the assembly to impose taxes. Howard was in- 
structed also to grant liberty of conscience to non-conformists. This was a new policy 
in Virginia. For the three parishes of independents that existed in the colony in 
1642, to whom ministers were sent from Boston, had been persecuted by the Assembly ; 
the people fined, the ministers banished, and finally all forced to take refuge with 
Lord Baltimore, in Anne Arundel county. When the English expelled James Stuart, 
Francis mcHoison. the Virginians got rid of Howard and his greedy tyranny. Francis 
Nicholson, the new lieutenant governor, opened for the colonists a new era. He 
told the truth to his superiors in England; he pointed out unsparingly the defects and 
dangers of the English commercial policy ; he urged the certainty of French encroach- 
ments, the necessity of colonial union, the dilapidated condition of the forts, and the 
feebleness of the militia. He re-organized the church, fixing the stipends of the clergy, 
and providing glebes and parsonages in every parish. With the help of Blair, he es- 

lioo. tablished the college of William and Mary, where the first class was 



806 AMERICA. 

graduated in 1700, the year in which de Richebourg and his Huguenots arrived in 
Virginia. 

§ 704. In 1710, Alexander Spotswood, the ablest of all the royal governors, brought 
the writ of habeas corpus, and received a handsome palace from the grateful colonists. 
The tobacco-crop was worth, at the time, £20,000 a year. The population was large 
and varied ; English along the river banks, Germans in the interior, Scotch-Irish in the 
Shenandoah Valley and on the western frontier. The English planters constituted 
the aristocracy ; — prodigals when the tobacco market kept them in funds, paupers 
when the crop failed, or the market fell. Nevertheless, troublesome to Spotswood, 
because of their political independence. 

§ 705. Governor Gooch granted toleration to the Presbyterians in 1727, Rich- 

1733. mond was laid out in 1733, and the Virginia Gazette started in 1736. 

George Whitefield stirred up both church-men and dissenters a few years later, and in 

i75i. 1751 Robert Dinwiddie began his struggle with the Virginia aristocrac} r . 

Governor Dinwiddie needed money to defend the frontiers; the Assembly was stingy 

and suspicious, voting money only when frightened to it by the shadows and warwhoops 

of approaching Frenchmen and Indians; and even then they 
watched Dinwiddie's fingers with their committee of control. 

§ 706. Mart/land. — Sir George Calvert, a favorite of 
James I., became a Catholic in 1618 ; his conversion cost him 
all chances of a public career in England, so as a consolation 
from the King, he obtained a patent, or a grant of land in New- 
foundland, and the title of Lord Baltimore. The frosts of 
the North and the persecuting zeal of the Puritans drove him 
to Virginia, whence he was driven by the hostility of the Assem- 
bly. He thereupon sought and obtained the grant of Mary- 
io32. land, and then in the same year, 1632, dying, 

lord Baltimore. left it to his energetic and sagacious son, Cecilius Calvert. 
The charter of Maryland made the proprietor almost independent of the crown. 
The only limitation to this, was a requirement that all places of worship in Maryland 
should be consecrated according to the ecclesiastical laws of the Church of England. 
It is plain therefore that the colony was not intended, either by Lord Baltimore or the 
King, as a stronghold of Romanism, nor were the first colonists exclusively Roman 
Catholics. Yet they were probably in a majority. They were three hundred in all, 
mostly artisans and farmers. In 1635, a year after the settlers landed, all the free- 
men of the colony, met in legislative assembly. In 1638 the freemen, unable to be 
present at the second assembly, sent their proxies. A conflict broke out almost im- 
mediately between the colonists and the proprietor, as to who should propose laws, in 
which the colonists won. In 1639 the Assembly became a representative bod}% and in 
1647 it was divided into a House of Burgesses elected by the freemen, and an upper 
House consisting of the Governor's council, and deputies summoned by the proprietor. 
§ 707. The DisputeWith Virginia. — Claybome. — Kent Island, on Chesapeake Bay, 
was of especial value to Virginia. Here William Clayborne had established a trading 
*oa*. post, from which Governor Calvert, the brother of the proprietor, 

drove him forcibly. In 1625 the King had taken both sides, enjoining Virginia to as- 
sist Clayborne, and enjoining Harvey, the Governor of Virginia, to support Lord Balti- 




THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 807 

more. Clayborne attacked the Marylanders in 1634, but was defeated. Clayborne 
then petitioned the King for redress, but Baltimore was finally confirmed in his claims 

tan. to the Isle of Kent. In 1644 Richard Ingle, apparently a Puritan, 

joined Clayborne in an attack upon Maryland. But after a brief success, they were 
driven from St. Mary's, which they had seized and plundered. 

§ 708. The Law Concerning Religion. — The non-conformists, driven from Vir- 
ginia, took refuge in Maryland. In 1650 their two communities numbered one hun- 
dred and forty householders. These and the Kent Island malcontents might at any 

taso. moment make trouble for a Catholic proprietor. Nevertheless, in 1650, 

the Assembly passed laws to meet the wishes of Lord Baltimore. These laws made it 
a capital crime to deny the doctrine of the Trinity, punished blasphemy of the Virgin 
or the saints with fine, whipping, and banishment, but contained a general clause, 
giving full toleration to all Christians. 

§ 709. Maryland Under the Commonwealth. — When the parliamentary commis- 
sioners finished their task in Virginia, in 1652, they turned to Maryland. The Gover- 
nor resisted their demands for a season, but soon yielded. But in 1654, Lord Balti- 
more reasserted his authority as lord proprietor ; whereupon the commissioners of 
^Parliament marched into .Maryland, deposed the Governor, disfranchised the Roman 
Catholics, convened a parliament of Puritans, and attacked the possessory rights of 

mss. Lord Baltimore. In 1655 civil war broke out. Stone, acting for Lord 

Baltimore, set out with two hundred men to attack the Puritans of Anne Arundel. 
But he was hopelessly defeated. Nearly all were taken prisoners, and four of his chief 
adherents were put to death. Baltimore however suceeded in persuading the commis- 
sioners to an agreement containing the following points : (1.) His patent was ac- 
knowledged: (2.) All disputes were referred to the lord protector; (3.) No confis- 
cations were to be made ; (4.) The law giving freedom of worship was not to be re- 
pealed. 

§ 710. The Restoration in England produced no change in Maryland. But un- 
der the third Lord Baltimore, dissensions began again. 

Bacon's rebellion in Virginia stirred up the Protestants of Marjdand ; the in- 
creased activity of the Jesuits added to their dislike of a Catholic proprietor : his 
boundary disputes with William Penn alienated the Quakers of Maryland. In 1683, 

less. Baltimore left the colony, and in 1689, upon the news of the expul- 

i9s». sion of King James II. from England, a revolution took place, which 

brought Maryland under the direct control of the crown. Under William and 
Mary the Church of England was established, in 1692. But not until 1700 was any 
provision made for the support of the clergy. In 1715 the fourth Lord Baltimore be- 
came a Protestant, and his proprietary rights were revived. But although the city of 

i«». Baltimore, founded in 1729, was named after him, his power had gone 

irrecoverably. He had the dignity, but not the authority of his ancestors. 

Francis Nicholson, whose coming to Virginia meant so much for that colony, was 
for a time governor of Maryland, and persuaded the Assembly, not only to endow a 

1999. free school at St. Mary's, but to extend the system throughout the 

colony. 

§ 711. The Carolinas. Charles II. of England, after whom the Carolinas and 
Charleston were named, granted an immense tract of land, in 1663, to Lord Clarendon 



808 AMERICA. 

and seven associates. Like all the English grants, it extended westward to the Pa- 
cific. Under this patent of Lord Clarendon, there were originally four settlements. 

1. A settlement for Virginia on the Albemarle river; this was the germ of 
ieea. North Carolina. 

2. A settlement from New New England near Cape Fear ; this was absorbed into 
the former. 

tees. 3. A settlement from Barbadoes, near Cape Fear. 

4. An English settlement at Charleston ; this was the nucleus of South Caro- 
lina. 

In 1667 John Locke drew up, for the proprietors, a scheme of government called 
the Fundamental Constitution of Carolina. Under it voters and jurymen must have 
a freehold of at least fifty acres ; members of Parliament, one of five hundred acres. 
In short, the government was to be a landed aristocracy, with the proprietors at the 
head. But these fundamentals were poorly adapted to a growing colony in a new 
world ; they were inoperative from the beginning. In 1676, contemporaneous with 
Bacon's rebellion in Virginia, there was a rebellion against the proprietors in " our 
colon}^ northeast of Cape Fear." 

§ 712. Worth Carolina. The name North Carolina came into use about 1696. In. 
1711 another rebellion occurred. But in each case order was re-established without 
severe measures. The same year an Indian war resulted in the ruin of the Tuscarora 
i7ia. tribe. In 1713 the Church of England was established by law and 

nine parishes created, but liberty of conscience was granted to dissenters. North Car- 
olina, in 1720, had little to attract the settler. Horses and swine abounded, as these 
required no attention; horned cattle were unknown; even hunting was not practiced; 
and the slothful inhabitants grew weak by living wholly upon pork. Slavery existed, 
but was an unmixed evil ; alien debtors were protected, and Edenton was the one cap- 
ital in the world that had no place of worship. 

§ 713. South Carolina. The colony in the south had quite a different history. 
Charleston was settled in 1672. It was regularly laid out in large, convenient and 
uniform streets. The colonists came from England, the Bahamas and Barbadoes, and 
from Ireland. They were reinforced by Scotch Presbyterians and French Huguenots. 
The Scotch were attacked by the Spaniards, who were allied with the Indians, the latter 
attacking the colonists because of their kidnapping and enslavement of the natives. 
In 1701 the colonists invaded Florida and captured St. Augustine, but were driven 
away by Spanish vessels; and in 1706 an allied French and Spanish fleet attacked 
Charleston from the sea. Stout-hearted Governor Johnson, in spite of the yellow 
fever, refused to surrender and drove the enemy away. 

But dissensions about religion kept the people apart. A high church party was 
determined to establish the English church, and to destroy dissent. This was pre- 
vented, however, by the King's veto of the act of conformity, passed by the Assembly, 
ins in the fall of 1706. Indians and pirates harassed the colony ; to put 

them down cost money. A heavy debt was incurred; paper money was issued to dis- 
charge it. Misery and dissension followed. The few gained ; the many became poor. 
This bred discontent and rebellion. 

§ 714. In 1719 the colonists renounced allegiance to the proprietors, and over- 
threw their government. The proprietors took no steps to re-establish their authority, 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



80H 



and Nicholson, whom we have seen already active in Virginia and Maryland, was 
ii9o. sent to administer the government in the name of the king. In 1729 

the crown and the Parliament of England paid to the proprietors £17,500 for their 
claims over both colonies, and these became royal provinces. Rice was introduced 
into South Carolina before the year 1691 ; it made it ultimately rich, and it 
fastened Negro slavery upon the people. It made a cheap food for the African, who 
cultivated it so much better than the Europeans. Charleston became a centre of cul- 
ture and of aristocratic life, for this profitable slave labor enabled the city population 
to lead a life of leisure; and their position on the sea coast kept them in contact with 
the European world. " Their co-habiting in a town," wrote Lawson, "had drawn to 




JAMES OGLETHORPE. 

them ingenious people of most sciences, whereby they have tutors among them that 
educate their youth d la mode." And rice-growing being adapted to small holdings, 
this aristocratic class became quite large. Maryland and Virginia were colonies of 
large plantations and large slave-gangs. In Carolina thirty slaves was the average 
number to a rice-plantation. The subsequent history of South Carolina is all involved 
in the laying out of Charleston, and the introduction of the rice plant. 

§ 715. Georgia. — " The trustees for establishing the colony of Georgia in Amer- 
ica,''' received their charter in 1732. The objects of their association were benevolent, 
to provide new opportunities for men who had been unfortunate in England. James 
Oglethorpe, the soul of the enterprise, when a member of the House of Commons, had 
discovered that "not a few of those confined, for debt were guilty of no crime," were 



810 



AMERICA. 



of respectable families, and might become happy and useful citizens, if given another 
chance in an American colony. Moreover, be and his associates expected to protect 
South Carolina from Spanish depredations, and to attract emigrants from among the 
persecuted Protestants of the continent of Europe. One hundred and fourteen men, 
women, and children were selected for the first voyage. Oglethorpe conducted the 
party, but paid his own expenses, and gave his entire time to the enterprise that he 

had conceived and inspired. 
The ship "Anne" with her 
thirty-five families arrived at 
1:33. Charleston 

in 1733. They were kindly 
received by the governor and 
council. The king's pilot 
conducted them to Port 
Royal, and Oglethorpe pro- 
ceeded to the Savannah river, 
and chose the site for the 
town of the same name. The 
Indians were treated kindly, 
and their titles to the land 
amicably purchased. The 
settlers were soon joined by 
Italians from Piedmont, Salz- 
burgers from Austria, and 
Moravians from Germany 
and Bohemia, and finally by 
fighting Highlanders, under 
the Rev. John McLeodof the 
Isle of Skye. Oglethorpe 
had induced the trustees to 
prohibit the importation of 
rum, brandy and distilled 
liquors, and the use of negro 
slaves. The colonists peti- 
tioned long and earnestly for 
the removal of these restric- 
tions. In 1736 Oglethorpe 
nae. brought a 

second party to Georgia, 
among whom were John and 
Charles Wesley. These were to build and occupy a military town on the southern 
border to be called Frederica. This soon became the rallying point of British 
colonists on the Spanish frontiers. Oglethorpe, who was made commander-in-chief 
of His Majesty's forces in South Carolina and Georgia, had his headquarters in the 
island of St. Simon (Frederica), which he defended long and successfully against the 
Spaniards. But the General was compelled to draw upon his private fortune to sus- 




THE MAYFLOWER. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



811 



tain the colony. The colonists clamored for Negroes to work in the swamps ; the 
Wesleys quitted the province in discouragement ; Whitefield went about begging for 
his college at Savannah, and the colonists were far from prosperous, or even contented. 
i74o. The Spanish, threatening to attack them, Oglethorpe invaded Florida, 

but his expedition proved a failure. Two years later, Savannah was attacked by a 
Spanish fleet, and five thousand troops. But the skill and braveiy of Oglethorpe put 
them both to flight. In 1741 the restrictions on the importation of rum and slaves 
were removed ; the attempts to cultivate silk and the vine were abandoned ; cotton 




PLYMOUTH ROCK. 



and rice became the staple products of Georgia, and the colony prospered fairly. In 
us*. 1754 the trustees gave up their charter, and the colony reverted to the 

crown. In that year the exports were to the amount of ,£30,000 ; in 1775, they 
reached £200,000. 



b. The Puritan Colonies. 

§ 716. Plymouth. — " Some of the strangers among tbem had let fall from them 
in the ship, that when they came ashore they would use their own liberty, for none 



812 



AMERICA. 



had power to command them, the patent they had being for Virginia and not for New 
England, which belonged to another government, with which the Virginia Company 
had nothing to do." These are the words of William Bradford. " The ship " was the 
1020. Mayflower, in which Bradford sailed to Plymouth Bay, in 1620. The 

result of this muttering of strangers was the Mayflower compact, which was signed 
by all the emigrants. It sets forth that for "the glory of God, the advancement of 
the Christian faith and the honor of the king and the country of England," the sub- 
scribers have undertaken " to plant a colony in the northern parts of Virginia." 

These colonists, a hundred and twenty in all, sailed from Southampton, on the 
5th of August, 1620. The " strangers " were a few recruits who had joined them in 




PILGRIMS RECEIVING MASSASOIT. 



England, the rest were an organized band from the congregation of the Rev. John 
Robinson in Leyden. This congregation consisted of English independents or sep- 
aratists, who had fled from Scrooby, England, in 1608. The refugees, after staying a 
year in Amsterdam, removed to Leyden, where they " continued for many years in a 
comfortable condition, enjoying much sweet and delightful society and spiritual com- 
fort together." But the manners of the Dutch, the difficult}' of training their chil- 
dren, the fear of the dissolution of their beloved society under foreign influences, 
their desire to recover their citizenship in England, and their "hope of advancing the 
gospel of the Kingdom of Christ in the remote parts of the world, led them to think of 
America, and to negotiate with the Virginia Company. The conditions imposed upon 
the "Pilgrims," as they called themselves, were these. At the end of seven years the 







5>»r, 



THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH. 



(pp. 813.) 



814 AMERICA. 

fruits of their toil must be divided equally between the emigrants and the company. 
19*7. This partnership, however, did not last, the colonists buying out the 

stocks of the English holders in their plantation. 

§ 717. In spite of all efforts to reach Virginia, the Pilgrims were forced to land 
at Cape Cod. The whole party sailed thence to Plymouth, on December 15, 1620, 
that site being chosen for the settlement. Their first winter would " have discouraged 
other men whom small things can discourage, or small discontentment cause to 
wish themselves home again." Pestilence had thinned out the savages who, more- 
over, had been warned by a returned captive to dread "the white man's God." They 
formed an alliance with the Indian chief, Massasoit, which was steadfastly and honor- 
ably observed on both sides. John Carver was the first governor of Plymouth, but as 
taxi. he died within a year, William Bradford was chosen to fill his place, 

and re-chosen annually thirty-one out of thirty-six times, he sometimes begging for a 
rest. 

Originally the economic system of the Pilgrims was communistic ; all the products 
of the toil went into a common stock. The experiment failed. In 1623, a portion of 
land was allotted annually to each householder ; this also proved unsatisfactory. And 
in 1624 one acre was allotted permanently to each householder, each holding however 
to be near the town. 

§ 718. This town stood on a ridge about twenty yards from the sea. Two 
streets crossed each other, and the Governor's house was at their intersection. On a 
hill behind the town was a building which was at once a fort, a church, and a public 
store-house. The houses were log-huts. The whole was surrounded by a palisade, 
and all the entrances, except that from the sea, guarded by gates. The arable land 
lay to the south, and beyond that the common or everybody's pasture. In 1639 all who 
became householders were required to obtain the approval of the governor and coun- 
cil, but before that, " untoward people " had been rigidly excluded. Captain Miles 
Standish took a leading part in extending the settlement to the North, and in the 
building of new towns. A representative system followed, the assembly of all the 
freemen being quietly superseded. A number of private settlements were started up 
along the shore, among them " Merrymount " where people " frisked like fairies, or 
rather like furies," round a may-pole, and where strong liquor was drunk early and 
often. Standish marched against " Merrymount," seized Morton, the head of the 
offenders, and the Plymouth governor sent him to England. 

§ 719. Other settlements grew into Maine and New Hampshire, and a few were 
swallowed up by the colony of Massachusetts Bay. The settlers of Plymouth estab- 
lished stations for the fur trades north of the Kennebec ; these were attacked by the 
French. They appealed for help to Massachusetts, but without success. Not until 
i«-i3. 1643 were the Articles of Confederation framed and signed, in which 

Plymouth became one of " The United Colonies of New England." But it continued 
won. its separate existence until 1692, when a new charter, sent out by 

Willian III., consolidated Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Maine into a single province. 

§ 720. Massachusetts Bay Colony. — The humble fugitives from Scrooby sug- 
gested to certain wealthy Puritans a larger project and a mightier settlement. They 
procured from the New England Council of the King a grant of all the territory from 
the Merrimac to the Charles river. The indented coast included in this; grant extends 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



815 



about forty-five miles ; inland of course the grant stretched indefinitely westward. One 
of the six grantees was John Endicott, afterward conspicious as Governor of Massa- 
chusetts. He was sent out by his associates to spy out the land, and prepare for the 
i92o. future plantation. In March, 1629, they obtained a royal charter, 

creating the governor and company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England. This 
corporation were to elect annually a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assist- 
ants, who were to hold meetings monthly. General meetings of the company were to 




JOHN ENDICOTT. 

be held four times a year. This was the charter, not of a town or of a state, but of a 
private corporation. The emigrants consisted of shareholders and non-shareholders, 
the former receiving two hundred acres for every fifty pounds invested, and fifty 
for each member of his family, the latter fifty acres, with the same quantity for each 
servant exported by him. Three ministers were engaged, of whom two, Higginson 
and Skelton, ended their days in the colony. All three were non-conformists, and 
graduates of Cambridge, but none was a separatist. There were in all three hundred 



816 



AMERICA. 



and fifty emigrants, amply supplied with live stock and what was needed for success. 
teas. As soon as they arrived at Salem, the settlers established themselves 

as Puritans, and among their first acts, was to expel two brothers, John and Samuel 
Browne, who insisted upon using the Book of Common Prayer. The next step was 
to make the colony an independent commonwealth. This was done by transferring 
the government of the company to those in America. 

§ 721. Influential and wealthy emigrants now appeared, among them John 
Winthrop, John Humphrey, and Thomas Dudley. These arriving out, found the 

colony in great distress, 
from which they were 
saved by dispersing 
into separate settle- 
ments. Winthrop -had 
been appointed gover- 
nor, but the first politi- 
cal change in the colony 
was to limit the rights 
of the freemen : (1), by 
transferring legislative 
authority to the gov- 
ernor and his assistants ; 
(2), by taking from 
the freemen the right 
to elect the governor, 
and giving it to the 
assistants. 

Winthrop was no 
believer in democracy. 
" The best part of a 
community," he wrote 
to Hooker, "is always 
the least, and of that 
least part, the wiser are 
still less." And his 
blameless character and 
great mental ability 
made him dangerous to 
popular liberty ; yet 
Dudley and others were vigilant and zealous of their rights. In 1634 a sharp 
conflict took place, in which the General Court recovered the full power of elec- 
i«3j. tion and legislation. And Dudley was elected Governor by a secret 

ballot. In 1631 a law had been passed, confining the freemen of the colony to mem- 
bers of the church. Others might be received, and obtain certain civic rights, but 
they could have no share in general or in local government. Even the captain of the 
town train-bands must be a church-member, though all the inhabitants might join in 
his election. 




JOHN WINTHROP. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 817 

§ 722. Roger Williams. — The church of Salem rejoiced in a brilliant, zealous 
and combative minister, whose peculiarities speedily excited the alarm of leading men. 
For he maintained that church and state should be separated, that religious acts 
should not be enforced by civil authority, that the soil belonged to the natives, and 
that to accept a roj'al patent was a sin. 

It was an inopportune time for such teachings. Laud and the Privy Council 
were watching Massachusetts with anxious eyes. Emigrants were not allowed to 
leave England without taking the oath of allegiance, and promising conformity to the 
Prayer Book. 

And " King Winthrop," with his associates, were warned that a governor would be 
sent out by the crown, and the Church of England established. But Williams, 
growing more disputatious, exhorted his congregation to renounce communion with all 
other churches in the colony. They refused, whereupon he withdrew. But John 
Endicott, " inspired by the notions of Mr. Roger Williams," cut the red cross from the 
royal colors. For this Endicott was punished by the General Court, and Williams was 

i«3s. tried the following October. He was sentenced to leave the colony 

within six weeks, then suffered to stay until spring, if 'he would remain quiet. But 
for him to propagate his " notions " was as necessary as to breathe. He gathered dis- 
ciples to form a new settlement on the beautiful shores of Narragansett Bay. The 
General Court determined to prevent this, ordered him to be seized and sent to 
England. He escaped, and after incredible hardships, made his way to his new home. 
§ 723. Anne Hutchinson. — In 1636 Henry Vane was elected governor. In the 
same year Anne Hutchinson brought " two dangerous creeds "to Boston, and the 
colony was soon divided into two religious parties. Wheelwright, a brother of Mrs. 
Hutchinson, and pastor of the Boston church, was punished for sedition. His people 
remonstrated. A council of divines at Newtown condemned the new teachings as un- 
safe. And the General Court " finding that two so opposite parties could not contain 
in the same body without hazard of ruin to the whole, agreed to send away some of 
the principals." Wheelwright and Mrs. Hutchinson refused to go. The former was 

i«37. banished. The latter was tried, and the report of her trial shows her 

to have been a woman of extraordinary strength of mind and dignity of soul, brave, 

less. self-reliant, humble and alive to God. She was excommunicated, 

banished, and, like Roger Williams, found a home near Narragansett Ba} r . 

§ 724. The colony was making enemies quite rapidly at home and abroad ; the 
King and Laud were about to lay strong hands upon it, when the Scotch rebellion 
broke out, that brought king and bishop both to the scaffold. 

Boundary disputes, danger from the Indians, from the Dutch on the Hudson, and 
from the French on the north, led Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
Haven to form the confederation of 1643, " to advance the kingdom of our Lord 
Jesus Christ, and to enjoy the liberties of the gospel in purity and peace." This 
was called The United Colonies of New England, although Rhode Island and Maine 

J6J3. were haughtily excluded. By that year twenty-one thousand two 

hundred emigrants had come out to Massachusetts, Plymouth numbering then about 
four thousand inhabitants. But the triumph of the revolution in England stayed the 
tide of emigration for a season. The settlers married early, and their families were 
large, though many children died in infancy. The man who could find no township 
52 



818 



AMERICA 



1 



to admit him could not dwell in the colony, and the man who could find no church to 
receive him could enjoy no civil rights. When a new town was created, a tract of 
land was vested in seven trustees, who agreed to build houses, and to grant plots of 
land to all settlers who were not of " exorbitant and turbulent spirit, unfit for civil 
society." Each received two plots, a home lot in the meadow and a piece of " upland." 
Original settlers paid a rent of six pence an acre, those coming later a shilling. A 

meeting house was 
built at public cost, a 
minister chosen, and 
a church formed be- 
fore the trustees ex- 
ercised their powers. 
The township was 
the landholder, and 
watched jealously to 
prevent the exten- 
sion of individual 
rights. 

In 1647 two classes 
of schools were estab- 
lished. The elemen- 
tary school in towns 
of fifty house-holders, 
and the grammar 
school wherever there 
was a hundred. 
This was really a sup- 
plement to the act 
creating Harvard 
College, which was 
in the beginning " A 
Grammar School." 
The Cambridge 
scholars and their 
Oxford colleagues in- 
io3o. duced 

the legislature to 
grant £400 for the 
creation of the since 
famous school. This 
was followed b} 7 John 

Harvard's legacy of £700, and two hundred and sixty volumes. In 1638 the first 
printing press was set up at Cambridge, and the Bay Psalm book was printed the 
next year. 

§ 725. The Baptists and Quakers. — In 1644, to deny the validity of infant bap- 
tism, or the necessity of civil magistracy, was made a crime. In 1651 three Baptists 




WAMPANOAG INDIAN. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



819 



were arrested, immediately upon their arrival, by Governor Endicott. One of them 
was flogged, and all of them expelled from the colony. 

In 1656 two Quaker women, Ann Austin and Mary Fisher, were seized and con- 
xese. fined in jail, their books were burnt, and their persons were searched 

to discover the marks of 
witches. After five weeks 
in prison, they were sent 
to Barbadoes. These two 
first victims had done 
absolutely nothing to pro- 
voke such treatment. 
During their confinement 
the windows of the jail 
were boarded up, and to 
communicate with them 
was made a crime. Eight 
more arrived a little later, 
and then the General 
Court passed a law pun- 
ishing shipmasters who 
brought Quakers to the 
colony, imprisoning and 
flogging any Quaker who 
might nevertheless arrive, 
and making it a crime to 
import or conceal Quaker 
books, or to defend Quaker 
opinions. The commis- 
sioners of the United 
Colonies even condescend- 
ed to entreat Rhode Island 
to exclude all Quakers, a 
measure to which "the 
rule of charity did oblige 
them." Rhode Island an- 
swered that, "the Quakers 
least desired to come 
where they were suffered 
to declare themselves 
freely." And the Quakers 
justified the statement, for they poured into Massachusetts "to bear their testi- 
mony." 

In 1658 a bill imposing upon Quakers fines, scourgings, imprisonment, banish- 

iass. ment, and death, was passed without opposition by the governor's 

assistants, but earnestly opposed among the deputies where it succeeded only by a 

ieso. single vote. Four Quakers were hanged under this enactment, when 




DEATH OF KING PHILIP. 



820 



AMERICA. 



the community revolted and forced the abolition of the law, in spite of Endicott and 
the men who supported him. 

The restoration now enabled the Quakers to appeal to King Charles II. The 
latter ordered Endicott to suspend all further proceeding against the Quakers. This 
order was sent to the humiliated Governor, by the hand of Shattucks, a Quaker, who 
had been scourged and banished twice from Massachusetts. The General Court was 
summoned, and all the Quakers were set at liberty.* 

§ 726. 1675 King Philip, the son of Massasoit, having formed an Indian league, 

te?5. began a war upon the towns of southern and western Massachusetts, 

which wrought great havoc. Eliots "praying Indians" adhered to the whites ; Philip 

la-.e. was finally killed, 
and his head exposed for twenty 
years on a pole at Plymouth, 
and his wife and child were 
sold as slaves. But the Indians 
never again attacked the south- 
ern parts of New England. 

§ 727. The Neio Charter. 
The cruelty to the Quakers was 
not the only charge against the 
colony : they were accused of 
violating the navigation laws, 
of coining money without 
authoritj', and of harboring the 
regicide judges. And after a 
ios4. long and stubborn 
fight, their charter was with- 
drawn. 

The agents of Massachu- 
setts in London were instructed 
not to consent to any alterations 
in the qualifications of freemen. 
The clergy especiall}- bestirred 
themselves to prevent the de- 
struction of the theocracj'. For 
a time it looked as if they might, 
succeed. Sir Edmund Andros, the first royal governor, was far from popular. When 
the news of the expulsion of James II. reached Boston, Andros was seized and 
ies9. imprisoned, and the colony, or rather the theocracy, resumed its 

sway. 

But the die was cast. A new charter had become necessary, and one came from 

ieo2. William III. in 1692. Massachusetts, Maine, Plymouth, and Nova 

Scotia were consolidated, toleration, except for papists, was established, the religious 

qualification was swept away, and a property qualification substituted. The towns 

* This is a bare recital of facts. A comparison of dates, and a study of contemporary defenses of the Governor and 
his party, will show how flimsy are the modern pleas, in extenuation of this cruelty. 




SIR EDMUND ANDROS. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 821 

continued to elect the House of Representatives, and the Assembly chose the Council, 
subject to the approval of the executive. The governor, lieutenant governor, and 
secretary were appointed by the king, who reserved the right to disallow legislation 
within three years of its passage. 

§ 728. The Salem Witchcraft. The year of the new charter was the year of the 

letm. Salem Witchcraft. In 1683-4 Increase Mather had published his 

" Illustrious Providences." In the fall of 1688 four children of a Boston mason began 
to mimic the symptoms described in that exciting book, and spoken of so frequently. 
The same symptoms appeared in Salem in February 1692. In June, Governor Phips 
■created arbitrarily a court to try witches, placing William Stoughton at its head. Be- 
fore October nineteen persons had been hanged, eight lay condemned, others had fled 
or been beggared, while two hundred were accused and in mortal terror of arrest. No 
one was safe ; pastors and pastors' wives (even the wife of the Governor) were 
threatened. A few men of steady nerves and sterling character resisted the delusion 
from the outset, but Thomas Brattle was the first to protest openly against the pro- 
ceedings of the court. A reaction set in ; Phips suspended the sittings of his illegal 
tribunal ; and the power of the Mathers, father and son, who were the chief supporters 
of the witchcraft persecutions, waned rapidly. 

§ 729. In 1700 the population of Massachusetts was in the neighborhood of fifty 
thousand and the colony employed two hundred ships, of which twenty were over a 
hundred tons burden, and sixty more over fifty. Slavery began to spread and to be- 
come a subject of legislation, and of discussion. Sewall attacked it in his " Selling of 
•Joseph," as contrary to nature, scripture, and sound policy. Early in the century, 
Harvard college pnssed from the control of the Mathers, and into liberal hands, which 

i7oo. led to the founding of Yale college, as a new stronghold for the old 

orthodoxy. In 1725 the settlement of western Massachusetts was begun, and in 1734 
the " Great Awakening in New England " started with Jonathan Edwards, and con- 
tinued under George Whitefield and his helpers. During this time the colony was in 
constant danger from the French, and their Indian allies, but the population increased 
with great rapidity, and Boston became a vigorous town. She sent to sea twice as 
many vessels as New York, and her ship yards were humming with activity. In 

1744. 1744, a hundred sail of transports sailed from Boston harbor, carrying 

"three thousand two hundred and fifty soldiers of the colony to effect the capture of 
Louisburg. The conquest of Canada was at hand. 

§ 730. Connecticut. — A movement of Massachusetts farmers to the Connecticut 

i«34. valley began in 1634. It was at first opposed, but soon acquiesced in 

by the Legislature, which, however, insisted that the emigrants should remain under 
the control of Massachusetts. Wethersfield and Windsor were settled in 1635 by peo- 
ple from Boston ; Hartford in 1636, by the congregation of the Rev. Thomas Hooker, 
who started from Newtown (Cambridge.) This emigration from Massachusetts was 
resented by the colony of Plymouth, the Dutch of New Amsterdam, and the Pequod 

i«33. Indians. The Pequod's were soon exterminated, the Dutch were shut out 

by the fort at Saybrook, built by John Winthrop, " Governor of the River of Connecticut,' ' 
-and the settlers from Plymouth were told, by the men of Dorchester, that the territory 
-which they had bought from the Mohicans and held manfully against the Dutch, was the 



822 



AMERICA. 



" Lord's Waste." Reluctantly enough they compromised with these greedy intruders 
upon their rights ; but Hooker's people had no part in the quarrel" 

In 1639 the three towns drew up the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, the 
ie3o. first written constitution known in history. This extraordinary docu- 

ment is really a declaration of independence, primarily from the authority of Massa- 
chusetts, but impliedly from any sovereignty save that of God ; for no mention is 
made of any other sovereign. It established not a theocracy, however, but a com- 
munity. 

§ 731. New Haven, founded by the congregation of the Rev. John Davenport, 
in 1638, excluded all but church members from voting and from office ; and in 1644 
this colony declared " the judicial laws of God as they were delivered by Moses," 
binding upon the people. The Connecticut towns however established a genuine re- 
public, making all citizens 
politically equal, and they 
obtained from Charles II. a 
lean. charter which 

confirmed their right of self- 
government. In May 1643, 
" the Plantacions, under the 
Government of Connecticut," 
and "the Government of New 
Haven," with her "Planta- 
cions " helped to form the 
"United Colonies of New 
England." 

A curious legend, desti- 
tute unfortunately of any 
contemporary record, tells of 
the hiding of the Connecticut 
charter in the old oak tree 
at Hartford. Sir Edmund 
Andros, in the name of King 
James II., demanded of the 
Assembly the surrender of his charter. It was brought in and placed upon the table. 
iesj. Suddenly the candles were blown out. When they were relighted the 

charter had disappeared. At the foot of the records for 1687 Andros's proceedings 
are written out, and beneath this declaration appears the word " Finis." 

§ 732. IVew Hampshire. — The Rev. John Wheelwright, the friend of Anne 

Hutchinson, when driven from Massachusetts in 1628, settled with several of his 

ievo. congregation, the town of Exeter, New Hampshire. This name was 

given to the country by Captain John Mason, a native of Hampshire, England, who 

held it under a grant from the " Council for New England." Dover was settled 

as early as 1627, by English colonists ; Londoncleny, the home of the Scotch-Irish flax- 

leii. spinners, not until 1719. In 1641 New Hampshire came under the 

jurisdiction and protection of Massachusetts, but in 1679 it became a royal province. 

Maine— The Popham colony, founded in 1607, ended disastrously ; the region be - 




FIRST PRINTING PRESS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.— 1 142. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



823 



tween the Kennebec and Penobscot was settled in 1625, and Portland in 1632. From 
1652 to 1820 the territory was controlled by Massachusetts. 

§ 733. Rhode Island. — Roger Williams escaped the perils of the wilderness by 
the help of his Indian friends. The wigwams of Massasoit received the preacher 
whom Massachusetts had cast out to the winter storms, and to such food and shelter as 
he might discover. He and five friends built a cabin on the Seekonk river ; but he was 
ordered to move on by the authorities of Plymouth. He then crossed the river lower 
down ; the Indians called out " What cheer," and guided the exile and his party to 
i63«. the site called by the grateful Christian, Providence. Williams' first 

thought was to Christianize the Indians, not to colonize the country. In fact, 
Rhode Island colonized itself, and Williams simply gave it splendid opportunities. 
First he granted toleration to every 
form of religious belief, and even to 
forms of unbelief; and secondly he 
procured, in 1644, a charter uniting 
the scattered colonies of Rhode Island 
into a single province, with the priv- 
ileges and the rights of self-govern- 
ment. These scattered colonies in- 
cluded Newport and Portsmouth, 
1938-1039. which had been set- 
tled by William Coddington, Anne 
Hutchinson, and others, whom Mas- 
sachusetts could not well endure. 

Williams bought the land from 
his Indian friends. He organized the 
first Baptist church in America, and 
in 1640, the government was fairly 
established. In March, 1647, the As- 
sembly declared formally, that the 
government "is a democrat or popu- 
lar government, that is to say, the 
freemen, orderly assembled shall make 
iust laws, by which they will be reg- 
ulated." None was to be "accounted a delinquent for doctrine," who was not 
" directly repugnant to the government or laws established." Massachusetts looked 
on in anger and contempt, foreboding and predicting ruin and divine wrath. Neither 
came. 




WILLIAM PENN. 



c. Pennsylvania. 

§ 734. Most of the thirteen colonies bear the names of English monarchs or 
princes, for example, Virginia, the Carolinas, Maryland, Georgia, New York. Massa- 
chusetts and Connecticut have Indian names. Pennsylvania alone is a perpetual re- 
cess, minder of its noble founder. Penn's Woods were granted to Wm. Penn 
to extinguish a claim which the distinguished Quaker held against the English king. 
These woods fronted on the Delaware river, and stretched indefinitely westward. 



82-i AMERICA. 

Emigrants were sent out in 1681, but Penn himself did not sail with his hundred 
Quakers until the next year. The City of Brotherly Love (Philadelphia) had been 
planned before the company left England. Originally, Delaware belonged to the 
Duke of York. Penn purchased it before he sailed and landed at New Castle, October 
lesa. 27, 1682. Exhibiting his deeds from the Duke of York, he received 

the submission of the inhabitants (mostly Swedes or Finns). 

" The Frame of Government " for Pennsylvania had been signed by Penn, April 
25, 1682. " Time, place, and singular emergencies," would require, he said, alterations 
in this Frame. B tit this would form a good foundation. It provided for a governor and 
freemen : a provincial council consisting of seventy-two members, and an assembly of 
two hundred. All Christians, except bound servants and convicts, who paid taxes or 
took up land, were declared freemen. The assembly met December 4, 1682 ; the frame 
of government and the laws agreed upon in England were adopted ; the Swedes were 
naturalized, and the Delaware counties included. The next year Penn granted a new 
ios3. charter " of more than was expected liberty," under which the gov- 

ernment was administered till 1796. Liberty of conscience was granted, but the ob- 
servance of the Sabbath was provided for. Plays and games, sports and lotteries were 
prohibited. Courts of justice were established, but causes of great importance were 
tried by the Council. Schools were ordained, and the laws were taught to the 
children. 

In 1683 the first colony of Germans arrived from Crefeld. These were Mennonite 
linen weavers, who settled at Germantown, under the guidance of Francis Pastorius. 
This was the first wave of the great German immigration to America. In 1685 
there were in all seven thousand two hundred people in the province, of which the 
English were not quite the half. 

§ 735. Just before the Germans arrived, Penn met the principal Indian chiefs at 
iGsa. Shackamaxon, on June 23, 1683. He thus describes the events of the 

day. " We agreed upon the purchase, and then great promises passed between us of 
kindness and good neighborhood. Indians and English must live in love as long as 
the sun gave light. A speech was made to the Indians in the name of all the 
Sachamakers or kings ; first to tell them what was done, next to change them to live 
in peace with me, and the people under my government. At every sentence they 
shouted, and said Amen in their way." In 1685 Wm. Bradford established in Phila- 
delphia, the first printing-press of the middle colonies. In 1690 paper and woollen 
mills were started. The Quakers had nine "meetings" (i. e. societies) in 1683. 
The Baptists bad a church in 1684 or 1685. The Dutch had a church in New Castle, 
and the Swedes some half-starved clergymen. "For the love of God, me and the 
poor country be not so governmentish," wrote Penn, from England, whither he re- 
turned in 1684. But the colonists cared little for their founder or his interest. And 
the expulsion of the Stuarts led to Penn's arrest, and enforced inactivity in the af- 
fairs of his province. But in 1694 he was released and restored to his rights, so 
that in 1699 he visited his "woods" once more.' He suppressed piracy and restricted 
the slave trade, but could get no money for the fortification of the king's frontiers. 
In 1702 the Delaware counties were given a separate Assembly, but quarrelling contin- 
ued among the " governmentish " people. Penn's governors were rather feeble folk, and 



826 AMERICA. 

the proprietor could bring the assembly to terms, only by threatening to sell out to 
the crown. 

§ 736. In 1721 the Iroquois held a great council with the whites at Conestoga, 
mi. just after Governor Keith and his councils had determined to grow 

rich with fiat money. The people never had enough "to do business with." In 1749 
a Pennsylvania pound was equal to about eleven shillings. Keith, the last governor 
appointed by Penn, was more popular with the province, than with Hannah Penn, 
the widow of the founder ; and when displaced by her, he revenged himself by 
keeping the province in a turmoil. Governors were in frequent conflict with the 
Assembly, partly because of their instructions from the proprietors, and partly be- 
cause of their own or the peoples' folly. In 1757 Benjamin Franklin won his first 
diplomatic victory. As agent of Pennsylvania, he laid the case of the province be- 
fore the crown authorities, and the proprietors of Pennsylvania were defeated. 

The colony was then the most flourishing in America. The free population 
numbered two hundred and twenty thousand, half of it from Germany; Moravians 
along the Lehigh, Swenckfeklers on the Schuylkill, Dunkers along the Conestoga, 
Mennonites in Lancaster. Welsh, Irish, and Scotch came also. Yet so many un- 
desirable elements arrived, that an act restricting immigration was passed early in 
1729. 

Iron works and forges were started along the Schuylkill river in 1718 ; in 1728 
there were two furnaces in blast in Lancaster county. Philadelphia sent out annually 
a fleet of four hundred sail, and her Quakers grew rich in trading with the West 
Indies. Yet the country was more alluring than the town ; ample acres were easily 
acquired, and labor was too scarce and dear to make manufacturing profitable. 

d. New York and Neiv Jersey. 

§ 737. Under English rule New Netherlands became New York. But the Duke 
Aug. 27, io64. of York would hear of no provincial assembly till 1683, and when he be- 
came King James II., would hear of it no longer. But when he lost his crown in 1688, 
Jacob Leisler took possession of the province to hold it for William and Mary, alleging 
a plot of Papists to deliver the country to the French of Canada. Leisler believed 
also in "no taxation without representation," and sought more power for the people. 
He .and his son were hanged for their zeal, but Papists were disfranchised, priests and 
Jesuits excluded from the province, and the struggle for legislative authority started 
on its triumphant course. Sloughter, the first governor under William and Mary, was 
directed " to call an assembly of free-holders, and to follow the usage of our other 
plantations in America." Fletcher, who followed him, was a greedy scamp, who pro- 
tected pirates and plundered the people. Bellamont came next and grew quite popu- 
lar, but Cornbury stole the public monies, and provoked the Assembly to a quarrel 
with the crown. In 1731, Rip Van Dam claimed and received the salary of the gov- 
ernor, having acted in his place. An action was brought against him to compel the 
restoration of one half, and in order to win it, de Lancey was made chief justice, in 
place of Lewis Morris, who was summarily removed. Zenger's Weekly Journal there- 
upon attacked the governor. Zenger, the publisher, was tried for libel, and acquitted 
through the courage, skill, eloquence, and legal knowledge of Andrew Hamilton, of 
Philadelphia. His acquittal established the freedom of the press in the colonies, and 




(pp. 827.) 



BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 



828 AMERICA. 

also determined against the right of the king to establish courts, without consulting 
n-ii. the local legislature. During Clarke's administration, occurred the 

negro plot of 1741. There was no plot, only a panic. But the accused were hanged 
or burned to death, or deported, to appease the scared inhabitants of the dirty little 
seaport. Sir Danvers Osborn came to New York as governor, in 1753. He looked 
sharply at the assembly, and exclaimed, " What have I come here for?" He then went 
out and hanged himself. This made de Lancey acting governor, who has been falsely 
accused of opposing the Plan of Union, agreed upon by the commissioners of all the 
colonies at Alban) r , in July, 1754. 

§ 738. The population of the province had reached ninety thousand in 1750, but 
did not extend beyond the Hudson and the Mohawk valleys. New York city, with a 
population of perhaps twelve thousand, stopped at the present Wall Street,«which 
takes its name from an old palisaded wall that formed the northern limit of the town. 

The English conquered New Netherlands in 1664. The territory between 
the Hudson and the Delaware was then given to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Car- 
teret. These were bought out by Quakers, who established a colony of religious 
liberty and civil equality. In 1702 the two Jerseys were placed in the hands of the 
1738. king, and in 1738 New Jersey was made a separate province. Complete 

religious freedom prevailing, members of nearly every sect came to the province. The 
Queen's College, now Rutger's, was established in New Brunswick, and the College 
of New Jersey at Princeton, the latter in 1746, and the former in 1756. In 1765 New 
Jersey had one hundred and ninety-two churches of all denominations, except the 
Roman Catholic. Schools were probably connected with every church. The governor 
was appointed by the king. 



THE ENGLISH CONQUEST OF THE CONTINENT. 



HE events of the eighteenth century determined the fate of the 
world for ages, probably, and the chief of these events was the 
triumphs of Frederick the Great and of William Pitt. The con- 
sequent failure of France gave India to England, and expelled the 
French from America. Yet the French and Indian war is too 
1JS4-U63. important to be regarded merely as an episode in 
European history. It was a necessaiy, though not a final step to 
the formation of the United States of America. The French claimed the valleys of 
the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, and rightfully enough. But they claimed also 
the whole continent west of the Alleghnay and forbade the English to cross the 
mountains. They had captivated all the Indians, except the Iroquois, who occupied 
the lake regions of Central New York ; and with the help of their savage allies, they 
expected to restrict if not to conquer the English settlements. Duquesne, the gov- 
1753. ernor of Canada, sent an expedition to occupy the Ohio valley in 1753. 

Two forts had been already built, when a young militia officer, George Washington 
by name, arrived to inform the French commander that his forts were built on English 
territory, and that he would do well to move away. 





DEATH OF GENERAL BRADDOCK. (P. Philippoteaux.) iPP- 829.) 



830 



AMERICA. 



The French smiled blandly, telling the Virginian that their orders unfortunately 
required them to remain. When Washington reported this to Dinwiddie, he was sent 
r>o*. back by the governor, with two hundred men, to build a fort at the 

forks of the Ohio. A large force of Frenchmen moved down upon them, and sug- 
gested that they also move away, whereupon the Virginians thought it discretion to 
retire. A few days later, however, the impetuous Washington (he was only twenty- 
three) attacked the French, and thereby began the war. He was soon at the head of 
three hundred men, entrenched in Fort Necessity. But now the French turned upon 
him, and compelled him to capitulate. He was permitted to march out with the honors 
of war, though obliged to return to Virginia. The first encounter had proved 
disastrous. 

§ 740. But early in 1755, 
General Braddock arrived at 
Hampton Roads, and at a con- 
ference in Alexandria, Virginia, 
it was agreed that Braddock 
should march against Fort 
Duquesne, Shirley should cap- 
ture Niagara, Johnson, with an 
army of provincials, should seize 
Crown Point, and the troops of 
New England should fall upon 
the Acadian Peninsula. 

But Braddock was defeated 
and killed, and his frightened 
troops fled all the way from the 
juiy », X755. M o n o n g a h e 1 a 
river (Pittsburg) to Fort Cum- 
berland. 

Braddock's death left Shir- 
ley, the governor of Massachu- 
setts, the ranking British officer 
in the colonies. Keeping the 
bad news to himself, he pushed 
on to Oswego, through wood and swamp. As his men struggled westward, they heard 
of Braddock's fate. They were worn out, and food was scarce ; their boats were unfit 
for lake service, and the expedition against Niagara also came to naught. 

William Johnson, a young Irishman, who had settled in the Mohawk Valley, had 
gained a singular influence with the Indians. To him was given command of the 
army against Crown Point. Most of the men were from New England, and several of 
them were men of far more experience in war than their commander. Among these 
were Phineas Lyman, the second in authority, Seth Pomeroy, Israel Putman, and John 
Stark. Through Lyman's skill and energy, Dieskau, the French general, was defeated 
ass. and captured. Lyman was not even mentioned in Johnson's report of 

the fight, but William Johnson became a baronet, and received a grant of £5000 from 




t#0 



MONTCALM. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 831 

Parliament. Lyman urged a forward movement upon Ticonderoga, but Johnson delayed 
until it was too late, and then marched home again. 

Montcalm succeeded Dieskau in command of the French. He at once visited 
Fort Ticonderoga (Carillan), and saw that all was in order. He then hastened to 
Montreal, gathered together three thousand men, and suddenly appeared at Fort 

rise. Oswego. The garrison soon surrendered, and were almost massacred 

by the Indians, who had found much rum among the plunder. Both sides now watched 
each other, and retired to winter-quarters; the English regulars going to Boston, Phila- 
delphia, and New York. The Indians and the rangers alone were active. Lake George 
and Lake Champlain resounded with the savage yells of the French allies, while Captain 
Rogers and Captain Putnam became famous for their encounters with the red men. 

§ 741. Meanwhile Loudoun had succeeded Shirley in command of the English. 
But his dispositions and movements were absurd and disastrous. Montcalm attacked 

1157, and destroyed Fort William Henry on Lake George, and then retired 

to Montreal. 

William Pitt now came to power in England, and Loudoun was recalled. With 
the prescience of the future, that made him the greatest statesman of his time, Pitt 
made the colonial officer the equal of the regular, and changed at once the discontent 
of the provincials into enthusiastic loyalty. He made Colonel Amherst, Major Gen- 
eral, and sent him to capture Louisbourg ; and he selected invincible John Forbes to 
attack Fort Duquesne. Abercrombie, however, his choice for the campaign against 
Crown Point, was a bad misfit. Forbes determined, against the advice of Washington, 
not to move by Braddock's route, yet he listened carefully to the young Virginian in 
all other matters. Spending his time " between business and medicine," for he was 
desperately ill, Forbes pushed forward in spite of the winter and the lack of provisions, 
and reached Fort Duquesne just in time to hear the explosion of the French mines. 

i7ss. The starving garrison blew up the fort and fled. He called the place 

Pittsburg, and marched back to Philadelphia, where he died a few months later. A 
new fort was built at Pittsburg ; the garrison left there by Forbes was reinforced by 
Amherst, and the conquest of the Ohio Valley reasonably secure. 

§ 742. Abercrombie meanwhile was disappointing Pitt. He hurled his soldiers 
uselessly against Fort Ticonderoga, and retreated, though his army was thirteen thou- 

liss. sand strong. Bradstreet, however, captured and destroyed the French 

fort, Frontenac, thus cutting off supplies from Fort Duquesne, and helping materially 
the work of General Forbes. General Amherst now assumed command. He had 
taken Louisbourg, and immediately sent Prideaux to capture Fort Niagara. Johnson 
and a body of Indian braves were in the English camp. Prideaux was killed early in 

iis». the siege, and Johnson, who succeeded him in command, compelled the 

surrender of the place. Meanwhile Amherst himself was pushing slowly northward, 
securing his rear, and driving the French before him. He advanced, however, rather 
slowly, to be of any service to General Wolfe, whom Pitt had sent to take Quebec. 
" The town-meeting pitted against bureau-cracy," exists only in the brain of the rhet- 
orical historian. " The Titan that threw the cripple," was not the town-meeting, but 
the sagacity of William Pitt, in his choice of men, and the conjuncture of circum- 
stances that supported the courage and the skill of General James Wolfe. Wolfe's 
fleet sailed from Louisbourg, in June, 1759. Quebec had ample supplies, and the 



832 



AMERICA. 



entrenchments were manned by fourteen thousand men, and a number of Indian allies. 
Gunboats and fire-ships were prepared to support the one hundred and six cannon, 
the city's chief defence. But the English fleet passed the French guns, which 
were stationed at the wrong place, and Wolfe landed his army of nine thousand 
men on the Island of Orleans. Montcalm tried to drive him off, but failed. Wolfe 

occupied Point Levi, and 
rained shot and shell into 
the town, but having divid- 
ed his army, was in no little 
danger. Montcalm, how- 
ever, did not attack him. 
Wolfe divided his forces 
again, yet failed to provoke 
an attack. Then he moved 
himself, but without suc- 
cess ; he was obliged to 
recall his men from sure 
destruction. Amherst was 
so slow ! And now a mes- 
senger came to tell him 
that Amherst was not com- 
ing. Nothing remained 
but an attempt to gain the 
heights above the town. 

Wolfe's Cove is a 
ravine not far from the 
town, leading to the 
Heights of Abraham. 
Three thousand six hund- 
red men went down the 
river in boats, with their 
daring general, at the turn 
of the tide, while the Brit- 
ish admiral made a dem- 
onstration in front of Mont- 
calm. Wolfe, when hailed 
by the French sentries, 
quieted them with his ex- 
first settlement at Quebec. planations in their own 

language, and the commander of the French troops, at the top of the ravine, had gone 
to sleep. In a few minutes the English general stood, with his men, in an open field 
on the Heights of Abraham, where Montcalm must fight him. The dilatory French 
general was transformed instantly into an impetuous commander. The French fell 
furiously upon the English line. Wolfe ordered his grenadiers to charge, himself 
leading the van. Twice he was struck, but on he rushed. A third shot bore him to 
the ground. " They fly ! they fly ! " he heard his men exclaiming, as he was borne 





53 



DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE. 



(pp. 833.) 



834 AMERICA. 

dying to the rear. " I die content," he murmured and expired. Montcalm was shot 
sept, i3. just before he re-entered the town with his panic-stricken troops. „The 
French held out for a few days, and then surrendered. Not long afterward, Montreal 
surrendered to Amherst, and on the 18th of September, 1759, all Canada passed to 
the English crown. 

§ 743. Two episodes connected with the war are worthy of mention. The ex- 
pulsion of the French from Acadia, and the conspiracy of Pontiac. The genius of 
Longfellow has given to the former the false coloring of jjersecution ; in reality the 
English were quite justified in the measures they employed. The uprising of the In- 
1763-H05 dian tribes, under Pontiac, wrought great mischief on the frontiers. 
It was a failure, however, as the plot was betrayed by an Indian girl, to the commander 
of the fort at Detroit, and Pontiac was forced to sue for peace. By the treaty of 
1763, the French gave up all their possessions in North America. The year before, 
New Orleans and the French territory west of the Mississippi had been transferred 
secretly to Spain, and was not retransferred to France until 1801. So that of all his 
vast domain in the New World, nothing was left to the French King, but two little 
islands near Newfoundland and his possessions in the West Indies. 



III. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

1. THE STRUGGLE OF THE COLONISTS FOE THE EIGHTS OP ENGLISHMEN. 

§744. 

HE English colonies in North America had their own legislatures 
and as we have seen, these legislatures guarded vigilantly the right 
of taxation. They had submitted reluctantly to the navigation 
acts, and the various acts of Parliament restricting their com- 
merce and their manufactures ; they had more than once contrib- 
uted voluntarily to the King's service; but they were firmly 
grounded in the English principle that taxation and representation 
are inseparable ; in other words, that no taxes could be laid upon a colony without 
the consent of the colonists themselves, expressed by their representatives. 

But England was in sore straits for money and for statesmen. George III. has 
been described by a great English writer as a " meddling maniac." And the worst re- 
sult of his disordered mind was his choice of ministers. Pitt he could not endure. He 
made peace to prevent his return to power. He sought for tools, not for advisers ; for 
marionettes, not men. It was thus he obtained George Grenville for his minister, and 
lost the American colonies for England. For Grenville resolved to tax the colonies 
without their own consent. At first he proceeded cautiously, raising the import du- 
ties at colonial ports, and enforcing the navigation acts with great severity. In pur- 
suance of the latter purpose " Writs of Assistance " were granted, which empowered 
the custom house officer to enter any shop or dwelling house, and search for smuggled 
goods. Now, although the illicit trade of the colonies was large and lucrative, the ob- 
jection to these harsh and illegal measures came, not simply from the interested 




THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



835 



smugglers, but from the wisest men in the colonies. They held that the navigation 
and revenue laws were exceedingly unjust, and that they could be made tolerable only 
by lenient and generous administration. 

§ 745. Nevertheless, Grenville might have succeeded, if he had gone no further. 
But he determined upon the Stamp Act, a scheme that Sir Robert Walpole had re- 
lses jected as foolish and dangerous. The colonies sent Benjamin Frank- 

lin to England with a protest and an offer. They protested against the passage of the 
Stamp Act, and offered to vote in their colonial assemblies larger supplies to the crown 
than the Stamp Act would produce. But Grenville and George III. were resolved to 
pass it, and even Franklin counselled submission. The colonists were of different 
mind and Patrick Henry introduced into the House of Burgesses of Virginia a series 
of resolutions, which denied explicitly and emphatically the right of the British Par- 
liament to meddle with internal taxation. Massachusetts followed with a proposal for 
a Continental Congress, to be composed 
nes. of delegates from all the 

Colonial Assemblies. In October, 1765, 
this Congress met and repeated the pro- 
test and the petition of Virginia. 

§ 746. Meanwhile the people of 
the colonies compelled the Stamp dis- 
tributors to resign, and vigorously cir- 
culated non-importation agreements, 
pledging themselves to import no goods 
from England till the Stamp Act was 
repealed. Pitt, who had been ill and 
absent from Parliament when the act 
was passed, now returned and declared, 
" This kingdom has no right to lay a 
tax on the colonies. I rejoice that 
America has resisted. Three millions 
of people so dead to all the feelings of 
liberty, as voluntarily to be slaves, 
would have been fit instruments to 
make slaves of the rest." Pitt's opposition, supported as he was by the great lawyer, 
Lord Camden, and by Col. Barre, together with the famous examination of Dr. Frank- 
u?6. lin by a committee of the House of Commons, compelled the repeal of 

the obnoxious statute, and for a brief season, the colonies were in a tumult of great 
joy. The ungracious and unwise King persuaded his ministers, however, to put 
through parliament a declaratory act which Lord Camden denounced as " absolutely 
illegal." " Taxation and representation are inseparably united," said the future Lord 
Chancellor. "God hath joined them, and no British Parliament can put them asunder." 

Pitt now returned to power, in spite of the King, but disease soon drove him out 
of office, and 'his retirement gave England the worthless ministry of the Duke of Graf- 
ton and Lord North, the ministry whose stupidity and stubbornness provoked the 
American revolution, and whose feebleness helped the colonists to their final triumph. 

§ 747. Their first measure, in relation to the colonies, was a revenue bill, im- 




PATRICK HENRY. 



836 



AMERICA. 



posing duties on te.i, paper, glass, paints, and lead. The colonists determined not to 
import them, and not to import an} r British commodities. The British merchants, 
profoundly affected in their pockets, petitioned for the repeal of the law. The duties 
were thereupon taken from all articles, except tea. The Americans would import no 
tea. The Assembly of New York was dissolved on its refusal to provide quarters for 
British troops, the Assembly of Massachusetts was dissolved on a petty quarrel with 
the governor, and Boston was occupied with English soldiers. But the excitement in 
the colonies, and the remonstrances of colonial legislatures, led to the withdrawal of 
the troops ; not, however, until an affray between the mob and the soldiers in Boston 
had dangerously inflamed the passions of the people. 




DESTRUCTION OF TEA IN BOSTON HARBOR. 



§748. But the "meddling maniac," King George III., was fretting and fuming 
over the "fatal compliance of 1766," and lying in wait for an opportunitj r to strike. 
It soon came. The East India Company sent several cargoes of tea to the colonies. 
In New York and in Philadelphia, the people threatened vengeance upon an)- pilot 
that should guide the ships into the harbor; the vessels were obliged to return to 
England. But at Boston, Hutchinson was acting governor, and Hutchinson, being ab- 
solutely fearless, got the ships into port, and prevented their return. Thereupon a mob, 
disguised as Indians, boarded the ships, and poured the tea into the waters of the bay. 
xov. us, 1373. The wisest patriots of America deplored the outrage, but the King was 
furious. He wanted, not redress, but revenge and repression. His obedient ministers 
and subservient Parliament passed the Boston Port Bill, closing the port of Boston 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



837 



j«iic t, m-t. against all commerce. They altered the charter to the extent of 
virtually abrogating the liberties of Massachusetts, and they ordered persons ac- 
cused of murder, to be sent to England for 
trial. A fourth statute provided for the sending 
of troops to America. Four regiments were 
lis*. sent to Boston ; General Gage 

was appointed governor, and the people were 
to taste the sweets of military rule. " If we 
take the resolute part," muttered the King, 
" they will undoubtedly be very weak." And 
then to excite the colonists still further, the 
Quebec Act was passed, to prevent the Cana- 
dians from joining with the other provinces. 

§ 749. The colonists, however, were any- 
thing but weak. All their legislatures, save 
that of Georgia, elected deputies to a Congress, 
xj«. which, assembled in Carpenters' 

Hall, at Philadelphia, on the 4th of September, 
1774. This Congress met at the appointed 
time, and is forever memorable for its ability, its patriotism, and its moderation. The 
Declaration of Rights, adopted by the Congress, stated, with fullness and yet concisely, 




CARPENTER S HALL, PHILADELPHIA. 




BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. 



the principles involved in the conflict ; it stated with equal plainness and brevity the 
determination of the Americans " not to submit to the grievous acts and measures 



838 



AMERICA. 



a 



passed in the last session of Parliament." It claimed for the colonists the rights of 
Englishmen, and chief among these, the privilege of participation in their own govern- 
lita. ment. In January, 1775, Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, introduced a bill, 

which provided for the repeal of all the protested statutes, abandoned the claim to 
taxation, secured to the colonists their cherished charters, and ordered the recall of 
the troops. A colonial assembly was ordered to convene, and provide means by which 
America might contribute toward the payment of the public debt. But the " meddling 
maniac " would have none of Chatham's wisdom, and the ministry echoed the King's 
decree. The measure of the great statesman was contemptuously rejected. 

§ 750. The American Congress had advised another assembly for the following 

May, but before it convened, the king's troops had a conflict with the minute men 

April to, ii?5. of Lexington, Mass. General Gage had sent some men to destroy the 

military stores which the patriots 
had collected at Concord. The 
British Colonel, Smith, ordered 
the "minute men" to disperse 
and fired upon them immedi- 
ately. Returning to Boston, he 
found the roads lined with sharp- 
shooters, and before he reached 
Charlestown harbor, he lost, in 
killed, wounded, and missing, 
two hundred and seventy men. 
In a few days men poured into 
Boston from the surrounding 
counlry ; without arms or am- 
munition or organization they 
expected to reduce the British 
army, and to conquer their free- 
dom. 

Ethan Allan and Seth War- 
ner bethought them of Ticon- 
deraga and Crown Point. There 
the garrisons were slender, and 
the stores were plenty. In May, 1775, they hurried down to Boston with two hund- 
red captured cannons, and powder enough to make them efficient. The British 
army had been increased to ten thousand men, and it was supported by the ships in 
Charlestown harbor. Colonel Prescott was sent to entrench Bunker Hill. The ships 
opened fire upon his entrenchments, but he and his men continued building their 
redoubt and breastworks. The British now came over from Boston to take them by 
assault, but the fire of the colonists was too hot and steady. Three times the veterans 
June n. advanced before they took the hill. The Americans retired in a body, 
but General Warren was among the slain. The Americans had proved their valor 
and their steadiness under attack from British regulars, and the King of England had 
a sample of colonial meekness. 

§ 751. But Congress had met in May, and this time Colonel Washington had 




JSUAKL l'UTNAJi. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



839 



attended its sessions in uniform. Hitherto lie had counselled peace and moderation, 
but now he saw that war was inevitable, and that the time to organize an army had 
arrived. Upon the motion of John Adams, he was made commander-in-chief of the 
continental army. Ward, Lee, Schuyler, and Putman were made major-generals, and 
ten brigadiers were appointed, among them, Gates and Greene. Nearly all these 




■fc|g|g^Hf 





gjBar 





INDEPENDENCE HALL. 

officers had served in the French and Indian campaigns, and many of the colonists had 
also seen hard service. 

Congress, at the same time, established a post-office department, and issued bills 
of credit. In a word, it practically severed the cord that bound the colonies to 
Great Britain. 

The choice of Washington was an inspiration. Even those who knew him best, 
like Patrick Henry, had little conception of his greatness. His grave courtesy, his si- 



840 



AMERICA. 



lence, and his simplicity of manner, were broken occasionally by outbreaks of startling 
energy. Few so patient as he, and few so prompt ; defeat could not depress him, nor 
victory dazzle his judgment. He could endure disaffection and treachery, misunder- 
standing, and even con- 
tempt, for the sake of 
his country. He had 
but one personal long- 
ing, to return to his own 
fireside, the acknowl- 
edged deliverer of his 
fellow countrymen ; and 
in the gloomiest hour of 
the desperate struggle, 
his calmness, his clear 
brain, his restless in- 
dustry, his singleness 
of purpose, kept him 
and kept his cause 
alive. 

§ 752. Washington 
went at once to Boston, 
and took charge of the 
July 3. militia there 
collected. There were 
sixteen thousand of 
them when he arrived, 
but lack of food and lack 
of arms and ammuni- 
tion, soon discouraged 
them, and they dwin- 
dled down to ten thou- 
sand, with forty-five 
rounds of ammunition 
to a man. John Adams 
and other impatient 
patriots clamored for 
action, but Washington 
had no powder, a trifle 
of which his impetuous 
critics did not take ac- 
count. Yet by his skill 
and quiet daring, he 
compelled the British to withdraw to New York, and to concentrate all their 
forces, British veterans and German mercenaries, under General Howe. Mean- 
while Montgomery had taken Montreal, and then uniting with a force commni ded 
by Benedict Arnold, the two had attacked Quebec. But Montgomery was killed. 




THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



841 



Dec 3i, 1775. Arnold was severely wounded, and the Americans were finally com- 
pelled to retire. 
2. The Struggle foe Independence (1776-1783). 

§ 753. And yet 
there was a party in the 
colonies opposed to a 
Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. Some because 
they were opposed to 
resistance, loyal subjects 
of his majesty, to whom 
the king was a sacred 
person, and resistance 
to Parliament a crime ; 
some because they had 
no faith in the success 
of the colonists, and 
feared the consequences 
of royal wrath ; and 
some because they still 
hoped that the King 
would become sane, and 
the Parliament grow 
wise. But to all clear- 
minded and patriotic 
Americans, the time had 
come to declare inde- 
pendence and to appeal 
to foreign powers for 
help. Virginia was 
again the leader. Pat- 
rick Henry had led off 
in 1765 with the 
" Stamp Act Resolves." 
Richard Henry Lee now 
moved that the colonies 
declare themselves free 
fuiy 4. and in- 

dependent. The Dec- 
laration of Independ- 
ence was drafted by 
Thomas Jefferson, 
amended by Franklin 
and Adams, and solemnly adopted by a vote of the whole thirteen States, on July 4, 
Aug. a, i77o. 1776. It was signed by all the members of the Continental Congress 
August 2, 1776. 




842 



AMERICA. 



" We the representa- 
tives of the United 
States of America," 
such are the solemn 
words, " in Congress as- 
sembled, appealing to 
the Supreme Judge of 
the world for the recti- 
tude of our intentions, 
solemnly publish and 
declare, that these 
United Colonies are, 
and of right ought to 
be, free and independ- 
ent states." 

§ 754. Washington 
found himself on Long 
Island, and surrounded 
by loyalists. His army was weakened by withdrawal, and soon defeated by General 

Aug. X7, me. Howe, whose army outnumbered it, three to one. He retired north- 
ward, but his troops deserted 




COPTBIOHT W. 

HOUSE IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS WRITTEN. 










^rcm 



Tjfe 




sf^c/uuuL susvr-y ^^fyjfy" M'j *- **"y/"^ 



u/ofiSH 



SIGNATURES TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



V~> 



by companies, and he was 
compelled to retreat with 
the wretched remnant 
through New Jersey to 
Pennsylvania. Sir William 
Howe, thinking the war prac- 
tically over, issued a procla- 
mation, offering jDardon to all 
who would return to their 
allegiance within sixty days. 
Congress fled to Baltimore, 
and the frightened people 
clamored for peace. 

But the great commander, 
with his feeble force, had 
planned a daring move. On 

Dec. us, use. Christmas 
night he crossed the Dela- 
ware at Trenton (his bare- 
footed men stepping upon 
blocks of floating ice), and 
captured a body of Hessians 
stationed on the Jersey side of 
the river. A few days later, 
Lord Cornwallis bore down 



8.44 



AMERICA. 



upon him with a much stronger force. Slipping away from their burning watch fires, 
Washington and his men hurried to the rear of the British, and attacked three regiments 
at Princeton, driving them from the town. Howe, thinking it prudent to keep out of the 
way of an enemy so active and so ingenious, withdrew to New York. Washing- 
ton then encamped in the New Jersey Highlands, and tried to organize his men into 
the semblance of an army. In the Spring of 1777, Howe maneuvered around him, 
hoping to force a fight. But as Washington would not leave his strong position, Howe 
embarked his army and carried it to Philadelphia. The Americans hurried southward 
to intercept him. Howe had landed his men on the Chesapeake shore, and was march- 
ing northward. Washington met him at Brandywine creek, southwest of Philadel- 
phia. Here the Americans were forced to retreat, and Howe entered, as conqueror, 
sept. nit. the city where the Declaration had been proclaimed. But the bulk 
of the British army was stationed at Germautown, six miles off. Washington pounced 

down upon them ; 
but his troops fell 
into disorder, 
through a failure of 
his generals to carry 
Oct. 3-4, is-ai. out his 
plans. Nevertheless 
he succeeded in sav- 
ing every piece of 
artillery, and in get- 
ting away his men. 
The accounts of the 
battle impressed the 
great generals of 
Europe with a sense 
of Washington's 
genius. The plan 
of the battle was 
acknowledged to be 
faultless. Howe too 
was astonished, and 
ordered Sir Henry Clinton to send him a reinforcement of " full six thousand men." 
Count Donop, with twelve hundred Hessians, was sent to capture the fort at Red 
Bank on the Jersey shore, but they were repulsed with great slaughter. The British 
fleet reached the city of Philadelphia with difficulty, and only after heavy losses in 
ships and in men. 




WASHINGTON PREPARING TO CROSS THE DELAWARE. 



§ 755. Meanwhile great events were happening in the north. The British gen- 
eral, Burgoyne, had marched with an army of ten thousand men from Canada to the 
Hudson, with the intention of cutting off New England from the other colonies. He 
had the Indians to help him, and but a feeble army to oppose him. Schuyler was at 
Fort Edward; St. Clair was at Tieonderoga, and the news of Indian outrages brought 





burgoyne's army MARCHING TO SARATOGA. {pp. 845.) 



846 



AMERICA. 



the militia of New England in 

great numbers to the field. 

Schuyler was superseded by 

General Gates ; but, fortunately 

for America, this incompetent 

commander was supported by 

Arnold, Morgan, Lincoln, and 

other able soldiers. As Bur- 

goyne proceeded southward, he 

unfolded two wings, the one 

sweeping Vermont, and the 

other the Mohawk Valle3 r . The 

left wing encountered Stark at 

Bennington, and was utterly 

destroyed. The right was met 

by Arnold at Fort Schuyler, 

and forced back upon the main 

army, at Saratoga. Lincoln had 

moved to Burgoyne's rear and 

cut off his communications with 

Canada. Sir Henry Clinton had 

promised to march up from the 

south, but he performed his promise too tardily to help the British forces. 

oct. ie, im. at Bemis Heights, on September 19, and at Stillwater, October 7, 

Burgoyne had been driven to Sara- 
toga, and was being starved into de- 
feat, and on October 16, 1777, he 
surrendered his army of five thou- 
sand six hundred and forty-two 
men to the American commander. 
The entire loss of the British in this 
ruinous campaign was about ten 
thousand men. But the campaign 
was decisive as well as ruinous. 




LAFAYETTE. 



Defeated 




GENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE. 



§ 756. For when the news of 
Saratoga and of Germantown ar- 
rived at Paris, the excitement was 
profound. Vergennes, the French 
minister, recognized the genius of 
Washington. The success of the 
Americans at Saratoga spoke vol- 
umes for the soldiers of the colonies. 
Lafayette, the distinguished young 
nobleman, who had joined Wash- 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



847 



ington the year before, was suddenly justified in the eyes of his friends, and Dr. 
Franklin, who had been sent by Congress to negotiate a treaty with the French king, 
was then notified that France would acknowledge the independence of the United 
jFe6. o, ms. States of America, and would also enter into a conditional alliance 
with them. 

In a lucid interval, the British Parliament now passed two statutes, declaring that 
no tax should hereafter be imposed by Parliament upon the colonies, and appointing 
commissioners to seek a reconciliation. These statutes are the eternal vindication of 
the action of the colonists, seeing that they formally recognize the principle for which 
the Americans contended. 

But Congress and the 
American people, encouraged 
by this great success, were de- 
termined upon independence, 
and death in removing Chatham, 
took away the only man in Eng- 
land who might have averted 
further conflict. 

In 1778 France and Spain 
sent a fleet of sixty ships to 
ride the English channel, and 
to threaten the English coast. 
And not long afterward, the 
Dutch fleet entered the strug- 
gle for supremacy at sea. Eng- 
land, however, was not to be 
beaten on her native element ; 
and, in spite of her reverses, 
she nearly succeeded in over- 
coming the Americans. For 
the colonists were destitute of 
monej r ; the troops were half- 
clad and half-starved ; the peo- 
ple were suffering from famine »-^ 
and commercial ruin ; the camp _ _ >»-» J ^Sd 
at Valley Forge was the scene #70?W - U^T^^ 1 ^ 
of disease and privation, of heroic efforts to endure, more wonderful than any efforts 
to achieve. 

§ 757. Steuben, it is true, had succeeded in converting this raw material of 
patriotic courage into a disciplined army. But Washington was sorely tried by the 
Conway Cabal, a conspiracy of certain army officers and members of Congress to make 
Horatio Gates commander-in-chief of the continental forces. The treason of Charles 
June as, ins. Lee lost for him the battle of Monmouth, which ought to have resulted 
in a splendid victory, while Indian massacres in Pennsylvania and New York had car- 
ried dread into every frontier hamlet. Yet the British, fearing the arrival of a French 
fleet, left Philadelphia for New York, and they captured Stony Point on the Hudson, 




848 



AMERICA. 



thus interrupting communications between New England and the Middle States. 

Washington, on the other hand, left Valley Forge and returned to Morristown, New 

Jersey, extending his lines northward to West Point. He watched the British with 
juiv is, ino. sleepless vigilance, and sent " Mad Anthony " Wayne to recover Stony 
sept. 22, nso. Point, which he accomplished gloriously. But on September 22, 1780, 

Washington was struck the severest blow received by him in his trying career, for on 

that day his trusted friend, 
General Benedict Arnold, be- 
came a traitor. West Point 
was saved and Major Andre, 
who negotiated with Arnold, 
was captured and hanged. 
But Arnold escaped, to re- 
appear later in attacks iipon 
Richmond, Virginia, and up- 
on New London, Connnecti- 
tsoo. cut, and to die 
dishonored and miserable in 
London, a year after the 
death of his betrayed and 
once beloved commander. 

§ 758. Meanwhile, the 
only piece of good news that 
cheered the hearts of the 
anxious people came from 
the sea, where Captain Paul 
Jones had compelled British 
sept. 23, 1170. seamen to 
strike the British flag. The 
French fleet, from which so 
much had been expected, 
failed to take Savannah, 
which had been occupied by 
British troops in the winter 
of 1778. Georgia was prac- 
^ tically conquered, and early 
in 1780, Charleston, South 
Carolina, was in the hands 
of Lord Cornwallis, General 
Lincoln having surrendered 
it after a brave resistance, 

lasting forty-two da}'s. With it he surrendered all his army, and South Carolina was 

easily subdued, many of the inhabitants seeking " protections " from Lord Cornwallis. 

Yet Marion and Sumter gave the British great annoyance by their partisan warfare, 
Oct. s, nso. ' and one band of backwoodsmen, under Shelby and Sevier, defeated 




fe£&J> 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 849 

Ferguson with his thousand Tories at King's Mountain. Several of Ferguson's men 
were hanged as traitors by the angry patriots. 

The incompetent Gates had been appointed by Congress to oppose Cornwallis. 
Flushed with the recollections of Saratoga, but forgetting that he had no subordinates 
a.«„. 19, nso. like those who won for him the victories of the North, he rushed head- 
long to the battle of Camden, where three-fourths of his army perished. General 
Nathaniel Greene was now sent with a little army of veterans to save, if possible, the 
South. Greene led his troops with consummate skill. He sent Morgan to Cowpens, 




CAPTAIN PAUL JONES, ON THE BONHOMME RICHARD, CAPTURES THE SERAPIS. 

jr«„. „, i~.si. where he defeated Tarleton and his Tories, returning to Greene before 
Cornwallis could overtake the nimble Americans. Cornwallis pushed to the north ; 
Greene retreated before him. Suddenly he halted, and then returned to Guilford 
Ma,oni S ,x^i. Court House, and offered battle. The British held the field, but 
Greene had all the advantage of the fight. Cornwallis was obliged to move toward 
the sea-coast. Greene pushed after him, then swiftly changing his course, marched 
back to South Carolina and attacked Lord Rawdon. Again he was defeated, but his 
presence and his fighting courage stirred up the partisans. The inhabitants, tired of 
the British occupation, rose to arms, and South Carolina was soon recovered to the 
54 



850 



AMERICA. 




GENERAL FRANCIS MARION. 



Americans. The conflict became terribly bitter, the British shooting as deserters all 
found in arms, who had accepted 
their "protections." 

§ 759. But the war was near- 
ing its close. Cornwallis was 
about to enter the famous "mouse- 
trap." Washington had longed 
for the chance to strike a final 
blow. His troops had rebelled at 

Morristown ; .and he had, with % 

difficulty, held his little army to- zj^^^mM^^mmt^^i^^^Si~h^ 

gether, hoping to combine with 
the French force for an attack 
upon the British at New York. / 
But divining the plan of Corn- / 
wallis, which was to join Phillips ' V'/M 
and Arnold in Virginia, he pre- 
pared to crush him by an unex- 
pected and powerful blow. La- 
fayette was sent to Virginia, in 
command of a small force, to hold 
Cornwallis in check. The French 
fleet, under Count de Grasse, was 
induced to co-operate. Lafayette compelled the British to entrench themselves at 
Yorktown. Here they were blockaded by the French fleet. They had entered the 

" mouse-trap." Washington deluded 
Clinton into the belief that he meant 
to attack them at New York. " If you 
cannot deceive your own men," said the 
American general, " j-ou cannot deceive 
the enemy ; " so his own soldiers believed 
that they were going to the Hudson. 
Suddenly they were marched to the 
Chesapeake Bay, and carried thence to 
Yorktown. The combined French and 
American armies were sixteen thousand 
strong. Cornwallis was soon in sore 
straits ; he tried a sally, but made things 
worse. Clinton failed to help him, 
oa. io, 1181. and there was nothing 
left but to surrender. The war was 
practically over. The British had lost 
a second army, and a further prosecu- 
tion of the war meant even greater 
disaster. 

Greene meanwhile had fought an- 




NATHANIEL GREENE. 







JOHN JAY. 



{pp. 851.) 



852 



AMERICA. 



other "defeat" in South Carolina, by which he was able to confine the British to 
Charleston and the district between the Cooper and the Ashley rivers. After six 
years of desperate struggle, the British held only Charleston and New York. When 
the news reached England, Lord North exclaimed, "It is all over!" and resigned. 
But for the victories of Admiral Rodney over the Spanish fleet, off Cape Vincent, and 
over the French fleet at the West Indies, England would have lost India and Gibraltar. 
Like Athens, she was saved by her " wooden walls." 

§ 760. But though peace was conquered, a great diplomatic struggle yet remained. 
France and Spain, the allies of the United States, were by no means eager to create a 
colossal republic, and to endow it with the Valley of the Mississippi. Aranda, the 
Spaniard, and Vergennes, the Frenchman, both contended that the territory north of 
the Ohio should be given to England, and the vast region to the south should be made 




WASHINGTON ON THE HUDSON. 



an Indian territory, under the protection of Spain and the United States. This would 
dwarf the republic, and give all but a strip of the Atlantic coast to England and Spain. 
Then, too, the Americans were to be excluded from the Newfoundland fisheries. 

Fortunately for America, Shelburne had succeeded Lord North. The English, 
having determined to acknowledge the independence of the colonies, did not seek to 
mutilate their future. Through the influence and shrewdness of John Jay, who, to- 
gether with Franklin and Adams, conducted the negotiations, a separate treaty with 
England was agreed upon, which was not concluded until the consent of France had 
been obtained ; but about the details of which the French minister was not consulted. 
This treaty carried the boundaries of the United States to the Mississippi river, per- 
mitted the Americans to catch fish in Canadian waters, but not to dry them on the 
Newfoundland coast, required the payment of all outstanding private debts, and pro- 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



853 



tected the loyalists from further prosecution and confiscation. Great Britain subse- 
quently indemnified her loyal subjects in the most creditable manner. 

§ 761. This treaty was signed September 3, 1783. During the two years and more 
sept. 3, 1*83. which elapsed between the signing of the treaty and the surrender of 
Cornwallis, guerrilla warfare had been kept up in South Carolina, and on the frontier 
of New York, and the Indians had been busy with tomahawk and knife. But the 
regular armies had quietly awaited peace. Washington established his headquarters 
at Newburg on the Hudson ; Rochambeau, with the French troops, joined him in Sep- 
tember", 1781. In December of the same year the latter returned to France. But the 
danger over, the long suffering officers and soldiers began to clamor for their well- 




WASH1NGT0N S HOME AT MOUNT VERNON. 



earned pay. It required all the influence and eloquence of Washington "to arrest the 
feet that stood wavering on a precipice." But he did it grandly, and the officers of 
the American army " rejected with disdain the infamous proposals contained in a late 
anonymous address." This address had suggested " an appeal to the fears of the gov- 
ernment." But on June 21, 1783, two months after this affair at Newburg, a company 
of Pennsylvania soldiers drove Congress from Philadelphia to Princeton, disgracing 
the nation, and making the army exceedingly unpopular. Indeed a widespread distrust 
of the soldiers prevailed. Colonel Nicola had urged Washington to make himself dic- 
tator. The order of the Cincinnati looked to suspicious minds like the founding of a 



854 AMERICA. 

military aristocracy. And then to pay the promised arrears to officers and soldiers, 
meant high taxes to an impoverished people. Congress had no money ; French sub- 
sidies had ceased ; the skill and generosity of Robert Morris could work no more fin- 
ancial miracles ; paper money had run its course to utter worthlessness. Meanwhile, 
the one man who was equal to these troublous times, was going home to his simple 
mode of life. At Fraunces' tavern, near South Ferry, in New York, he took leave of 
his devoted officers. At Philadelphia he filed his accounts. He had spent out of his 
private fortune, $64,315. He had received and would accept no pay. In eight years, 
he had seen his home but once. Threatened with consumption from his early youth, 
he had shunned no dangers of camp or field. But now journeying to Annapolis, he 
asked of the Congress there in session, to be allowed to return to private life. 

But before resigning, Washington had addressed a circular letter to the governors 
of the several States. In this he urged a stronger union, the payment of the public 
debt to the last penny, a uniformily organized militia, and a sacrifice of local and sec- 
tional prejudices. He had saved the cause of independence ; he was now to triumph 
in a greater task, the formation of a more perfect union. 

3. The Struggle for a More Perfect Union. 

§ 762. From 1783 to 1787 the United States were drifting toward anarchy. New 
York attempted to oppress New Jersey and Connecticut ; Connecticut and Pennsyl- 
vania quarreled over the valley of the Wyoming, and New Hampshire and New York 
over the Green Mountains. Congress was unable to protect American citizens : the 
Barbary pirates demanded money, but Congress could neither pay nor fight. People 
refused to pay their taxes. Morris, who had beggared himself for his country, ceased 
to serve a thankless people. Eleven of the thirteen States issued paper money, and 
clubs were formed to compel its circulation. The State of Franklin (now Tennessee) 
was in a condition of civil war. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island the quarrels about 
debt and paper money provoked an agitation so furious as to alarm the country. 
Rhode Island was spoken of as " Rogues' Island," and everywhere mentioned with 
contempt. Governor Bowdoin, of Massachusetts, was confronted by Daniel Shays 
and his barn-burning plunderers, who were determined to arrest all suits for debt. 
Yet when the leaders were tried and convicted of treason, they were all pardoned and 
set free by good-natured Governor Hancock. Many sagacious men began to talk 
quietly of a return to English rule ; but Washington was working industriously for a 
" More Perfect Union." He corresponded continually with the statesmen of the 
country ; he furthered every measure, looking to closer relations between the States. 
"You talk, my good sir," he wrote indignantly, "of employing influence to appease the 
tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found ; and if 
attainable, it would not be a proper remedy. Influence is not government. Let us 
have a government by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let 
us know the worst at once." 

The Continental Congress had not agreed upon Articles of Confederation without a 
struggle ; even the emergencies of war did not bring all the States together until 1781. 
Congress was a revolutionary body until 1778, and until 1789 a very feeble one. It 
had no power to compel obedience ; it operated upon States only, and not upon indi- 
viduals ; the vote required to pass an important measure, practically prohibiting legis- 




Washington's inauguration. 



{pp. abb.) 



856 



AMERICA. 



lation ; it could not regulate foreign commerce ; and it could not remedy the defects 
of the existing Articles. But Maryland had refused to ratify the Articles for another 
reason, and thereby rendered vital service to the nation. " She would not ratify the 
Articles until she should receive some definite assurance that the Northwestern Terri- 
tory should become the common property of the United States." Finally the several 
States yielded their claims in favor of the United States ; — New York surrendering a 
shadowy right, but Virginia giving up a magnificent possession. 

§ 763. Washington, foreseeing the coming greatness of the West, sought to bind 
both sections together by canals. He brought about the appointment of a joint com- 
mission of Virginia and Maryland, which met to consider the project in his own house. 
The consent of Pennsjdvania became necessary. Washington suggested an agreement 
upon commerce and currenc}', as well as upon canals. Delaware was next invited. 
Then Madison moved in Congress a conference of all the thirteen states. His motion 
was adopted ; the conference met at 
Annajnolis, on September 11, 1786. 
Five States only were represented. 
The outlook was gloomy ; the times 
were dark ; and nothing came of the 
conference, but the address written by 
Hamilton and sent to all the States. 

Nothing else ; but this was much. 
For the critical winter of 1786 revealed 
the defects of the existing system, and 
the impending certainty of disruption if 
important changes were not made at 
once. Madison, acting under the in- 
spiration of his great chief, prevailed 
upon the Virginia legislature to appoint 
delegates to the convention called for 
by Hamilton's address. Virginia re- 
sponded, and named a delegation which 
included Washington. The people sud- 
denly felt the coming of a great light. 
Massachusetts changed her mind, and her delegates in Congress now urged the formal 
adoption of the convention plan. All the States except Rhode Island followed the 
lead of Virginia, and sent delegates to meet at Philadelphia in May, 1787. 

These delegates were in all fifty-five. Among them, Washington and Franklin, 
Hamilton and Madison, Jay and Wilson, Dickinson and Gouverneur Morris, Sherman, 
Randolph, Wythe, and Rutledge. Four months they sat with closed doors, and were 
often on the verge of dissolution. But the patient power that held the armies of the 
Revolution together during the gloomy days at Valley Forge and Morristown, was 
sept. i7, us*, equal to this new and trying task. In September, the finished work. 
was sent to the different States for their adoption. But it was greeted with violent 
opposition in all the States, and narrowly escaped rejection. The opposition in Vir- 
ginia was led by Patrick Henry, in New York by George Clinton, and for a while 
Jefferson and Samuel Adams wavered. But over all the stormy agitation brooded 




SAMUEL ADAMS 




ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 



(.pp. 857.) 



858 AMERICA. 

the assuring presence of the man that the people trusted, and the More Perfect Union 
June, uss. became, in 1788, an established fact of human history. 
This union was a union of the people of the United States. They united more 
perfectly in the execution of the laws, creating a president for their due administra- 
tion ; they united more perfectly in the regulation of commerce, and in the raising of 
revenues, clothing Congress with authority to legislate on these important topics ; 
they united more perfectly in the establishment of equal rights for all the citizens ; 
they united finally in the creation of a supreme court, by which all conflicts between 
the States might be avoided. They did not unite to establish an absolute democracj' ; 
on the^ contrary, many devices of the constitution, like the electoral college, were 
avowedly intended to check popular feeling, and to restrict popular power. Some of 
its framers expected the constitution to last, at most, a century ; others were even less 
hopeful. A few anticipated the glory of the future, but all of them " builded wiser 
than they knew." For precisely the features that seemed most sagacious to their 
authors, have been discarded with the growth of years, while others, that were the 
result of circumstances merely, have proved the saving of the nation, and the pro- 
moters of her progress. 



IV. THE MORE PERFECT UNION. 

1. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF WASHINGTON AND ADAMS. 1789-1801. 

§764. 

| ET many difficulties environed the birth of the new republic. 
Washington, unanimously elected to the presidency, confronted 
problems that taxed the abilities of a cabinet, never surpassed in 
quality. The "new roof" as it was called, excited suspicion and 
dislike ; many distrusted it, many were determined upon a new 
convention and a new constitution. A large and powerful party 
insisted upon amendments. Congress had been brought together with no little 
trouble, and was not easily persuaded to pass the measures absolutely necessary. 
Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, developed a financial policy 
that excited great opposition. This provided for the payment of $80,000,000 due 
to France and to other countries, to the soldiers of the Revolutionary army, and 
to citizens of the several States. The Continental Congress owed much of it; the 
various States owed the rest. Hamilton provided for it all. A national bank and a 
mint were established at Philadelphia, and a simple convenient decimal system was 
adopted for the whole country. These measures of Hamilton led, however, to the 
jrwiy s, «»*. transfer of the seat of government to the Potomac, an act that power- 
fully affected the future of the republic. Only upon condition of this transfer could 
votes enough be procured to pass the pending bills. 

§ 765. Jefferson, meanwhile, was busied with problems that would have taxed 
any statesman, but were unusually trying to him. One of these grew out of the 
treaty of 1783, which neither England nor America had observed very scrupulously. 





JOHN ADAMS. 



{pp. 859.) 



860 AMERICA. 

The provisions, touching debts due to English citizens and touching the loyalists, were 
disregarded by the United States ; the frontier forts were still held by the British. 
American ships were searched, and American seamen carried off at the command of the 
English naval officers, and war loomed up quite near. Jefferson had a cordial hatred 
for England, and yet he spoke for " peace witli honor." The trouble however was not 
settled by him, but by Washington and Jay. A treaty was negotiated, and finally 

170s. ratified in 1795. It provoked a fierce opposition in and out of Con- 

gress. The President was assailed with abuse and calumny, with caricature and 
suspicion. But he held firmly to his purpose, and the outcome justified his wisdom. 
He knew the danger of war and the unreliability of popular feeling, and that the 
men who clamored for the blood of Britain were not the men who would shed 
their own to procure it. 

The other problem that vexed the Secretary of State, grew out of the 
startling events in France. Jefferson had imbibed French ideas, and loved the French 
people. He wished for their success in their struggles with European monarchs, and 
in this the whole country sympathized with him. Washington, always tranquil and 
sagacious, issued a proclamation of neutrality. Spain and England menaced the country ; 
the Creek Indians were ready to spring upon the frontier settlements. And yet the 
people were mad with the fever of a fight for France, and a hatred for the foes of 
liberty. 

Fortunately Citizen Genet, who had been sent to the United States to represent 
the French republic, or rather the " men of '93," was a mischievous dunce and 
nothing more. He formed Jacobin clubs ; he organized military companies ; he defied 
the President ; he exasperated Hamilton ; he provoked Jefferson ; and was, at Wash- 
ington's request, recalled. He had done some mischief. He had frightened John 
Adams into thinking that "ten thousand people in Philadelphia were threatening to 
drag Washington out of the house, and effect a revolution."* 

He widened too the breach between Jefferson and Hamilton, and excited contro- 
versies, which left their worst traces in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798. 

§ 766. Knox, the minister of war, had chiefly to face the Indian problem. Wash- 
ington divided the red men into twoclasses, the good and the bad, the friendly and the 
hostile. The former he protected by a wise and far-seeing policy. All subsequent 
trouble with the good Indians are traceable to a departure from his methods. To the 
bad Indians he showed no mercy. The tribes on the banks of the Ohio made life on 

moo. the frontiers a terror by their incursions. As there was no regular 

army, militia must be employed. General Harmar was defeated by the savages ; St. Clair 

1101. was surprised and put to flight. " Mad Anthony " Wayne then in- 

vaded their country at the head of three thousand men, utterly defeating them, and 

i7S4. threatening to rise from the grave to hunt them down if, after his 

death, they attacked the whites again. 

During the second administration of Washington, the Western oounties of Penn- 

no4. sylvania rebelled against the excise laws. The rude settlers could see 

no justice in the tax upon the products of their stills. The} T drove out the revenue 
officers, and defied the government, seven thousand insurgents combining to resist the 
execution of the laws. The President thereupon called out the militia of four States, 

* The population of Philadelphia was then about forty-live thousand men, women, and children ! 




THOMAS JEFFERSON. 



(pp. 861.) 









862 AMERICA. 

and the insurrection was put down at once, and without bloodshed. The leaders were 
convicted of treason, but soon pardoned. For Washington, though prompt, was 
patient, never cruel, and never afraid to show mercy. In 1795 he made a treaty with 
1795. Spain, in which he obtained for the United States the free navigation 

of the Mississippi, and the privilege of landing at New Orleans. In 1796 he declined 
a re-election. His second administration had been stormy and often unpopular ; he 
had been assailed in pamphlets and in caricatures ; accused of theft and treachery, of 
aspirations for a crown, of cowardice and arrogance. There was a brief period, in 
which he found it almost impossible to get a secretary of state, and when he seemed 
to have lost not only fame, but the affection of the people. But in 1796 it was plain 
enough that the clamor came from the noisy, and not from the intelligent ; that the 
people desired him to remain where he might shelter them with his courageous wis- 
dom, and guide them to further progress. But he longed for the pleasures of his quiet 
home, and he deemed it best for the future of the country, that he should abandon, 
voluntarily and in the strength of his manhood, the responsibility that he had 
neither sought nor shunned. So he set the example that, through the simple force 
of his character, has become the unwritten law of the land. The president of the 
United States serves two terms only. 

§ 767. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the candidates for the succes- 
sion. Adams, a hot Federalist, was chosen by a small majority, but soon quarreled 
with Hamilton, the acknowledged leader of his party. France was again the cause of 
trouble. The Convention and the Reign of Terror had been succeeded by the 
Directory. And the Directory was treating the TTnited States with contemptuous in- 
solence, rejecting their ambassadors and capturing their vessels upon the slightest 
pretext. Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry were sent to the French republic to seek for 
reconciliation. They were told unofficially that by heavy bribes to the members of 
the Directory and a heavy loan to the Republic, the difficulties could be arranged. 
To which America responded " millions for defence but not one cent for tribute." The 
lios.itoo. navy was increased, arms and ammunition were purchased, an 
army was recruited, Washington was called from his retirement, letters of 
marque and reprisal were issued, and the aspect threatened war. The alien and 
sedition acts were passed in the midst of this excitement, but soon became unpopular. 
The people, jealous of personal liberty and the freedom of the press, condemned, in 
calmer moments, statutes so dangerous to both. 

The letters of marque and reprisal soon bore fruit. Captain Truxton of the 
frigate Constellation captured the French frigate LTnsurgente, while the privateers 
captured and brought into port fifty or more armed vessels of the French. But Pres- 
ident Adams suddenly determined to have peace ; he sent a new minister to France, 
who found Napoleon Bonaparte in power. The young general was too sagacious not 
to see the value of America's friendship, and war was easily averted. 

But this act of Adams disgusted his party, and especially Hamilton, who desired 

war. After a contest of virulent abuse, Jefferson and Burr received each seventy-three, 

isoo. and Adams and Pinckney each sixty-five electoral votes. A defect of 

the Federal constitution was suddenly disclosed. Who was president ? The people 

had meant to have Jefferson. But the Federalists insisted upon having Burr. This 




£863) 



864 AMERICA. 

they could (so they thought) accomplish, as the constitution required the House of 
Representatives to chose, when no candidate received a majority of all the votes. 

The House balloted thirty-six times ; at last some of the Federalists gave way, 
and Jefferson was chosen. To prevent the recurrence of such a difficulty, the con- 
stitution was amended and each elector now votes separately for president and 
vice-president. 

2. The Period of Democratic Rule. 1801-1849. 

§ 768. Parties were already clearly defined. During the administration of Wash- 
ington, they had existed in a half-formed state. But the anti-Federalists gradually dis- 
appeared. The More Perfect Union succeeded so splendidly under its great promoter 
and its first president, that few ventured to continue their attacks. But early in the 
nineties, Jefferson began the creation of the Democratic or Republican party. He had 
no sympathy with Hamilton, personally or politically. He believed him bent upon a 
monarchy, upon the destruction of local liberty, and the creation of a government 
modelled after that of England. The alien and sedition laws excited him to bitter 
opposition, and he wrote the Kentucky resolutions in the fever of this excitement. 
But elected to the presidency, his conduct was happily not always consistent with his 
theories ; and with him began the long period of democratic rule, broken only by the 
brief interval of the first Harrison administration. 

a. Territorial Expansion and the Admission of Neiv States. 

§ 769. The Union, although in possession of a vast domain, was dependent upon 
Spain for the navigation of the Mississippi, without which the West had no communi- 
cation with the sea. Louisiana returned, quite unexpectedly, into the hands of 
France, in 1800. The English threatened to take it. Napoleon, the consul, was glad 
to sell, and Jefferson was eager to buy. For fifteen millions of dollars he bought all the 
iso3. territory between the Mississippi river and the Rocky mountains. His 

purchase included the present states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, 
Nebraska, North and South Dakota, with parts of several others. It doubled the area 
of the United States, kept both England and France out of the southwest, and sep- 
arated Florida from the other possessions of Spain. Florida was a thorn in the side 
of Georgia ; it had become a nest of pirates, runaway slaves, and wandering Indians 
(Seminoles). After futile attempts to clean it out, it was conquered by General Jack- 
isia. son, in 1818, and the next year purchased from Spain for five million dol- 

1845. lars. No further acquisitions of territory were made, until 1845, when 

Texas sought admission into the Union. Austin, Houston, and other Americans had 
made the country independent of Mexico ; and, in spite of opposition, it was annexed 
by Congress. Shortly after the election of President Polk, Oregon was acquired by 
discovery and exploration, though the title to it was disputed by Great Britain, and 
not confirmed until the treaty of 1846, which gave the Union, Oregon, Washington, 
and Idaho, in all about 250,000 square miles. 

Boundary quarrels with Mexico soon provoked a war which led to a further ex- 
tension of the national territory. California and New Mexico fell to the victors, upon 
the payment of $15,000,000. Thus in half a century the area of the country was 
quadrupled, and the American flag carried westward to the Pacific ocean. 



866 AMERICA. 

§ 770. But this rapidity of acquisition seems a trivial matter, when compared 
with the swift movements of emigrants, and the sudden development of the country. 
About the time of the Revolutionary war, settlers pushed. into the southwest, creating 
the new states of Kentucky and Franklin (now called Tennessee). A movement of 
greater importance developed Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The northwest ordinance 
of 1787 dedicated the territory of that section to perpetual freedom ; a 'similar ordi- 
nance touching the southwest might have changed the course of American history. 
Kentucky, which was settled by Daniel Boone in 1769, was admitted to the Union in 
1792, Tennessee in 1796. Ohio entered in 1802, Indiana in 1816, and Illinois in 1818. 
In 1818 the union of the eleven states had become a confederation of thirty, and the 
population of three millions had become thirty millions. 

b. Foreign Affairs. War with England. Difficulties with England a?id France. War 

with Mexico. Indian Wars. 

§ 771. Washington was scrupulously careful to avoid foreign comjjlications ; 
Adams, at a critical moment, averted war with France. Jefferson desired peace, and 
bore with patience many insults from the French and English. But he triumphed 
isoi. easily over the pirates of Tripoli and the north coast of Africa. These 

freebooters cared neither for man nor God, but Jefferson taught them to respect the 
American flag. Tripoli agreed, in 1805, no longer to molest the ships and sailors of 
the United States of America. 

Far more serious were the difficulties growing out of the wars of Europe. En- 
gland and France were seeking to destroy each other. Each forbade American ships 
to trade with the enemy, and the English seized American seamen and forced them to 
serve under the Union Jack. Jefferson rejected the treaty negotiated with England, by 
Pinckney and Monroe, in 1806, because it did not formally prohibit the impressment of 
seamen. Napoleon declared the British coasts in a state of blockade ; England decreed 
that neutrals should not trade with France or her allies. Napoleon then added the decree 
of Milan to that of Berlin, confiscating any vessel that submitted to be searched by 
British captains. Jefferson, not to be outdone, and believing American products es- 
sential to European life and welfare, urged and succeeded in getting an embargo act, 
isoo-iso?. closing American ports to every form of foreign trade. It did not 
ruin Europe ; it nearly ruined America. Finally Congress modified the act, and lim- 
ited its prohibitions to trade with France and England. Jefferson's successor, Madison, 
re-opened commerce with Great Britain, or thought to do so. But the British minister 
mistook his instructions, and the elated Americans fell into anger and despair. 
Napoleon next deceived the President, trying to involve him in trouble with Great 
Britain. The people of the United States, being exasperated, were ready to believe 
lsii. any evil of the English. When the Indians, under Tecumseh, rose 

against the settlers of the west, England was accused of furthering the plot. When 
a scamp named Henry brought a package of forged letters to President Madison, as 
evidence of England's villany, they were purchased for a good round sum, and believed 
to be genuine, by the credulous haters of perfidious Albion. A young democracy, 
under the lead of Henry Clay, demanded "sailors' rights and free trade" and began 
clamoring for war ; and in 1811, active preparations for war were begun. These 
demonstrations failed, of course, to impress a ministry engaged in a desperate struggle 




JAMES MADISON. 



{pp. 867.) 



AMERICA. 



with the mighty subverter of monarchies, Napoleon ; and the next June, Congress, 
unable to obtain from England redress for the past, or pledges for the future, 
declared war against her. 

§ 772. The priva- 
teers soon justified 
the expectations with 
which this war was 
begun ; they nearly 
destroyed the mer- 
chant marine of Great 
Britain. The Amer- 
ican navy was glori- 
ously successful. 
The Guerriere was 
shattered by the frig- 
ate Constitution ; the 
ism. Frolic was 
captured by the 
Wasp ; the Macedo- 
nian was next taken 
by Decatur's frigate, 
the United States ; 
and the Java struck 
her flag to Captain 
Bain bridge, com- 
manding the Consti- 
tution. 

But on the land 
the year was one of 
great disappointment 
and disaster. Gen- 
eral Hull marched 
into Canada ; he was 
driven back to De- 
troit, where he was be- 
sieged and frightened 
into capitulation. 
General Van Rensse- 
laer collected another 
army on the Niagara 
river. He sent over 
one thousand men to 
capture the Canadian 
village of Queens- 
town. The militia however refused to support them, and they too were compelled 
to surrender. Six weeks afterward, General Smythe made a second attempt, which 





PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. 



(pp. 869.) 



870 



AMERICA. 



failed absurdly, and compelled him to resign his command. Dearborn brought up the 
rear of incompetents. He commanded a large and well-appointed army, and was con- 
spicuous for inactivity. 
i8i3. The campaign of 
1813 promised, at first, no 
great lustre to the Ameri- 
can arms. Proctor, the 
English commander in 
Michigan, was obliged to 
return to Maiden, but 
Ogdensburgh, New York, 
was taken by the British. 
A force of Americans, fall- 
ing into an ambuscade at 
Beaver Dams, was com- 
pelled to surrender. But 
later in the year, the 
Americans recovered con- 
trol of the Great Lakes. 
Chauncey first launched a 
fleet on Lake Ontario, 
and for a while held it in 
his control. Commodore 
Perry won a splendid 
naval victory on Lake 
Erie. " We have met the 
enemy and they are ours," 
was the laconic message 
in which he announced 
his mastery of the British 
and of the upper lakes. 
Harrison's army could 
now advance and compel 
the surrender of most of 
Proctor's men who had 
hastily evacuated Maiden. 
But when he attempted a 
march upon Montreal, he 
encountered a British 
force that compelled him 
to abandon his undertak- 
ing. 
§ 773. While the Amer- 
icans were thus wasting their strength to no purpose along the frontier, the entier 
Atlantic sea coast was blockaded by English squadrons. The large cities in the 
East began to tremble, and New England sullenly opposed the war. Suddenly Amer- 








< 

a 
o 

H 
M 
ft 
< 






872 



AMERICA. 



ica was startled by the news of Napoleon's overthrow ; that meant a sending of 
British veterans fresh from their triumphs to carry on the war in America. But on 

ist4. July 5, 1814, 
Gen. Browne fought and 
won the battle of Chip- 
pewa in Canada, compell- 
ing the British to retreat 
to their intrenchments. 
The latter, reinforced by 
troops from England, met 
the Americans again at 
Bridgewater; but the 
battle, though furious, 
was not decisive. Browne 
retired to Fort Erie. 
Drummond, the British 
general, besieged him. 
Browne determined upon 
a sortie, in which he was 
completely successful. 
Drummond raised the 
siege, and the Canadian 
campaign was over. 
Meanwhile, Sir George 
Prevost, the governor of 
Canada, led an army 
across to Lake Cham- 
plain, while a British fleet 
of sixteen vessels sailed 
down the lake to meet 
him at Plattsburg. Ma- 
comb, with three thousand 
men, was posted behind 
the Saranac river ; Mac- 
donough, with a small 
fleet, was moored at 
Plattsburg. The ten 
thousand troops of Pre- 
vost were seized with 
panic, and fled precipi- 
tate \y, when it was 
learned that the British 
ships had struck their 
colors, after two hours 
and a half hard fighting. Downie, the British commander, got away with the 
gunboats, but his larger vessels were all taken. Elsewhere, though, the Americans 





JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 



{pp. 873.) 



874 AMERICA. 

were overwhelmed with disaster. In July the British entered the Penobscot and 
conquered the country east of the river. In August they entered the Chesapeake, 
passed the Potomac, and landed a force of five thousand men under General Ross, 
who marched upon Washington, set fire to the Capitol and the White House, and then 
hastily returned. British frigates next sailed up the Potomac, and levied contribu- 
tions upon Alexandria. Gen. Ross then moved upon Baltimore. A fight took place 
at North Point, in which Ross himself was killed. But as the fleet made little impres- 
sion upon the fort by their cannonade, and as the militia seemed to be strongly in- 
trenched, the English determined to abandon the attack. 

§ 774. A treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814. This treaty 
left things as they were before the war began ; nevertheless, the right of search has 
not since then been exercised by England, and was finally yielded. But before the 
.ran. isis. news of peace arrived in the United States, General Andrew Jackson won 
his famous victory of New Orleans. The British expected to strike a final and a fatal 
blow. If they could conquer the entrance to the Mississippi Valley, the republic 
would be at their mercy. General Packenham made the attack with twelve thousand 
^iilSiflllllli men, on January 8, 1815. General Jackson entrenched be- 

hind earthbanks and cotton bales, held the invaders at bay. 
Packenham was killed; his forces lost heavily, and soon 
Ik gave up the fight. 

The Hartford Convention met just before the battle, to 
i8i4. decide that the war was a failure, and to 

' propose certain amendments to the constitution. It discred- 
ited New England for many years, being made the subject 
of frequent taunts and reproaches, in the exciting discus- 
james monroe. sions between the South and the North. But the war of 

1812 was the last armed conflict of the United States with 
any European power, although the nation has been several times upon the brink of war. 
During the administration of James Monroe, the Spanish colonies of Central and 
South America declared their independence. The king of Spain sought desperately 
to hold them, and looked to Russia and France for help. Canning, the English minis- 
ter, proclaimed that he had called "the New World into existence to redress the bal- 
ance of the old." But what Canning did, was only to join President Monroe in the 
declaration that the continental powers would not be permitted to reimpose the Span- 
is23. ish j-oke upon the self-liberated lands. In his message of December 2 

1823, Monroe warned France and Russia that the United States would regard any at- 
tempts to extend their authority in America as dangerous to our peace and safety. It 
is sheer ignorance to speak of the Monroe doctrine as a declaration that Europe must 
" keep her hands off America." Spain has Cuba, England has Canada. But Monroe, 
under the advice of John Quincy Adams, gave the continental powers to understand, 
that any attempt to enlarge their influence, would be unfriendly conduct toward the 
United States. 

§ 775. While Andrew Jackson was president, the " French Spoliations " caused 
no little excitement, and for a time it looked like war. The "English Spoliations" 
were atoned for by the war of 1812, but not until Louis Philippe came to the French 
throne, did France consider seriously the wrong done to American commerce during 





ANDREW JACKSON. 



(pp. S75.) 



876 



AMERICA. 




MARTIN VAN BUREN. 



is3i. the Napoleonic wars. A treat}- was concluded in 1831 providing for 

indemnity. But when the draft was presented at the French treasury, the appropria- 
tion had been forgotten, and the draft was protested. The King assured the Presi- 
dent that the money would surel}' he paid. But kings promise, and' Parliaments 
refuse. General Jackson exploded with wrath, and recom- 
mended a law authorizing reprisals upon French property. 
"I know them French. They won't pay unless they're 
made to ! " he exclaimed to his famous Kitchen cabinet. 
But the French were angrier than Jackson. The French 
minister at Washington received orders to demand his pass- 
ports ; the American minister received his passports, with 
out orders, from the government. An apology was de- 
manded from the President, and preparations were made for 
war. Jackson stood firm, supported as he was by the 
ablest men of the country, John Quincy Adams in the lead. 
England offered her mediation, and the ancient friendship between France and the 
United States was at length restored. 

Again the Maine boundary question caused great bitterness, and threatened to 
i8*st. provoke a war with England. It was finally settled by the Webster- 

Ashburton treaty, of 1842. This was not the least achieve- 
is4«. ment of those celebrated men. In 1846 the 

cry of " Fifty-four forty, or fight " went from Oregon to 
Maine, and from the Lakes to the Gulf. Great Britain ulti- 
mately yielded all the territory, south of forty-nine degrees, 
to the California line, and there was no fight. 

But the annexation of Texas produced a war with 
is45. Mexico. Texas had won her independence 

under the lead of Sam Houston and Stephen Austin. 
Reluctantly, the North consented to admit this vast slave 
territory into the American Union, especially with the under- 
standing that five States might be carved out of its domain. Once, admitted, Texas 
claimed the Rio Grande river as her boundary line. Mexico placed it on the Nueces 
river, one hundred miles further east. President Tyler, " his Accidency," ordered 
General Taylor to move to the Rio Grande. Mexico first ordered, then tried to drive 
him away. Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma soon made 
Zachary Taylor illustrious. The Mexicans retreated before 
the winner of these two battles, and Taylor took possession 
of Matamoros. 

§ 776. War having been made by the President, Con- 
stay 13, i84e. gress declared it on May 13, 1846. Taylor 
took Monterey in September, and with his five thousand 
men defeated Santa Anna, and his twenty thousand at 
Buena Vista. General Scott was now ordered to Mexico with 
a second army. He landed at Vera Cruz, and took the 
Gibraltar of Mexico ; then pushed forward to Cerro Gordo. 

isjj. In the late summer of 1847 he crossed the mountains, and marched 




WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 




JAMES K. POLK. 



878 



AMERICA. 



down upon the city of Mexico. But first he must conquer the "King's Mill" 
Molino del Rey, and then the castle of Chapultepec. The capital saw the stars and 
stripes waving over the ancient palace of the Montezumas on the morning of Septem- 
ber 14, 1847. 

Grant, Lee, Sherman, Jefferson Davis, " Stonewall " Jackson, Kearney, in fact 
nearly all the men afterward distinguished in the civil war, served in Mexico. But 
among its sacrifices was the favorite son of Henry Clay. 

§ 777. Indian Wars. Reference has been made already to the conspiracy of Te- 
cumseh. He and his Indians were utterly defeated by General Harrison at Tippeca- 
noe, in 1811. Three years later, General Jackson marched against the Creeks, and 

drove them before him. They made 
a stand at Horse Shoe Bend, on a 
branch of the Alabama river, where 
they were routed utterly, and com- 
pelled to give up the larger part of 
their territory. In 1818 Jackson 
drove the Seminoles to bay in Flor- 
ida, and in 1842 these Indians were 
finally conquered by General Tajdor, 
after a desperate struggle that lasted 
for seven years. Black Hawk, a 
chief of the West, attacked the emi- 
is32. grants to Illinois and 
Wisconsin, but he and his tribe were 
driven at last beyond the Mississippi 
river. Thus the Indians were dis- 
possessed, partly by their own folly, 
and partly by the energy and the 
rapacity of the whites, of nearly 
sixty million acres of land in Geor- 
gia, Alabama, Missouri, Indiana, 
Illinois and Michigan. They strug- 
gled desperately against the west- 
ward progress of the European set- 
tlers, provoking a vindictive hostil- 
it} 7 , from which the wise policy of 
removing them to Indian Territory subseq\ientlj r rescued them. 

c. Political Development. The Constitution in Operation. Political Parties. The Tar- 

iff. Currency Questions. Changes in the States. 

§ 778. Thomas Jefferson founded the old Republican or, as it came to be called 
in after years, the Democratic party. Madison joined him in 1796, and Aaron Burr 
soon made the new party triumphant in New York, which has been, ever since, the 
determining factor in presidential contests. 

Three causes combined to produce the result. Personal dislike of Alexander 
Hamilton, the leader of the Federalists ; fear of the centralizing tendencies that were 




GENERAL WIXFIELD SCOTT. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 879 

so marked in the first decade of the More Perfect Union ; and the great impulse given 
to democratic principles by the French Revolution. Hamilton, though a statesman of 
the highest rank, could stoop to the meanest intrigue. He could both efface and de- 
face himself in the pursuit of lofty purposes and far-reaching plans. It was therefore 
easy to suspect him of designs that he never cherished, and to attribute selfish and 
dangerous motives to his most patriotic measures. The centralizing tendencies of 
Washington's administrations sprang from the instinct of self-preservation. Opposi- 
tion might, and did annoy and distress him, but his dignity and courage, his sagacity 
and foresight, lifted the presidential office into commanding authority. John Adams, 
however, had neither the prestige nor the majestic self-control of his illustrious pred- 
ecessor. Charges of presidential tyranny made against the "puritan monarchist" 
found willing ears, — in the North, because the shadow of King George still disturbed 
the dreams of anxious Republicans; in the South, because the Federal Government 
might grow strong enough (the planters suspected) to abolish slavery. The paradox 
of American politics is this dread of tyranny for the whites, and dread of liberty for 
the negroes. 

§ 779. The Constitution was hardly in operation before the first group of amend- 
ments passed to adoption. They modified materially the powers of the Federal Gov- 
ernment, and are perhaps more valuable to-day than they were in 1791. 

The election of 1800 however, revealed a defect in the instrument, that no one 
had foreseen. And when Burr received the same number of electoral votes as Jef- 
ferson, there began one of those disgraceful attempts to defeat the popular will by a 
resort to constitutional chicanery, which are the perpetual scandal of political strife. 
The wily young " boss " of the New York democracy, the prototype of the American 
practical politician, "full of strategems and spoils" had been reluctantly accepted as 
vice-president by the older Jeffersonians. The angry Federalists, in their hatred of 
Jefferson, were ready to make Burr president, and would have done so, but for Alex- 
ander Hamilton, who, little as he liked the Virginia statesman, knew him to be what 
Burr was not, a patriot, a thinker, and so far as a politician could be "indifferent hon- 
est." That Jefferson contemplated the use of force, can hardly be doubted now ; that 
the crisis came near to a great calamit3 r , is equally clear. Jefferson made light of it 
in after years, but he was always a little jaunty when the danger lay behind him, and 
a little flighty when he looked it in the face. Elected finally, and inaugurated with 
isoi.iso9. ostentatious simplicity, he refused to open Congress in person, and 
sent a written message. But in the Louisiana purchase and the embargo act, he 
stretched the power of the Federal government to its utmost limit. So too, in the 
prosecution of Aaron Burr for treason, he did not scruple to employ all the resources 
of his mighty office, and that Burr escaped punishment for his daring project to dis- 
member the Union, was certainly no fault of his former ally. Yet the Virginia presi- 
dents, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, never organized the officers of the government 
into a personal following ; indeed Madison declared, in a famous debate in 1789, that 
for a president to remove men from office for other than public reasons, would be in- 
famous, and a proper ground for impeachment. And it redounds to Jefferson's honor, 
that even the exasperating conduct of John Adams, who occupied the last minutes of 
his official life in filling offices with his friends and partisans, could not drive him from 
the practice of his conviction, that to exclude a man from the public service for cour- 



880 



AMERICA. 



ageous and conscientious voting, was to transform the Republic into the "spoils" of 
political hirelings. 

§ 780. The bullet buried by Aaron Burr in the breast of Alexander Hamilton 
destroyed the Federal party. What little remained of it, after the death of its great 
leader, perished in the War of 1812. But as Jefferson foresaw, the Democrats split 
inevitably into factions. Yet when the rupture came, it was not about principles, but 
about persons ; it was not a quarrel about public policy, but about political methods. 

Candidates for the presidency had been nominated by a caucus of congressmen 
ism. Iii 1824 the choice of the caucus was lone foreseen to be William H. 




DUEL BETWEEN BURR AND HAMILTON. 



Crawford of Georgia. All the statesmen of the country were then in the Democratic 
party. John Quincy Adams and Daniel Webster, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, 
Martin Van Buren and William H. Crawford, Thomas H. Benton and Andrew Jack- 
son. Under such circumstances, a nomination by a caucus of Congressmen, if ratified 
by the party leaders, meant the selection of a president by less than a hundred men. 
The country was in no mood for such a travesty of democratic institutions ; the con- 
spicuous leaders of the party were too numerous and too able to submit to its perpe- 
tration. To make the situation worse, Crawford, the prospective caucus nominee, be- 
came a paralytic in the crisis of the struggle. But dying is a hard task for a presiden- 
tial candidate, or for an outworn political system. The crippled chief was nominated, 




56 



HENRY CLAY. 



{pp. 881.) 



882 



AMERICA. 



nevertheless. Thereupon conventions in the different states placed Jackson, Quincjr 
Adams, and Clay before the people. Yet this new birth of American politics took 
place with painful throes. First of all, the people clamored for the right to choose the 
presidential electors. In New York the Crawford leaders refused the demand, and 
lost the state in consequence. And then, none of the four candidates received a ma- 
jority of all the electors. Owing to the choice of electors in several states by the re- 
spective legislatures, it is even now impossible to determine who was the popular 
choice. Andrew Jackson afterward became the most powerful and most popular man 
in the United States; but he was not so in 1824. Mr. Adams surpassed him in learn- 
ing, in eloquence, in dignity of character, in all the qualities of a statesman. But the 
election of the latter, by the House of Representatives, under the influence of Henry 
Clay, provoked a storm of hatred. Charges of bargain and corruption filled the air, 

and for the first time in our history, a 
president was cynically and system- 
is25-is2o. atically opposed, de- 
nounced, and vilified, at every step of 
his administration. These charges 
found an eas} r credence with the disap- 
pointed, and soon affected the minds of 
the great multitude ; cunning politi- 
cians saw in them the possibilities of 
future success, and when Martin Van 
Buren, after the adroitest manipulation, 
transformed the State of New York into 
a Jackson stronghold, the fate of Adams 
and of Clay was settled. 

§ 781. The period from 1823 to 
1828 thus became a determining period 
in the political development of the 
United States. It developed the State 
" boss," of which Mr. Van Buren, the 
pupil of Aaron Burr, was the first suc- 
cessful specimen ; it destroyed the 
Congressional caucus, and created the 
state conventions ; it shifted the interest of presidential elections from public to per- 
sonal questions ; and it led to that system of " understandings " with party leaders, in 
the several States, from which have proceeded innumerable woes. When therefore 
isno-is33. General Jackson was inaugurated in 1829, the " clean sweep " that fol- 
lowed, was a natural result. "In the first month of the new administration more 
removals from office were made, than had occurred from the foundation of the govern- 
ment to that time." Aaron Burr had triumphed. The system introduced by him into 
the politics of New York and adopted hj Marcy and Van Buren, the system of Sir 
Robert Walpole and of George III. had been adopted by the hero of New Orleans, 
and become the working system of the United States of America. " To the victor 
belong the spoils." Henceforth the ballot box should decide, not between opposing 




CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MARSHALL. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



883 



"principles or opposing policies, nor between rival statesmen even, but between rival 
armies of place-hunters clamoring for spoils. 

The Democratic National Convention for nominating a president followed in 1832. 
It was the first-born child of the new system, and its first cry was of course for the 
renomination of Andrew Jackson. 

§ 782. While the President was thus enlarging his authoritj', the Supreme Court 
of the United States was establishing firmly the national theory of the Federal Union. 
Inspired by the powerful mind of John Marshall, that great tribunal expounded for 
sixty years the paramount sovereignty of the United States, in a series of decisions 
both lucid and logical. But this action of the Supreme Court followed, and by no 




BANK OF THE UNITED STATES AT PHILADELPHIA. (NOW CUSTOM HOUSE.) 

means anticipated the action of Congress. 

The Federal Congress has been the shaping energy of our political development. 
For the second statue of the first Federal Congress established the protective 
system ; and the Bank of the United States soon followed. Thus the industrial and 
financial system of the entire people were brought, at the very beginning, under 
Federal control, where they still remain. Internal improvements, at the expense of 
the Union, were ordered at first with hesitating prudence; to make them now is estab- 
lished public policy. Congressmen have asserted and acquired power in the appoint- 
ment of public offices, which the framers of the constitution innocently supposed 
would be impossible ; and by entrusting their speaker with the appointment of com- 



884 AMERICA. 

raittees have created an officer more powerful for good or evil than any but the President 
himself. During the period of Democratic rule, anxiety for slavery held in check and 
sometimes paralyzed these tendencies of Congress to enlarge its authority ; but when 
slavery could be strengthened or advantaged by a stretch of legislative power, the 
subtle brain of Calhoun devised at once the means and the excuse. Witness his ex- 
traordinary suggestions, touching the right of petition, and excluding from the mails 
the publications forbidden by the various States. 

§ 783. Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun joined hands in 1816 to repair the 
wastes of war, and to foster infant industries. Later on they parted company upon 
this and other questions. But the tariff of 1824, Clay's greatest triumph, encountered 
the massive blows of Daniel Webster. New England and the cotton States opposed it 
vehemently, and the "American System," as Clay called it, was established by the 
grain-growing States, the Middle States of the East and of the West and of the South. 
General Jackson was for the American system in 1824, for incidental protection in 
1829, and for tariff reform in 1831. But Clay loaded down the American system with 
his defence of the U. S. Bank in 1832, and led the Whigs, as he afterward called his 
ts33. followers, to overwhelming defeat. Yet the next year he proposed 

and carried through the compromise tariff of 1833, in order to save Calhoun from hu- 
miliation and political ruin, — an act that brought him no gratitude and great regret. 
The tariff of 1828, " the tariff of abominations," as South Carolina called it, was 
greatly modified ; a sliding scale of reductions was so arranged that in 1842 there 
ism. would be left a general rate of twenty per cent, on dutiable goods. 

When this year arrived, Clay was once more powerful, and the American system was 
re-established. 

In 1844 the position of parties was again beclouded by the legend " Polk, 

is**. Dallas, and the tariff of 1842." But this legend dissolved in 1846, 

xs4o. when Mr. Dallas gave the casting vote that carried the abolition 

of protective duties and established the tariff for revenue only, which lasted until 

1861. 

§ 784. The financial system of the country was, as we have seen, established 
first by Alexander Hamilton. But the Bank of the' United States encountered, from 
the start, determined opposition. In 1811 Henry Clay defeated an attempt to re- 
charter it; although in 1816 he and Calhoun joined hands to give it new life. and 
power, and during the administration of Andrew Jackson, he was its indefatigable 
champion. 

The two men were both children of the people, and both men of genius ; Jackson 
was incarnate courage ; Clay was embodied conciliation. Jackson loved fight, Clay 
JS33-1S3?. loved victory. Jackson was irascible, incorruptible, self-willed, sus- 
picious of his enemies, and intolerant of opposition, even from his friends. Clay was 
imperious, and impetuous, swift to think but swift to change, chivalrous, high-minded, 
sensitive, passionate, fascinating. The authority of Clay was in his eloquence, his 
lofty mien, his glowing eyes, the sweep of his gesture, the royal movement of his form, 
the commanding music of his voice. The authority of Jackson was, in his rugged 
speech, his defiant deeds, his unflinching adherence to his purpose, his belief that the 
will of Andrew Jackson was the wish of the people and the decree of the Eternal. 
But though Jackson loved fight and drifted naturally into collision with other men, he 




JOHN C. CALHOUN. 



(pp. 885.) 



886 AMERICA. 

was always wary at the beginning. Clay, on the contrary, was precipitate at the out- 
set, and conciliatory in the crisis of a great conflict. And to him rather than to Jack- 
son is due the destruction of the bank. Jackson was ready to make terms ; Clay 
refused. The re -charter was passed by Congress, but vetoed by the President ; and 
the government deposits were next withdrawn by a doubtful stretch of executive 
power. Severed from the government, the bank lapsed into speculation, and finally 
into complete and ruinous disaster. 

The deposits that had been withdrawn were distributed among " pet " banks of 
the various states ; a policy that produced the destructive panic and widespread bank- 
ruptcy of 1837. 

Clay and Jackson, the one by his precipitancy and the other by his obstinate dar- 
ing, had sown the wind ; Van Buren reaped the whirlwind. The specie circular of 
is3i-is4i. Jackson had discredited the paper money of the banks ; the people- 

reasoned that if Jackson would not take it for public lands, it could not have much 
value. Van Buren, however, when he became president, refused to recall this "specie- 
circular." He convened an extra session of Congress, to stare a deficit and a bankrupt 
country in the face. The New York "boss" was a man of great ability; cunning, 

courageous, conciliatory ; a statesman as well as the creator 
of a political machine. He proposed that the Government 
transact its own fiscal business ; " collect, guard, transfer, 
and disburse its own monies." This sub-treasury scheme r 
which has now been in operation for more than half a cen- 
tury, was not passed until 1840. Clay saw in it "the ruin 
of republican institutions," and thundered against it with 
solemn prophecies; Webster opposed it with more foresight 
and a calmer wisdom. He discerned in it the beginning of 
millard fillmore. that government interference with the currency of the- 

country, which is the constant menace of our commercial life. 
Overthrown by Clay and his followers in 1841, the system was re-established in 
i84,e. 1846, and is likely to endure for many years to come. 

§ 785. Meanwhile the States of the North and the West were tending to a broader 
democracy ; restrictions upon the franchise were swept away ; judges and officers 
generally were made elective, and foreigners were admitted readily to a share in the- 
government. Presidential electors, once chosen by legislatures, came to be chosen by 
the people ; and the State constitutions generally were revised in the supposed inter- 
est of the larger number. The government of the few, founded by our fathers, was 
shaped by their sons, acting in the several States, into the government of the many. 
For the constitution of 1787 was so deftly contrived, that the popular basis of it would 
broaden or contract according to the action of the different States. (Article 1, sec- 
tion 2, clause 1). 

d. Industrial Development. The Grroivth of Cities and of Religious Denominations. 

§ 786. The first invention that powerfully affected American history was the- 
saw-gin of Eli Whitney, by means of which a slave who could before clean but five or 
six pounds of cotton in a day, was enabled to clean a thousand. Fulton came next 
with his invention of the steamboat, which gave new significance to the Hudson and 





DANIEL WEBSTER. 



{pp. 887.) 



AMERICA. 



the Mississippi, to the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The Erie canal was begun 
in 1817, and finished in 1825, and was speedily followed by canals elsewhere. Light- 
ing by gas began in 1822, not without bitter opposition from many enlightened citi- 
zens. Congress constructed a national road from Cumberland, in Maryland, as far as 
Indiana, to further immigration to the West. But in 1828 an English locomotive 
made its first trip near Mauch Chunk, in Pennsylvania. Stephenson's " Rocket " 
aroused the mechanics of America, and the " Arabian " started to run in 1833. The 
discovery that anthracite coal would burn, was diffused about this time, and began a 
quiet revolution in domestic life. But most wonderful of all, perhaps, was the inven- 
tion of farm implements. 

Thomas Jefferson could handle the violin and the plow with equal skill. Writing 
in 1788, he indicated the ideas for an improved plow, which were subsequently carried 
out to perfection by Jethro Wood (1819), Joel Nourse (1842), and James Oliver 

(1853). But the great triumph of 
American invention in agricultural im- 
plements was the reaper of Obed Hus- 
sey, patented December 31, 1833. The 
manufacture of this machine began in 
1834, and its chief feature has been 
incorporated in all harvesting machines 
made since. A patent was granted 
Cyrus McCormick, June 21, 1834 ; but 
the reapers built under this patent were 
not sufficiently practical for the market. 
Hussey's, however, were immediately 
introduced, and their inventor continued 
to build and sell them until his death. 
Hussey was probably indebted some- 
what to the invention of Patrick Bell, 
an Episcopal clergyman, of Scotland, 
who made a reaper in 1826. These 
machines worked well, and one of them 
was used successfully in Madison 
County, N. Y., in 1834. McCormick began the manufacture of a practical machine at 
Brockport, N. Y., in 1845, and his subsequent success, in the introduction of the 
reaper, obscured obvious facts concerning its development. The Pitts brothers were 
the first American inventors to make a successful thresher. Their patent is dated 
December 29, 1837. The " Chicago Pitts," as it was called, found a market wherever 
grain was raised to any extent. Reaper and thresher determined the development of 
the West, as the cotton gin determined that of the South. While the latter tended to 
perpetuate slavery, steamboat and locomotive, reaper and thresher, made possible the 
States and helped develop the freemen that wrought its ruin. 

Franklin played with the lightning, as Jefferson played with plow and violin. 
And the impulse given by him to the study of electricity led to the invention of the 
Morse telegraph, the electro-magnetic, which began to speak in 1844. 

In the same year the copper mines of Michigan were opened, the Indians retiring 




KOBERT FULTON. 




ELI WHITNEY AND THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 



( pp. 889.) 



890 



AMERICA. 



from Lake Superior, and miners rushing thither. The sewing machine was patented 
by Elias Howe, in 1846, and the Hoe printing press the following year. These two 
inventions made possible the elaborate gowns and mammoth newspapers of the present 
day. 

In 1848 gold was discovered in California, along the Sacramento river. Streams 
of adventurers hastened by sea and land to the "diggings;" and California became a 
free State. 



§ 787. Philadelphia was, in 1790, the largest city in the Union, having a popu- 
lation of 42,520 souls. Boston, Baltimore, New York, and Charleston, were then her 

only rivals, though Albany promised 
to be a city of importance. In 1850 
Philadelphia took second place, with 
a population of 340,045 ; New York 
had climbed to half a million, and 
Chicago had bounded into the race 
with thirty thousand. Six cities re- 
joiced in more than a hundred thou- 
sand each, and there were more than 
thirty growing cities in the Union. 
The entire population of the nation 
was 23,191,876, and the centre of 
population was moving steadily west- 
ward. Foreign immigration had 
rapidly increased, owing to the 
famine in Ireland and the revolutions 
of 1848. The prospect of home- 
steads and of liberty, of political 
equality and free education, brought 
thousands hither, and these attracted 
thousands more. 

§ 788. The Religious Denomina- 
tions. The Church of England, sub- 
sequently the Protestant Episcopal 
Church, was deprived of its glebe 
lands and church property by the 
Virginia legislature, in 1802. But Trinity Church, in New York city, and Christ 
Church, Philadelphia, were in better case. Under Hobart, Bishop of New York, that 
diocese became powerful and commanding ; Griswold, of Massachusetts, accomplished 
much in New England. The " Oxford movement " begun by Keble, Newman, and 
Pusey in 1833, has powerfully affected, almost transformed, the Episcopal Church in 
America. For this ceased to be predominantly low, and became both, high and broad. 
The Congregationalists of New England divided into many parties : Unitarians, Ortho- 
dox, Old Calvinists, Hopkinsians, and the like. But by a plan of union formed with 
the Presbyterians, in 1801, they hindered the extension of their own system and fur- 
thered dissensions among the Presbyterians. 




PROF. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



891 



For the Congregational wine fermented in the old bottles, and in 1838 there was 
a division into Old School and New School bodies. Princeton Seminary, established 
in 1812, furnished fire and learning for the Old School churches, while Union 
Seminary, founded in 1836, inculcated the gentler though less consistent doctrines of 
the New School divines. The Cumberland Presbytery declared its independence of 
the General Assembly in 1810; while 
the United Presbyterians combined 
and perpetuated in America, seces- 
sions from the Scottish church, dating 
back to 1688. 

The Lutherans of the United 
States formed a General Synod in 
1820, and in 1825 the German Re- 
formed leaders established a seminary 
at Mercersburg, of which John Nevin 
and Philip Schaff were the teachers. 
Here was developed the " Mercers- 
burg theology ; " here began a trans- 
formation of the doctrine and worship 
of the Church in America. 

The Methodists were troubled 
little by doctrinal differences : their 
creed was too simple, their preaching 
too urgent, and their purpose too 
direct. But they quarrelled much 
about church government, about the 
power of superintendents, the rights 
of laymen, and the proper attitude 
toward slavery. Their free churches 
and free spiritual life, the unstudied 
eloquence and ceaseless movement 
of the early preachers, and their 
insistence upon personal experience, 
their elastic and efficient organization 
made them singularly successful. But 
in 18-44 they divided upon the ques- 
tion of slavery, and gave the first indi- 
cation of the " irrepressible conflict " 
already begun in American life. 

The Quakers divided upon doc- 
trine in 1827. The Baptists, never having been one body, could not separate. 
Mennonites and Dunkards and Seventh-day Baptists came from Germany and Hol- 
land. The Free Will Baptists organized in New England, in 1827. While Alexander 
Campbell and his followers were disfellowshipped in 1827, an event that led to the 
" Disciples," or " Campbellites," as they were variously called. 

The Roman Catholics established a metropolitan see in Baltimore, in 1808, and 



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892 AMERICA. 

held their first provincial council there in 1829, and their first plenar}- council in 
1852. In 1844 furious riots broke out in Philadelphia, in which some Catholic churches 
were destroyed. In the same year, Orestes Brownson joined the ancient church, and 
John Hughes was developing that administrative skill and political sagacity, to which 
the Roman Catholic church in New York is so much indebted. Of the many curious 
religious growths in the United States, none is so wonderful as Mormonism. Joseph 
Smith found the Book of Mormon in Manchester, N. Y., in 1830. An angel (so he 
said) guided him to the thin gold plates, upon which Mormon, the Jew, had written 
the divine revelation. In 1843 another revelation was vouchsafed him, this time to 
sanction a plurality of wives. The "Latter Day Saints" established their new 
Jerusalem at Nauvoo, Illinois. But they were driven thence in 1848, and traveled on 
to Utah, where they founded Salt Lake City. Smith perished at the hands of a mob, 
and his place was filled by Brigham Young. 

§ 789. The Development of Schools. The first half of the century was a period of 
extraordinary activity in the school life of the United States. The founders of the 
republic believed that to send "a son into the world uneducated" was to "defraud 
the community of a useful citizen, and to bequeath to it a nuisance." And the 
democratic tendencies of the age soon asserted themselves in the development of 
common schools. Many of the States created permanent school funds from the sale 
of public lands ; the Western Reserve of Ohio, for instance, which was sold for one 
million dollars, and devoted to school purposes, testifying to the thrift, the forethought 
and the intelligence of Connecticut statesmen. Taxes upon banks, lotteries, and 
other devices were also employed. 

The Northwestern Ordinance of 1787 provided that "schools, and the means of 
education, should be forever encouraged," and the polic) r therein begun was steadilj' 
maintained by Congress, which made munificent grants of public lands for school pur- 
poses to all the newly admitted States. Of the thirty million dollars distributed from 
the treasury surplus bj the act of 1836, nearly one half was given to education. But 
these large amounts furnish but a portion of the resources for mental training. 
Local taxes, paid without a murmur until sectarian strife began, are the life blood of 
our educational system. 

Horace Mann of Massachusetts stands conspicuously first as the leader in the im- 
provement of our public school system. Henry Barnard of Connecticut comes 
easily next. Thomas Dorr, the leader of Dorr's rebellion, in Rhode Island, gave to 
his State not only unrestricted suffrage, but a vigorous management and inspection 
of her town schools. 

For the better training of teachers, institutes were organized in the West, in 
1834, and in the East in 1839. The Normal school followed under the urgent pres- 
sure of James C. Carter, in 1838 ; the first appeared in Massachusetts, and others 
slowly emerged from a wearisome struggle for existence in other states. 

§ 790. For a long time Boston stood alone in the possession of high schools. 
Philadelphia followed her example with a Central High School in 1837. Although 
the Rochester and Buffalo Seminaries, established in 1827, were high schools in reality. 
Boston succeeded so well with its high school for girls, begun in 1826, that it had to 
be abandoned. The tax-payers, panic-stricken at the expense involved for educating 
so many of the other sex, insisted on its closing. Philadelphia opened a high school 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 893 

for girls in 1840, but under the guise of a training school for teachers. Cincinnati 
built one in 1847, and Boston recovered from its fright in 1852. These schools pro- 
voked no little opposition, which in Massachusetts took a legal forni. The Supreme 
Court however decided in their favor, a decision now generally accepted by the 
judges in other States. 

Thirteen state universities were added in fifty years to the four created before 
1800. Dr. Manassah Cutler, who was the author of the national policy of reserving 
the public lands for educational purposes, drew the charter for the Ohio University, 
which was the first in the Northwest. 

But the nation and the state have not done all the work of education. Religious 
zeal and private munificence have sustained the older institutions, and established 
new ones with noble self-sacrifice and glorious generosity. But three schools of 
theology existed in the United States prior to this century. Twenty-eight existed in 
1850. The first law school began in Maryland in 1812, but the progressive step was 
taken by the University of Virginia, when it co-ordinated law with language and 
science in 1825. 

" The College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York City " established in 1800, 
began a new epoch in medical training. Philadelphia however developed the medical 
department of the University of Pennsylvania so wisely, that for many years the 
majority of medical students went thither to be trained. 

The Rensselaer School of New York, and the Fellenberg Institute of Con- 
necticut, opened the pathway to industrial education. Roebling, the builder of 
Brooklyn Bridge, was an alumnus of the former. 

The West Point Academy and the Naval School were founded respectively in 
1802 and 1845. The latter is the creation of Chauvenet, the teacher, and Bancroft, 
the historian, then secretary of the navy under James K. Polk. 

§ 791. But while all this stir was making for the education of intelligence, philan- 
thropic minds were busy planning for the afflicted, the deformed and feeble-minded, 
and boldly attacking the difficult problem of educating the criminal. 

Gallaudet, a Connecticut clergyman, undertook the education of the deaf mute 
child of his neighbor; and God made of him, for his reward, the benefactor of ten 
thousands. His Connecticut asylum, opened in 1815, gave rise to eleven more in 
thirty years. 

Dr. Howe of Boston introduced the asylum for the blind into the United States, 
the Perkins Institute beginning at Boston, in 1832 ; in less than twenty years there 
were eleven such new skies shining above these liberated souls. 

Reformatories for young criminals and first offenders originated in 1820 ; they 
were instituted by private beneficence, and regarded with suspicion and as doubtful 
experiments. 

For the Indian, however, neither Congress nor philanthropists took thought. In 
1820 ten thousand dollars was appropriated to " civilize " the red man, and the Indian 
Bureau was established in 1833. But during the period of which we are treating 
now, he was the victim of treachery, neglect, rapacity, and prejudice. 

The influence of slavery upon the schools of the South requires serious study. 
De Bow's Review, a southern publication, declared in 1859 that the New England 
system was not feasible in the South. Yet noble efforts were made, and generous sums 



89i 



AMERICA. 



appropriated annually for public 
schools, in man}- of the Southern 
States. That they did not succeed 
is doubtless due in man}' ways to 
slavery, but other causes were at 
work, the chief of which date from 
the old colonial da} - s. 

Auxilary to colleges and schools, 
were the many libraries and learned 
societies, which were established in 
the first half century of our national 
existence. The powerful and capa- 
cious brain, the large and generous 
heart of Benjamin Franklin, gave the 
first impulse to these currents of in- 
tellectual energy. Quincy of Bos- 
ton, Astor of New York, and Smith- 
son, the founder of the great insti- 
tute at Washington, must be remem- 
bered with him. 

§ 792. Literature. With all this stir 
of intellectual movement, literature 
could not be lacking. Easily chief of 





RALPH WALDO EMERSON. 



WASHINGTON IRVING. 

American writers of this period was 
Washington Irving, of New York. 
/:.«..•*- is.-.o. His " Sketch Book " 
belongs, not simply to our literature, 
but to the master-pieces of the Eng- 
lish language. " Knickerbocker's 
History of New York " gave the first 
indications of the rich humor that 
softens the strenuous energy of the 
American character, while his biogra- 
phies kept alive the faith in Colum- 
bus and in Washington, dimmed in 
the one case by critical discovery, 
and eclipsed in the other by the 
legends of Napoleon. Hemy Reed 
opened up for Americans the poetiy 
of Wordsworth, Emerson made them 
acquainted with Carlyle, Longfellow 
explored the treasures of Continental 
literature, Bancroft taught them the 
value of German historical investiga- 
tion, Ticknor wrote a history of 
Spanish literature, Felton opened up 





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IS&iJfflBP^^' 


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- "'" 'iilft/>\ 





HENRY DAVID THOREAU. 1817-1862. 



JAMES FENIMORE COOPER. 1789-1851. 




WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. 1794-1878. EDGAR ALLAN POE. 1809-1849. 

AMERICAN AUTHORS. (pp. 895.) 



893 



AMERICA. 



the wealth of classic lore, Hedge of 
Boston taught them the beginnings 
of German philosophy, while Dana 
and Hudson fascinated them by 
their knowledge of the English 
drama. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson is beyond 
question the most original of Ameri- 

1803-1SS2. can writers, full of in. 
sight and of inspiration, a child of 
nature and a man of culture, a calm 
and courageous thinker, a poet with 
moments of divine rapture, a philos- 
opher without a conscious sj'stem, 
responding to all the influences of 
his time, but always maintaining his 
integrity and individuality. 

James Fenimore Cooper pub- 
lished his " Pioneers " in 1823, and 
Europeans began to read American 
books; for Cooper taught both them 

HS9-1SS1. and his own country- 
men the resources of American life, 





HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW. 



NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. 

the picturesqneness of its traditions, 
and the phases of human character 
that developed under such unusual 
conditions. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne in the 
" Scarlet Letter " first portrayed the 
tragedy of guilt, wearing out the lives 
of men and women in the narrow and 
sombre surroundings of an old New 
England town. With a Shakesperian 
insight into those mysterious influ- 

laoj-ise*. ences that " shape our 
destinies, rough hew them as we may," 
he made his readers stand in solemn 
awe, and yet wove about them too, 
the spell of an enchanting humor. 
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 

1807-1S82. the most popular of 
American poets, is also the most artis- 
tic. Oliver Wendell Holmes, the most 
1809- intellectual, the wittiest, 
and the most concise. William Cul. 
len Bryant abounds in sympathy with 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



897 



nature and with noble aspirations, in 
religious and patriotic feeling, in 
i-everence for beauty and for God. 
Longfellow's "Evangeline," Holmes' 
" Old Ironsides " and Bryant's 
" Thanatopsis " all belong to this ear- 
lier period of our literature. 

Margaret Fuller Ossoli stood 
almost alone among the women of 

isio-isso. this time, for her breadth 
of view, her intrepidity, and her in- 
tellectual strength. Other literary 
women appeared, but they were de- 
voted chiefly to poetic effort. 

Richard Hildreth wrote a His- 

iso7.i8as tory of the United 
States, which has been the guide of 
every accurate historical writer of 
American history since its publica- 
tion. 

Jared Sparks, once president of 
Harvard College, edited the works of 

119^-1860. Franklin and Washing- 





HORACE GREELEY. 



57 



GEORGE BANCROFT. 

ton, and composed a series of biogra- 
phies of conspicuous merit. 

George Bancroft enveloped our 
isoo-isoi. early history in dazzling 
rhetoric, where great breadth of view, 
much philosophic speculation, and 
vast stores of knowledge were hidden 
in the glow of flashing phrases. Inac- 
curacies, however, were not swal- 
lowed in the flame, and provoked 
recrimination, and many of Ban- 
croft's judgments have been reversed 
by sober investigation. 

In the South, William Wirt pub- 
lished the " Letters of a Spy," and 
his life of " Patrick Henry ; " John 
P. Kennedy gave a picture of old 
Virginia life entitled " Swallow 
Barn," and, Gilmore Simms wrote 
stories of Southern character and 
scenery. Edgar A. Poe, the most 
remarkable of all, produced weird 
tales and wonderful poems, which 



898 AMERICA. 

have made the memorj r of his early death a perpetual regret. Washington Allston, 
of South Carolina, is another of those men whose actual achievements are so disap- 
ttii»-/si:i. pointing. Painter and poet, he lived contented with his visions of 
the beautiful, and sought neither wealth nor fame. He lived above the world ; was 
never haunted by the necessity of self-expression, and never hungry for applause. 
His sonnets and his "Sylphs of the Seasons " are marvelous in diction, rich in fancy 
and in noble sentiment. 



A brief reference to the Daily Newspaper must end these suggestions. Francis 
P. Blair went to the city of Washington in the days of Jackson, and lifted his journal 
and himself into places of commanding power. William Cullen Bryant gave his 
vigorous intellect, his lucid style and his incorruptibility to the New York Evening 
Post. James Gordon Bennett brought a peculiar conscience, an aggressive temper, 
and a keen scent for news and public opinion to the creation of the New York 
Herald. George D. Prentice became the ardent friend of Henry Clay, and with 
his bitiug sarcasm, his rich humor, and poetic diction, won for the Louisville Courier 
a national reputation. Horace Greeley informed the New York Tribune with his pow- 
iait-iam. erf ul and unique personality. Rugged mental vigor, imperious and 
courageous energy, a fondness for paradox and for progress, a hospitality for new and 
even strange ideas, made the journal, that was founded and conducted by him, the 
most influential of his generation. Morton McMichael and Joseph R. Chandler gave 
to the North American, of Philadelphia, decided character and wide-spread influence. 
Henry J. Raymond created the New York Times, displaying in the conduct of it, 
amazing energy and great steadiness of conviction. Thurlow Weed, uniting, as per- 
haps no other man in America, the skill of the practical politician with the journal- 
istic genius, conquered for his Albany newspaper a place quite unique in American 
life. 

The first newspaper in America was the Boston News-Letter, published in 1704, 
and named apparently in honor of a Boston News-Letter attempted in 1690, but 
promptly suppressed bj r the authorities of Massachusetts. The next city to enjoy the 
privilege was Philadelphia, where the Mercurie was started in 1719. The New York 
Gazette began in 1725, and the Virginia Gazette in 1736. In 1830 the number of 
newspapers published was eight hundred and fifty-two, of which fifty were'dailies. 
In 1850 this number had increased to two thousand five hundred and twenty-six. 

The North American Review, established in 1815, is the ov\j one of the many 
high-class periodicals attempted in our early history which still survives. Godeys 
Ladies' Book on the other hand perpetuates a type of magazine once exceedingly pop- 
ular and powerful, but now almost extinct. It is, however, in these defunct reviews 
and magazines that the literary development of the American people can best be 
traced. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 899 

3. The Struggle to Restrict Negro Slavery a^d the War to Preserve' 

the Union. 

§ 711. From the foundation of "the more perfect union "in 1787 to the election 
of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency in 1860, powerful forces tended to separate 
the United States of America into dissevered sections. The first of these, local jeal- 
ousies, existed long before the Revolutionary struggle. They had endangered the 
Colonies in the days of the French and Indian conflict ; they broke out even amid 
the perils of the war for independence ; they brought the first union of the states to 
the verge of dissolution, and prevented, almost, the formation and adoption of the 
constitution of 1787. They were due, partly to the natural disposition of men to 
prefer their own tribe and their own neighborhood ; partly to real diversities of feel- 
ings, of interests, of character, and historical antecedents ; and partly to suspicions 
engendered in ignorance and nourished by selfish and ambitious leaders. 

A still more powerful tendency to separation originated in Negro slavery. This 
existed at one time in all the colonies and its existence was everywhere deplored ; 
Washington, Jefferson, Henry, Wythe, the friend and preceptor of Henry Clay, Ran- 
dolph and Madison, all of them Virginians, looked upon it with undisguised alarm, 
hoped for its gradual extinction, and Jefferson especially worked ardently but unsuc- 
cessfully for its abolition. It was abolished in the Northern States at the beginning 
of the nineteenth century, although the slave-trade was continued until 1808. But 
the climate and soil of the South favored slave-labor, and the invention of the cotton- 
gin made the cotton crop the great staple of southern produce. Slavery took on a 
new aspect, both economically and morally, in the eyes of the southern people ; the 
South became wholly agricultural and great plantations became the rule ; slave-holders, 
though always a small minority of the citizens of the South, became, by reason of 
their wealth and culture, the ruling power in the political and social life of their 
section ; the Negroes were of course brought up in ignorance, but public-schools for 
the education of the children of the Whites were never or seldom established. 

The North on the other hand became a section of diversified industries ; of com- 
merce, manufactures, and free-hold farming. In New England, in the free states of 
the Northwest, in New York and Pennsylvania a system of free schools was established, 
that brought the power and delight of knowledge within the reach of every intelli- 
gent child. 

In the South discussion of the slavery question became gradually unpopular and 
finally impossible. 

In the North it was also unpopular at times and in some localities quite dangerous ; 
yet it was always possible and finally broke forth with unquenchable energy. 

§ 712. That these tendencies wrought so mightily for mischief was due, however, 
to a political theory of the constitution, and to certain peculiarities in the structure 
of the Federal government. 

This political theory was the doctrine of secession, first propounded in a limited 
form in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, which were written by Thomas Jefferson, 
though not acknowledged by him during his life time. These were subsequently 
developed and enlarged by Calhoun and others, into the doctrine of State Sovereignty 
with the derivative right of nullification. The doctrine was urged in 1798 in the 
interests of a Free Press and of personal liberty ; it was revived in 1830 in the 



900 AMERICA. 

interests of free trade, and in opposition to a tariff declared to be, by Calhoun, whoily 
in the interests of Northern industry. 

In the form given to it in 1830 it made at first but few disciples; in 1860, how- 
ever, it dominated almost exclusively the press, and the public opinion of the South, 
except in the border states. A few strong men in the cotton states still held to the 
paramount authority of the Union, but the great mass of Southern citizens believed 
is3o. their first allegiance to be due to the local state government. 

The structural defect in our political system was the constitution of the Senate and 
of the electoral colleges ; each state being represented in the Senats by two senators, 
no matter how small its population, mere territory came to have undue power. When 
therefore the rapid increase of the population of the North, due to the presence of 
slavery in the South, threatened to shift the centre of political power from Virginia 
northwards, southern statesmen became eager to create new slave states and to acquire, 
by purchase and by conquests, new territory out of which to make them. The 
acquisition of Louisiana and of Florida were acts of lofty statesmanship, quite indepen- 
dent of such considerations, and was as necessary and as profitable to the West as to 
the South. Yet the new states made from these regions kept the balance of power 
equal until 1820. 

The annexation of Texas, the Mexican war, and the increase of territory 
consequent upon it, the attempts to acquire Cuba, and to get a foot hold in Central 
America, were all parts of apolicy to extend the political power of slavery;— an exten- 
sion which would have been impossible if population had not been sacrificed to 
sectional jealousies in the structure of the Senate, and of the electoral system. 
Finally the patronage system of appointments to public office begun by Aaron Burr,, 
in New York, and developed by Andrew Jackson in the Nation, greatly aggravated 
these evil tendencies. Congress, which the framers of the Constitution had (they 
thought) carefully separated from executive interference, could not escape this 
meanest and most dangerous form of administrative influence. An army of office- 
holders became obedient vassals of the executive will, and a policy, supported by the 
President, was sure to find adherents wherever there were offices and office-seekers. A 
national election came to be a fierce struggle for place and emolument, and a change of 
administration meant for thousands, sharp, immediate, and in many cases, ruinous loss. 

§ 713. How these tendencies co-operated to produce the civil war will appear 
in the following section — 

In 1784 Thomas Jefferson proposed in Congress the abolition of slavery in the 
Northwest territory after the j'ear 1800; he failed of success by a single vote. In 1787 
the proposition was renewed and adopted. This action of the old Congress dedicating 
so vast an area to perpetual freedom was not challenged anywhere. The feeling 
against slavery both South and North, was too strong at that time to warrant any 
stubborn opposition. 

In the first Congress in the New Union, the question of the power of Congress over 
slavery in the several states was raised by a memorial of the Pennsylvania Abolition 
Societ} r ; the debate was vehement, coarse, and even indecent. Yet the House 
declared Congress incompetent to deal with slavery in the several states by the nar- 
row majority of two only, — the vote standing twenty-seven to twenty-five. 

After this the question of slavery excited no ill-feeling until 1820. In the mean- 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



901 



time, however, threats of disunion were by no means uncommon or confined to a 
single section. Local independence was too firmly rooted in the American character 
to disappear immediately, and when- 
ever a section or a state could not j>re- 
vail in the National councils, the speedy! 
dissolution of the Union was predicted, 
and sometimes the angry prophets strove I 
mightily to help along the fulfillment of 
their prophecies. On the Southwestern i 
frontier and in New England, these 
tendencies were marked, and the old an- 
tagonism between New England and] 
the South came sharply to the surface j 
in the second war with Great Britain. 
But when the admission of Missouri as! 
a slave state was challenged by the free 
states in 1820, the conflict of feelings] 
and of interests brought disunion peril-] 
ously near. At that time there existed 
neither the disposition nor the power in 
either section to compel the other to re- 
main. The Missouri compromise there- 
fore saved the Union, and postponed the j 
separation for nearly half a century. 
Though not begun, it was carried to a 
successful completion by the eloquent 
and persuasive Henry Clay. But great 
changes were at hand. Daniel Webster began in 1830 that exposition of the Consti- 
tution as an indissoluble compact, which became the intellectual basis of the future 
passion for the Union. 

A few years afterward, Andrew Jackson, then president, uttered his famous 

declaration, " The Federal Union, It Must and Shall Be Preserved," and this 

-•"',".'■■"'.. was followed by his decisive conduct 

toward South Carolina when that 

| state, under the influence of Calhoun, 

f,\ nullified by ordinance the tariff act , 

|| of 1828. In his proclamation of De- 

jf 1832. cember 10th, 183S 

' appeared the notable words " Our 
Constitution does not contain that 
absurdity of giving power to make 
laws, and another power to resist 
them ; to s&y that any state may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the 
United States is not a nation." 

The North hailed this declaration with unanimous enthusiasm, but the South 
accepted it with misgiving. Outside of South Carolina the motive of the President was 




W51. LLOYD GARRISON. 





JOHN' TYLER. 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 



302 



AMERICA. 



approved, but his doctrine was seri- 
ously doubted. Jackson's bold de- 
meanor, the knowledge of his un- 
flinching courage, the popular en- 
thusiasm that rallied to his support, 
the failure of Calhoun's plan to in- 
volve the other Southern states would 
have led to the humiliation of South 
Carolina, but for the interference of 
Henry Clay with the compromise of 
1833, an interference, the wisdom of 
which Clay seriously doubted in his 
later years. In 1831 William Lloyd 
Garrison began the publication of his 
" Liberator " and the moral attack 
upon American slavery. This at 
first attracted not much attention, 
but in 1833 a National Anti-Slavery 
convention was held in Philadelphia, 
and in the same year Great Britain 
abolished slavery in the West Indies. 
A slave insurrection in Virginia about 
the same time increased the alarm of 





WILLIAM H. SEWAKD. 



JOHN G. WHITTIER. 

the slave-holders. They began to 
demand the suppression of the Abo- 
lition movement, the exclusion of all 
anti-slavery documents from the 
mails, and the punishment by law of 
all anti-slavery agitators. Neverthe- 
less petitions were sent to Congress 
praying the abolition of slavery in 
the District of Columbia, and the 
great debate was opened, which was 
destined not to close, until slavery 
perished as a consequence of civil 
war. 

§ 714. Calhoun meanwhile 
propagated eagerly in the Senate and 
in the Southern States, his theory of 
State sovereignty, and at the same 
time developed his plans for the 
territorial extension of slavery. In 
xsj* 18-14 President Tyler 

sent the treaty for the annexation 
of Texas, to the United States 
Senate, transmitting with it a mes- 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



903 




CHARLES SUMNER. 

was pushed aside for a while, and in 
1847 Calhoun introduced a series of 
resolutions, affirming that a consti- 
tution by its own force carried slavery 
into all the territories belonging to 
the Union. But in 1848 a Free Soil 
convention met at Buffalo, in num- 
bers large enough to prove that the 
isis opposition to slavery 

extension was both powerful and de- 
termined. In 1849 California applied 
for admission as a free state, for the 
discovery of gold had crowded the 
territory with immigrants who had 
no desire for slavery. And when 
Taylor, the hero of the Mexican War, 
a Southerner and a slave-holder, who 
had been elected to the Presidency 
in 1848 urged the immediate admis- 
sion of California, Southern Con- 
gressmen were angered and surprised. 
Threats of disunion filled the air. 
But the conqueror of Buena Vista 



sage of his own and a dispatch of 
Mr. Calhoun, his Secretary of State, 
addressed to Lord Aberdeen. Both 
these documents stated in undisguised 
language that the annexation was for 
the protection of the "domestic in- 
stitutions " of the United States. 
This protection of slavery hastened 
its destruction. For the annexation 
of Texas led to the war with Mexico, 
to the conquest of California, and 
the reopening of all the questions 
relating to our domestic institutions. 
Sagacious southern Whigs, like Rob- 
ert Toombs, warned their country 
men of the inevitable outcome. But 
they spoke in vain against the storm 
of popular feeling. The war was not 
yet closed when David Wilmot, of 
Pennsylvania, offered a proviso to a 
pending bill, that in all territories 
acquired from Mexico, slavery should 
be forever prohibited. This proviso 




MRS. H. B. STOWE. 



904 AMERICA. 

declared emphatically that disunion was treason, and intimated that he would take the 
field in person against any show of armed resistance. But General Taylor died sud- 
isso. denly in July, 1850, and the change of the political situation enabled 

Clay to accomplish a third great compromise. 

Calhoun, with marvelous astuteness, opposed all compromises, deeming it danger- 
ous folly in the South to postpone the issue until the North could overwhelm her by 
sheer force of numbers. Clay on the other hand, who tolerated, but did not love 
slavery, and who scouted Calhoun's doctrine of the necessity of a political equilibrium 
between North and South, was ready for almost any sacrifice that would perpetuate 
the Union. But the compromise failed to satisfy the active elements of either sec- 
tion. The South resented the admission of California as a free state, and the numerical 
superiority of the free states in the Senate; the North was exasperated b} r the new 
fugitive slave law. Attempts to capture alleged slaves provoked riots in Pennsylvania, 
New York, and Boston ; personal liberty bills were passed in several northern states 
whereby the law was greatly hampered in its execution. Lowell, and Longfellow, and 
Whittier stirred the people with their poems ; and the pulpits of the North began to 
resound with denunciations and defences of slavery, preached to excited congrega- 
tions. 

§ 715. In 1853 Franklin Pierce, the newly elected president, congratulated the 
country upon the permanent settlement of the slaveiy ques- 
tion ; j'et his words had hardly died away before the strife 
blazed out more fiercely than ever. For in 1854, Stephen A. 
Douglas introduced the famous Kansas and Nebraska bill. 
is34. This repealed the Missouri compromise, 

referring the question of slavery in the territories, to the 
settlers who organized them into states. The principle of 
the bill was called by its friends " popular " and by its ene- 
mies "squatter sovereignty." Immediately upon the pas- 
sage of the bill the country was divided into hostile camps. 

FRANKLIN PIERCE. A ° , , . „ . ,, . 

A fierce struggle began in Kansas between the pro-slavery 
settlers from Missouri and the free soilers from the North, which attracted the atten- 
tion of the entire people. This struggle resulted in two distinct constitutions, one ex- 
cluding and the other including slavery. 

The Whig Party now dissolved. An attempt to found an American party proved 
a failure ; and the Democratic party divided into factions. Fierce debates took place 
in Congress. Chase, and Seward, and Sumner, and Wade astonished the Senate and 
the South by their opinions and their eloquence, and the anti-Nebraska men of the 
House emulated their ability and their courage. A violent assault upon Senator 
Sumner, by a member of the House from South Carolina, startled the entire land; and 
the publication of " Uncle Tom's Cabin " brought the discussion of slavery into eveiw 
household of the North. The republican party, made up of anti-slavery Whigs and 
anti-Nebraska Democrats, was now organized and grew to large proportions in all the 
Northern states. Its motto was " Free soil for free men," its chief principle, the re- 
striction of slavery forever to existing limits. Yet, the election of 1856 showed that, 
isso. in spite of the prevalent excitement, the vast majority of the people 

shrank from a purely sectional party, and not until the Democratic party was rent in 





i// o&Csi^c4r'&/ 



(pp. 905.) 



906 



AMERICA. 




JAMES BUCHANAN. 



twain at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860, was it possible to elect a Republican to 
isoo. the presidency of the United States. Abraham Lincoln had a majority 

of the electors, but the combined popular vote of Douglas, Breckenridge and Bell, left 

him in the minority of a million in a total vote of four million six hundred thousand.* 
frt/JifflliBBifc § ^^' ^ ie W ar f or the Union. The Presidential elec- 

tion of 1860 was peculiar and exciting. That Lincoln would 
be elected few could fail to see ; but beyond that all was 
uncertain. Southern leaders pointing to the Dred Scott 
decision (which had nationalized slavery) asserted the elec- 
tion of Lincoln to be a violation of the constitution ; point- 
ing to the persona] liberty statutes of the free States, and to 
the invasion of John Brown at Harper's Ferry, they declared 
the North to be bent upon the destruction of their institu- 
tions, i. e. slavery ; relying upon the Kentucky resolutions, 
which had been made a part of the Democratic platform in 

1856, they proclaimed the constitutionality of secession, and prepared to separate 

from the Union. Yet a strong love 

for the Union existed in the South, 

especially in the border States and in 

Georgia, and a strong sympathy with 

the South existed among the northern 

members of the Democratic and Amer- 
ican parties. 

President Buchanan had been 

the choice of Southern men. In the 

Ostend conference, he had joined 

with them in their lust for Cuba ; 

later on he had furthered their 

schemes to conquer Kansas. His 

Scotch-Irish blood was a gentler 

fluid than that in the veins of Andrew 

Jackson, while his cabinet had been 

made up largely of Southern men, 

known to be in sympathy with the 

seceders. 

Lincoln, on the other hand, had 

little experience in public life, and 

entered almost suddenly upon the 

greatest task ever devolved upon the 

ruler of a free people. Many efforts 

were made to satisfy the excited peo- 
ple of the South, in which the newly- 
elected President bore a manly part 

* The popular vote was as lollows: 
Lincoln 1,817,610. 
Douglass 1.291,514. 
Breckenridge, 850,022. 
Bell, 646,124. 




JOHN BROWN. 



But South Carolina hastened to pass an 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



907 



oeo. 20, isoo. Ordinance of Secession, on December 20, 18G0, the language of which 
is sufficient to determine forever the relation of negro slavery to the civil war. Seces- 
sionists were of three classes : (1) Those who desired to destroy the Federal Union ; 
(2) those who expected to make better terms out of the Union than in it; and (3) 
those who believed themselves bound to go with their States, though personally op- 
posed to secession. Under the influence of the former, in January, 1861, Mississippi, 
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana seceded. Texas followed the next month. 

Delegates were appointed to a convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, 
and framed a constitution for the Confederate States of America, which was adopted 
Feb. 4, 1801. February 4, 1861. A comparison of this document with the Constitu- 
tion of the United States, is likewise 
sufficient to determine how far negro 
slavery was the cause of the war. 

Directly the States seceded, the 
State authorities seized the forts and 
custom houses ; in a word, the pro- 
perty of the Federal Union. Their 
senators and representatives with- 
drew from Congress; many officers 
resigned from the army and navy. 
Meanwhile Buchanan and his attor- 
ney-general, Black, had made a great 
discovery. Secession they found to 
be illegal, but the coercion of a State 
to be also illegal. Nevertheless, such 
Democrats as Cass and Stanton, who 
entered the cabinet to fill the places 
of the seceders, determined to send 
supplies to Fort Sumter, in Charles- 
ja». a, 1801. ton harbor. The " Star 
of the West," however, could not 
land for hostile batteries, and Fort 
Sumter was abandoned to the drift of 
circumstances. 

§ 799. Lincoln reached Wash- 
ington late in February, changing his 

route to escape assassination. On the fourth of March he delivered his inaugural ad- 
dress, for which the people of the country were waiting in multitudes, feverishly impa- 
tient to know his policy. Zealots were disappointed, but wiser men recognized a tran- 
quil strength, a calm invincible purpose, in the quiet periods and the lucid reasoning of 
this first inaugural. Suddenly, just as men began to hope for some escape, Fort Sumter 
was attacked, and compelled to surrender. The war had begun. President Lincoln 

April is. called immediately for seventy-five thousand volunteers; a great cry 
went through the North, and recruits streamed in from every section. But when a 

Aprti 10. Massachusetts regiment marched through Baltimore, to the defence of 
Washington, it was assaulted by a mob. The capital of the nation was in imminent peril. 




JEFFERSON DAVIS 



908 



AMERICA. 



Jefferson Davis, the President of 
the Confederate States, promptly 
called for men, and they offered them- 
selves with eager courage. North 
Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas 
next seceded and joined the Confed- 
eracy, and Virginia soon followed. 
Davis commissioned privateers ; 
Lincoln proclaimed a blockade. 
Great Britain recognized the Con- 
federate States as belligerents ; other 
nations soon did the same. When 
Virginia seceded, Richmond became 
the capital of the Confederacj', and 
the struggle for the possession of the 
Potomac then began. General Scott, 
though a Virginian, refused to aban- 
don the Union, and remained in com- 
mand of the army. 

In July, General George B. Mc- 
Clellan drove the Confederate forces 
from West Virginia, which soon or- 
ganized into a separate State. These 





ADMIRAL DAVID G. IARRAGUT. 



GENERAL GEORGE II. THOMAS. 

successes intoxicated the editors of 
the North, who clamored for a crush- 
ing victory. The Union army, under 

July m. General McDowell, 
sought one at Bull Run, where it de- 
feated Beauregard ; but Patterson, 
having failed to detain the troops of 
Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley, 
they arrived in time to rout Mc- 
Dowell's men, and drive them panic- 
stricken back to Washington. 

Scott, grown too old for such a 
task, now made room for McClellan, 

Ana- 20. who organized the 
famous Army of the Potomac. No 
forward movement was made, how- 
ever, until October, when the disas- 
ter of Ball's Bluff deepened the 
anxiety caused by Bull Run. 

§ 800. The Struggle for the 
3Iississippi Valley. Fort Henry on 
the Tennessee, and Fort Donelson on 
the Cumberland river, were two 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



909 



strong forts held by Confederate soldiers. The line of the Confederates extended 
iso2. through southern Kentucky and into northern Tennessee, and was 

commanded by Albert Sidney 
Johnston. Grant was at Cairo 
(the junction of the Ohio with 
the Mississippi), commanding 
fifteen thousand Union men. 
Buell had a hundred thousand 
men scattered in many divi- 
sions through Kentucky. Gen. 
George H. Thomas, a loj^al 

Jan. 10. Virginian, at- 
tacked the Confederates with 
a portion of Buell's forces, at 
Mill Spring, Kentucky, and 
drove them into Tennessee. 
Commander Foote carried his 
fleet of gunboats up the river 
to Fort Henry, and captured 

Feh. «. it, before Grant 
could reach it from Cairo. 
But pushing on to Fort Donel- 
son Grant, after a desperate 

Feb. 10. fight, forced 
Buckner to surrender an army 
of nine thousand men. Nash- 
ville was now occupied by 
Union troops, and Andrew 
Johnson appointed military 
governor of the State. Grant 
then encamped at Pittsburgh 
Landing, or Shiloh, on the 
Tennessee river, close to the 
corners of Tennessee, Missis- 
sippi, and Alabama. Hither 

Ain-n «-i. Johnston fol- 
lowed and surprised him. But 
the gun-boats gave his forces 
time to rally ; Buell arrived 
with fresh troops toward even- 
ing; Johnston was killed in 
the fight, and the Confeder- 
ates were driven from the field. 
The losses on both sides were 
terrible, each side losing one-fourth of the men engaged. 

General Halleck now took command of the Union forces, and forced Beauregard 
to evacuate Corinth, Mississippi. 




910 



AMERICA. 



General Bragg then inarched northward to Kentucky, fought with Buell at Per- 
ryville, and returning, fortified himself at Murfreesboro, near Nashville. General 
Rosecrans set out to attack the place, but met Bragg on the way. Three days the 
bloody strife endured ; for this battle of Stone River was among the fiercest of the 
war. Meanwhile the Union gun-boats kept the Mississippi clear as far south as 
Ap,u j. Vicksburg; not, however, until they had conquered Island No. 10, 

-where the Confederates made a desperate resistance, lasting for a month. 

Commodore David Farragut had sailed from Hampton Roads in February, 1862. 
General Butler, with fifteen thousand men, went with him. The troops were landed at 
Ship Island, but Farragut determined to force his way up the river to New Orleans. 

His fleet consisted of thirteen ves- 
sels; each went forward fighting for 
itself, silencing forts and destroying the 
ships of the enemy as best it could. 
They started at two o'clock in the morn- 
Aprii 33-as. ing of April 23rd, and 
New Orleans surrendered on the 25th. 
The Union navy was now in possession 
of the Mississippi river, for the iron- 
clad ram Arkansas, built especially to 
destroy the fleet of Farragut, was de- 
stroyed near Baton Rouge, and the last 
hope of the enemy buried in the waters. 
stay 11. And the gunboats sailing 
south met the victorious ships of Farra- 
gut as they pushed toward Vicksburg. 

§ 801. The Struggle for the Poto- 
mac. McClellan, with an armj r of two 
hundred thousand men, moved to the 
isg2. peninsula between the 

York and the James rivers. McDowell 
was stationed at Fredericksburg to 
cover Washington, while General Banks 
marched up the Valley of the Shenan- 
doah. 

The Confederates, under General Joseph E. Johnston, thereupon moved from 
Manassas Junction to the Peninsula, so as to cover Richmond. 

Yorktown lay in McClellan 's path; it was besieged and taken in May, 1862, the 
stay 3. Confederates retiring to their intrenchments close to Richmond. Mc- 

Clellan then divided his army so as to unite with McDowell at Fredericksburg, while 
the gunboats of the Union controlled the River James almost to the Confederate 
capital. 

Between the two divisions of McClellan's army ran the Chickahominy creek. 

The May rains swelled this creek to a river, and converted the country to a swamp. 

Johnston seized his chance. He attacked the weaker section of the Union armj', the 

jwiie i. section nearest Richmond, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. But he was 




ROBERT E. LEE. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



911 



himself badly wounded, and his army worsted. General Robert E. Lee now took com- 
mand. Lee had "gone with his State" after a severe mental struggle. He graduated 
at West Point, served in Mexico, and loved the Union. But state sovereignty con- 
trolled him, and made him the servant of a doomed cause. His first move was to de- 
tach McDowell from McClellan. This he did by sending Jackson to the Shenandoah, 
with orders to chase Banks to the Potomac and to threaten Washington. Jackson, 

jif«e«. ' the most impetuous soldier of the South, the idolized " Stonewall " of 
his soldiers, executed his orders with splendid energy. As a consequence McDowell 
was f rde:ed back to Washington. 

Lee next pounced upon McClellan, driving him to the James river, fighting the 
battles of Savage Station on the 29th 
sei>en Bays' of June, and Mal- 

Figiitinn, vern Hill on the 1st 
June as-jruiy i. of July. This was 
described by McClellan as a "change 
of base ; " a phrase that concealed 
a great disaster. For though Lee's 
attacks were repulsed, the Union 
campaign had broken down com- 
pletely. 

Meanwhile General John Pope 
made his "headquarters in his sad- 
dle," in command of the army that 
covered Washington. In a second 
Ana- 3o- sept. i. Bull Run battle, 
Stonewall Jackson routed completely 
the commander, who had published 
beforehand, that he had "no lines of 
retreat." His soldiers found some 
for themselves, and gathered together 
finally at Washington. McClellan 
was now ordered to bring his army 
back by water which he did in Sep- 
tember. 

Lee then crossed the Potomac 
and started for Baltimore. McClel- 

se»t. n. Ian intercepted him and forced him to the mountains. Jackson mean- 

sept. is. while captured Harper's Ferry with twelve thousand men and plenty 
of supplies. 

McClellan marched his men across the mountains and forced Lee to a fight at 

isen. Antietam creek, near Sharpsburg. After the battle, which was furious 

and destructive, Lee recrossed the Potomac. President Lincoln, at this juncture, is- 

sept.su. sued his first Emancipation Proclamation. It was a notice that, unless 
the seceding states returned to the Union, all slaves would be declared free on the 1st 
of January, 1863. 

Shortly afterward, McClellan was superseded by General Burnside, who attempted 




STONEWALL JACKSON. 



912 



AMERICA. 



nee. i3. in December to storm the hills of Fredericksburg, a disastrous under- 
iso3. taking that issued in a terrible repulse. General Hooker next took 

way s. command, and after some months fought Lee at Chancellorsville. The 

Union forces lost the battle, but Lee lost "Stonewall" Jackson, whom he named his 
strong right arm. Jackson's tragic fate (he was killed by his own men blundering in 
the dark) hovered over Lee's army like an evil omen. For the presence of Stonewall 
Jackson had seemed to sanctify their cause, while his success filled them with the belief 
that the God in whom their general' trusted, would not suffer them to be put to shame. 
stay to. His death at their own hands therefore smote them like a divine judg- 
ment ; they lost not only their invincible commander, but with him, their faith in the 

invincibility of their cause. But Lee 

T, — J"' 1 "' 1 '' "■'"'■'■'■"V 1 — ,'; J'. ' ■•■yi '!' — ,:.';.;■- ■■■,:. '.■':'■ ■:..! moved around the army of Hooker 

and started for the North. Conster- 
nation seized the people of Phila- 
delphia and New York. Washing- 
ton was hastily covered by Hooker's 
men, and then a new commander, 
June m. George G. Meade was 
given to lead them into Pennsylvania. 
Lee marched to Chambersburg in 
Pennsylvania, thence eastward to 
Gettysburg, where, after three days 
jaiy 1-2-3. desperate struggle in 
the decisive battle of the war, he was 
utterly defeated. On the night of 
July 3rd, 1863, his routed army re- 
turned to Virginia, never to fight on 
northern soil again. 

§ 802. The Struggle for the 
Mississippi Valley. The Mississippi 
river was fortified by the Confeder- 
ates at Vicksburg and Port Hudson. 
may is. Grant moved his troops 
down the west bank of the river, 
and first attempted to isolate Vicks- 
burg by a canal through the great 
bend. This plan however foiled. He then moved to the south, and ferried his men in 
gunboats to the Vicksburg side of the river. Sherman meanwhile made a feint north 
of the city along the Yazoo. Having crossed the river, Grant marched toward Jack- 
son, Miss., fighting as he went. He forced himself thus between two Confederate 
armies, commanded respectively by Pemberton and Joseph E. Johnston. The former 
was driven into Vicksburg, the latter back to Jackson. Having accomplished this, he 
Juiu 4. united with Sherman and squeezed Pemberton into surrender. Vicks- 
burg, with thirty-seven thousand men, was given up on the 4th of July, 1863. 

Port Hudson surrendered to Banks, who had succeeded General Butler at New 
Orleans, within a week. Thus the Confederacy was rent in twain. 




GENERAL GEORGE CI. MEADE. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



913 



Bragg, after the bloody but decisive battle of Murfreesboro, retired to Chatta- 
nooga, and thence to Chickamauga. Thither he was pursued by Eosecrans, but the 



> 
t- 

E 

O 

o 

K 

n 

H 

«! 

CO 

SO 




Union army was defeated, and would have been annihilated, but for General Thomas 
sevt. to, no. and his invincible columns. Shut up in Chattanooga, the Union forces 
were almost starved, when Grant arrived to take command. Hooker brought rein- 
58 



814 



AMERICA. 



forcements from the east. Sherman 
joined him also, and here gathered rap- 
idly a force sufficient for a daring en- 
terprise. 

From Lookout Mountain and Mis- 
sionary Ridge, each half a mile high, 
the Confederates breathed defiance. 
But Grant's men fought their way to 
srov. s4, 25. the heights above the 
clouds, driving the Confederates before 
them. Bragg retreated into Georgia, 
and Longstreet, who had been besieg- 
ing Knoxville, returned across the 
mountains to Virginia. 

§ 803. The .Struggle for the Atlan - 
tie Coast. The war began in Charles- 
ton Harbor. " Cotton is king ! " cried 
the South, hoping to hold the coast, 
and to procure the help of foreign 
powers. The Federal government at 
once declared a blockade, and pro- 




1 




















/sISj&j 


iS^ajjjS^B f^s.. 


:t; i 


;,,, _V^K 


-■--^ 



JOHN ERICSSON. 



ULYSSES S. GRANT. 

ceeded to capture the strongholds 
of the South. In August, 1861, 
Hatteras Inlet and Fort Hatteras 
Auy. so, isei. were captured by a 
joint expedition under Commodore 
Stringham and General Butler. In 
the following November Port Royal 
and the islands between Charleston 
and Savannah fell into the hands of 
Commodore Dupont. 

Ship island, at the mouth of the 
Mississippi river, had been already 
taken two months before. But the 
Confederates expected great things 
of their cruiser, Merrimac, a power- 
ful iron-clad, which sailed into 
Hampton Roads, the 8th of March, 
1862. With this cruiser they hoped, 
not only to place the cities of the 
sea-coast at their mercy, but to end 
the war right speedily. Nor were 
their hopes ill-founded. Hardly 
had the monster entered Hampton 
Roads, when she attacked and sunk 
the Cumberland, and as night came 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



915 



on, four other splendid ships of war lay helpless before her. But the next morning, 
when the Merrimac returned from Norfolk to complete her conquest, a queer little 
creature, looking like " a cheese box on a raft," began to fire at her. The " Moni- 
Mai-ch », », tor," for 
1862. that was 
the name of John 
Ericsson's strange 
craft, seemed to be 
" full of guns," and 
the Merrimac's officer 
reported, "after two 
hours' firing, I did 
her as much damage 
as by snapping my 
thumb at her every 
two minutes and a 
half." The "cheese 
box " had saved the r= 
Union. The Merri- %, 
mac retired to Nor- z 
folk, and was after- c 
ward destroyed, to ;> 
prevent her falling t 
into Union hands. s 
Other iron-clads were g 
built for the defence I 
of the Atlantic har- g 
bors, and cruisers c 
were equipped in 
England to prey upon 
the commerce of the 
loyal States. But the 
blockade was main- 
tained strictly 
enough to prevent a 
hostile declaration 
from foreign powers, 
though England and 
France were impor- 
tuned to declare it 
void. President 
Lincoln, anxious to 

sept. is63. reduce Charleston, sent against it a fleet of iron-clads, but without 

result. It was next besieged by General Gilmore, assisted by iron-clads and gun-boats. 

Still the city held out. The Atlanta, however, an ironclad built for the defence 

of Charleston and Savannah, was captured by the monitor, Weehawken, after a few 




916 



AMERICA. 



minutes firing. While Charleston was blockaded, Mobile, Alabama, and Wilmington, 
North Carolina, were practically open. It was determined, if possible, to close them. 

Farragut fought his 
way through the tor- 
pedoes and gun-boats, 
and passed the forts 
Aug. s tse-t. of Mo- 
bile harbor. He then 
attacked and cap- 
tured with his wood- 
en ships the iron-clad 
Tennessee. The city 
did not surrender, but 
the port was closed. 
Admiral Porter was 
not so successful in 
attacking Fort Fish- 
er. General Butler 
had gone along with 
a much vaunted pow- 
der-boat ; but the ex- 
pedition failed. Gen- 
eral Terry, however, 
captured the fort soon 
after, and Wilming- 
ton surrendered the 
next month. Mean- 
j«»ie is, iso-t. while 
the Alabama had 
been sunk by the 
Kearsarge, not far 
from Cherbourg, 
France; and the 
Florida captured in 
Bahia by the Wachu- 
sett. The Georgia 
j a in- ia, iso4. was 
sold to prevent cap- 
ture, but the Niagara 
captured her not- 
withstanding. With 
Charleston closely 
blockaded, the Con- 
federate irou-clads ruined, and the Anglo-Confederate cruisers destroyed, the Union 
was supreme along the Atlantic coast and the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. For 
Galveston alone remained to be blockaded. 




918 



AMERICA. 



§ 804. The Struggle for the Potomac. ( Concluded.') Lee's army, sixty-two thou- 
sand strong, held the Rapidan river. Grant, whose successes at Vicksburg and Chat- 
tanooga had made him famous, was now made, by President Lincoln, commander of 
all the Union armies. Leaving Sherman in the west, he himself, went East, taking 
Sheridan with him. The Army of the Potomac numbered, when he reached it, one 
hundred and twenty thousand men. He had never led it before, nor had he ever con- 
fronted General Lee. The final struggle was at hand. Sherman had been instructed to 
operate in concert with the Army of the Potomac, in fact to move on the same day. 
Johnston, who commanded the Confederates in the West, must be kept too busy to 
help his comrades in the East. 

Grant sent Butler up the James river to attack Richmond from the neighborhood 

of Petersburg. Sigel and Hunter, march- 
ing simultaneously up the Shenandoah 
Valley to menace the Confederate capi- 
tal from Lynchburg, he himself, with the 
main army, undertook to force his way 
to Richmond, through the Wilderness. 
The Wilderness is a tangled swamp in- 
tersected with creeks. Lee had fortified 
jtt«j/ lse-t. it at every available spot. 
For two weeks he fought Grant stub- 
bornly, inflicting upon him frightful 
losses. Nevertheless, Grant " fought 
it out on this line, though it took all 
June 3. summer.'" He flanked 
and forced Lee to Cold Harbor, where 
he attempted to cany Lee's defences 
by assault, but met a terrible repulse. 
Meanwhile Butler had been " bottled 
' up " near Petersburg, and Sigel and 
Hunter defeated and driven from the 
Shenandoah. Early was then despatched 
by Lee to attack Washington. The de- 
fences of the capital were too strong, but he frightened the authorities. Grant, 
juiy i2-i3. however, would not relax his grip. He had crossed the James river 
June is. to attack Richmond from the south. This brought him in front of Pet- 
ersburg. A line of fortifications, extending to the north of Richmond, and defended 
by sixty thousand Confederate veterans, blocked his way to the Confederate capital. 
June is. One attempt only was made to storm this line. A mine was exploded 
successfully, but the assault, from which so much was expected, failed utterly. Grant 
however, pushed slowly but surely along to the southwest of these lines, threatening 
Lee's railroad communications, until he reached a stream called Hatcher's Run. There 
he halted, for Sheridan was now to strike the final blow. This gallant soldier had 
been sent to the Shenandoah Valley, where he rescued the victory of Winchester from 
sept. 19. the jaws of defeat, driving Early up the valley before him. At Lynch- 
burg he turned to the east and joined Grant, destroying canals and railroad bridges, 




GENERAL W'M. T. SHERMAN. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



919 



and cutting off Lee's supplies. He then moved across Hatcher's Run to Five Forks, 
April 2, tses. threatening to shut the Confederates in. Lee was helpless ; his army 
was too feeble to repel the danger. Grant then ordered his whole line to advance, and 
Lee retreated to Appomatox Court House. Richmond was abandoned, and the Con- 
federate government fled precipitately southward. Before Lee could reach Lynchburg, 
Sheridan had " pushed things ; " getting in between him and Johnston, whom he 
A Vr n », tses. hoped to join. His retreat cut off, he surrendered his hungry and ex- 
hausted army on the 9th of April, 1865. 

Grant exacted no hard terms. The troops, promising to bear arms no longer 
against the United States, were given their horses to do their spring plowing, and 
sent to their homes. " I felt like any- 
thing," wrote General Grant, "rather 
than rejoicing over the downfall of a 
foe who had fought so long and 
valiantly." In a few words, Lee bade 
adieu to his army after the surrender. 
He told his brave men, " to return to 
their homes and become worthy citi- 
zens." 

§ 805. Sherman and Tfwmas. 
All eyes were now turned to Gen. 
Johnston, eager to know what he 
would do; for the struggle in the 
West had been full of incident, and 
was not yet over. Sherman had 
driven his antagonist southward to 
Atlanta, Georgia. Incenesd at his 
retreat, Davis removed Johnston, 
and appointed Hood to take his 
place. Hood preferred to fight at all 
hazards. Johnston fought only where 
there was a chance to win. Hood 
soon fought himself out of Atlanta, 
sept. a, tse4,. and Sherman entered 
in. Thereupon the fighting General 
pushed northward into Tennessee. 

Sherman, thinking Thomas strong enough to take care of Hood and Tennessee also, 
pushed boldly into Georgia, no one knowing just whither he had gone. But when he 
Dec. 21. gave Savannah as a Christmas gift to the nation, men learned with as- 
tonishment of his march through Georgia. In four columns his army had covered a 
strip of country sixty miles wide, between the Savannah and Ogeechee rivers. His 
men lived upon the country, and left a waste behind them ; railroads were destroyed 
bridges burned, and, after a siege of eight days, Savannah was captured. Meanwhile 
fighting General Hood had reached Nashville, Tennessee, and begun a siege. Thomas, 
who, like Johnston, preferred to win when he fought, was in no hurry to attack him ; 
but having finished his preparations, he annihilated Hood's army in the completest 




GENERAL PHIL. H. SHEEIDAN. 



920 



AMERICA. 



nee. 14-in. victory of the war. Johnston now returned to gather an army if he 
could, and to throw himself across the path of Sherman, marching northward. He got 
together forty thousand men, and attacked the Union army at Goldsboro, North Car- 
olina. Sherman defeated him with difficult}', and the two armies were confronting 
each other, when the news of Lee's surrender reached them. Then Sherman occupied 




SHERIDAN S RIDE FROM WINCHESTER. 



April 99, lsos. Raleigh and Johnston surrendered. The next month the Confederates 
everywhere laid down their arms and the war was over. 

§ 806. Financial Policy. War is an expensive business. How to raise the 
money needed perplexed the brains of Mr. Chase, the Union secretary of the treas- 
ury. Treasury notes of various kinds were issued, some bearing interest, others not. 
These were made a legal tender for all debts except custom duties. These notes were 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



921 



promises to pay "dollars on demand " but as "gold dollars" were not paid when de- 
manded, gold dollars soon commanded a premium, which fluctuated with the fortunes 
of the war. It was next determined to borrow money by the sale of bonds. These 
bonds were sold for paper money, but made payable in coin. If the Union survived 
the struggle, they were a fine investment, bringing the buyer almost double what he 
paid for them. But Mr. Chase went further, believing it necessary to enlist the capi- 
talists of the countiy, heart and soul, in the struggle. He proposed the system of 
Fab. 25, 1803. national banks. These were allowed to issue bank notes, secured by 
national bonds deposited at Washington. The circulation of the state banks was taxed 
out of existence. At a single stroke, the variegated and complicated paper money 
system, prevailing before the war, vanished from our commerce, and a currencj' was 
furnished, which, when brought to par with gold, would be better than any paper 
money in the world. During the four 
years of the war, the Union spent 
$3,500,000,000 in its prosecution. The 
expenses of the Confederacy cannot be 
accurately estimated. 

§807. Foreign Policy. "One job 
is enough at a time," said Mr. Lincoln ; 
and to this policy he steadily adhered 
throughout the war. When Captain 
Wilkes stopped the Trent, a British 
mail steamer, and took from her Mason 
arov. tit. lsei. and Slidell, two Confed- 
erate commissioners, to Europe, Mr. 
Lincoln sagely remarked that Captain 
Wilkes had no right, at any rate, to 
turn his quarter-deck into an admiralty 
court, and thereupon directed the re- 
lease of the captives. Great Britian 
jr<m. i, isa2. had shown great alac- 
rity in recognizing the seceding States 
as belligerents, and in the Trent affair, 
seemed over eager to make trouble. France however, was the real enemy of the 
United States. For although a powerful feeling against the Union existed in 
England, Richard Cobden, John Bright, John Stuart Mill and others argued bravely 
the Federal cause, and the operatives of Lancashire and Yorkshire refused, in 
spite of their suffering from the cotton famine, to ally themselves with the cause 
of slavery. Henry Ward Beecher, in a series of magnificent speeches, in various 
English cities, explained the conflict to the British public, so that no British ministry 
ventured to follow the suggestions of Napoleon. Russia promptly declined his pro- 
ton, s, 1802. posal to mediate, taking which hint, Earl Russell declined it also. The 
Anglo-Confederate cruisers were of course exasperating, and Mr. Lincoln instructed 
irov. i3. Mr. Adams, minister to England, to speak decidedly, which produced 
the detention of two steam rams, just ready to escape from Liverpool. When Napo- 
oet. 31, 1893. leon sent his troops to Mexico to place Maximilian on the throne, Mr. 




SALMON T. CHASE. 



922 



AMERICA. 



Lincoln took notice of it as an unfriendly act, but went no further at that time. But 
the French, having no shipbuilders, were astute enough to permit no iron-clads to be 
fitted out for the Confederate service at any of their ports. 

§ 808. Internal Policy. Mr. Lincoln had been elected by a divided Northern 
vote. From the outset, he was painfully conscious of the latent sympathy for the 
Southern people, diffused throughout the loyal States. And the border States were 
difficult to hold. Opposition to "the war for the negro" was heard in many places, and 
during the dark days of 1862, developed into dangerous strength. The President, 
though supported at the outset by many influential Democrats, like dishing, Stanton, 
Reverdy and Andrew Johnson, Douglas, Logan, Dickinson, Dix, and countless others, 
soon found himself opposed by three powerful elements, those who desired the success 
of the South, those who believed the war a foredoomed failure, and those who regarded 

him as too slow for so great a crisis. 
When taxes were increased, and high 
tariff revived, and when drafts were 
ordered to fill up the rapidly depleted 
armies, this opposition grew rapidly. 
In 1862 New York and several other 
States gave large majorities against 
the Republican party, and in 1863 
jiiiu i3. io, 1803. riots to prevent the 
draft broke out in New York City. 
The suspension of the Habeas Corpus 
was another ground of offence ; like- 
wise the suppression of sundry news- 
papers, and the arrest and confine- 
ment of suspected citizens by mili- 
tary authority. The opposition com- 
bined and culminated in the nomi- 
nation of General McClellan for 
president by the Democratic conven- 
tion that met at Chicago, in 1864. 
On the other hand, no little dissatis- 
faction with Mr. Lincoln existed in his own party. The Emancipation Proclama- 
tion put an end to much of this. But the resignation of Mr. Chase in July, 1864, 
marked the conclusion of an intrigue to push him into Mr. Lincoln's place. Yet in 
November, 1864, the president was re-elected. His message to Congress the follow- 
ing December was considered very bold. His meeting with Alexander Stephens, the 
Confederate vice-president, at Hampton Roads, startled the country with the prospect 
of peace, and his second inaugural stirred the people to unwonted depths of feeling. 
In sublime and solemn words the great leader called upon the nation " to finish the 
work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne 
the battle, and for his widow and orphans, to do all which may achieve and cherish a 
just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." But his work was 
Avt-u 14,, iso.-,. already finished. As he sat in the private box of Ford's theatre, in 
Washington, trying to forget the anxieties and the triumphs of the hour, John Wilkes 




ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 923 

Booth crept to his side, shot him through the head, then leaped upon the stage shout- 
ing, " Sic semper tyrannis ! " and escaped to Maryland. Sic semper tyrannis ! How 
insanely blind is human hate ! The gentlest heart that ever beat in human breast, — 
magnanimous, patient, forgiving, forbearing, patriotic Lincoln, to be murdered with 
such a cry ! He who had " malice toward none, and charity toward all," whose only 
" firmness was in the right as God gave him to see the right." Honest without 
hypocrisy, religions without bigotry or cant, full of strange resources and of high re- 
solves, far-seeing but humble, majestic in his sublimer moments as though under the 
guidance of an unseen hand, yet child-like, uncouth, and even coarse, when the stress 
of stern occasion left him free. Much hated, he himself indulged no rancor. His 
sharpest utterance had no sting but truth, and even that was softened by quaint 
pathos, and a gleaming humor. Who can quote from him a bitter or a biting word ? 
Perhaps he was the first typical American. If so, then few have reached the type. 
Rather let us see in him what he was, a noble nature redeemed from its dross, and 
transfigured by a great purpose and a holy responsibility. A man, who, from strange 
surroundings, rose far above the level of his contemporaries, and held nobly to an ideal 
which attracts the faith of few and the mockery of many. The secret of his unique 
nature lies with God ; He only knows how blood and circumstance, conscience and 
inspiration, contact with noble thought, and the presence of divine opportunity, com- 
bined to make him at once the most heroic and the most lovable figure of a mighty 
period ! When his countrymen have grown more like him, it will be time enough to 
call him the typical American. 

§ 809. "The actual expenditures of the government of the United States in putting 
down the rebellion are, of course, a matter of record on the books of the treasury ; but 
there were various obligations indirectly chargeable to the war which cannot be so 
accurately ascertained. It is impossible also to give even an estimate of the amount 
of money expended by the South in its efforts to separate itself from the Union. From 
1861 to 1866 the expenditures on account of the army amounted to $3, 023, 213,064. 20 ; 
from 1866 until it was brought down to a peace basis in 1871 about $200,000,000 more- 
was spent ; and on account of the navj r $326,650,068.58 was spent, which sums com- 
bined make a total of $3,549,873,132 and represents what was paid out for strictly 
military purposes. To this should be added an unknown quantity, to represent the 
cost ot sustaining the increased civil establishment that was made necessary by the 
war, perphaps $100,000,000 for the five years. This civil establishment has never been 
reduced. There are more than one hundred men still at work in the treasury, settling 
up accounts of paymasters, quartermasters and commissaries of the volunteer army. 
Then the interest on the money borrowed by the government to carry on the war 
should be added, and that is a very large item. 

"The average annual interest charge on the public debt, for a dozen years before 
the war was about $2,000,000. It increased rapidly during the Buchanan adminis- 
tration, until in 1860 it amounted to a little over $3,000,000. The total amount of the 
public debt on July 1, 1861, when the war may be said to have commenced, was $87,- 
718,660. The highest point reached by the public debt since was $2,884,649,626, in 
1865. Since July 1, 1861, we have paid as interest on the debt the stupendous sum 
of $2,536,097,091.04. The highest payment in any one year was $150,977,697 in 1865, 
and the lowest payment was $22,893,883 in 1892. The amount of the public debt on 



924 



AMERICA. 



July 1, 1893, was $1,545,985,686.13, or, deducting the cash in the treasury at that 
time, the outstanding obligations of the United States amounted to the sum of 
$838,969,475. 

"To the other expenditures made necessary by the war should be added also the 
premiums paid for loans and the purchase of bonds by the government from 1860 to 
the present date, which amount to a total of $119,863,386.71. 

" Then comes the enormous item of pensions. In 1860 the pension roll 
amounted to a little more than $1,000,000, paid to the veterans of the Revolution- 
ary war, the war of 1812, the Mexican war, and various Indian wars. In 1862 it 
dropped to $850,000 because the payments to pensioners in the rebellious States 
had ceased. Then the annual payments on this account begin to mount up again. 
In 1865 they were over $16,000,000, and continued to increase until 1893, when the 

sum of $159,357,557.87 was paid by a 
grateful government to its defenders. It 
is expected that the expenditures on this 
account will continue to grow for some 
years, but by the end of the century will 
commence rapidly to fall off, as the veterans 
tumble into their graves. The total 
amount of money paid for pensions from 
the beginning of the war to July 1, 1893, 
was $1,608,209,614. 

"It is impossible to ascertain and it is 
useless to estimate the amount of money 
that was paid for bounties and other pur- 
poses by states, cities, counties and towns 
to encourage and sustain the Union army. 
It is also impossible to give the amounts 
expended by the various States in equip- 
ping troops. But the visible expenditures 
of the general government, including the 
army, navy, pensions, the interest on the 
public debt and premiums paid, amount 
to a grand total of $7,914,033,223." * 
Reconstruction. The death of Lincoln stunned the nation and startled 
And when it became known that Secretary Seward was dangerously 
wounded, and that the conspiracy had contemplated the destruction of all the leading 
officers of the government, the excitement grew deep and dangerous. The few voices 
that ventured to exult in the dastardly deed hushed instantly ; and for a while a 
desperate bitterness filled the hearts of thousands. 

The blow that took away the President opened afresh the wounds in hundreds of 
homes. A hundred thousand Union soldiers had perished on the field, and of their 
injuries. Twice as many had died of disease and languished away in prisons. And 
among these victims were the noblest of the generation. Andrew Johnson, who 
succeeded Mr. Lincoln, though a Southern man, had been outspoken and heroic in his 
* W. E. Curtis, in the Chicago Record. _ . 




STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. 



§810 
the world 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 925 

devotion to the Union. But his inaugural speech as vice-president had disconcerted 
his friends, and his peculiarities of temper and of mind soon provoked opposition to 
his policy as president. 

The seceded states were disorganized completely. It was (so the sword had de- 
cided) rebellion to secede ; nevertheless, they had in fact seceded and levied war 
against the United States. Were there any States left ? Had they not destroyed 
themselves? If, on the other hand, they were indestructible entities, were they pun- 
ishable entities? Or could punishment be inflicted upon individuals only? 

These States, moreover, were the scenes of poverty and suffering. The money 
of the Confederacy had become rapidly and utterly worthless ; the barns were bare of 
food, and the fields lay waste ; the lands had lost their value, and their slaves had 
ceased to be property ; the freedmen had no legal status, and the whites were as yet 
uncertain of their fate. 

§ 811. President Lincoln had, before his death, established provisional govern- 
ments in Tennessee, Virginia, Louisiana, and Arkansas. Johnson followed his ex- 
ample. The governors, appointed by the President, con- iiaiiliiiiiniiw 
vened assemblies elected by the white male citizens, or former 
voters. To these assemblies, the thirteenth amendment 
abolishing slavery in the United States, was submitted for 
ratification. This amendment had been urgently pressed 
through Congress by Mr. Lincoln, in order to perfect the 
acts of emancipation. But it had not yet been adopted 
by the various States. It became, however, a part of the 
constitution in December, 1865. In addition to this, the 
seceding States were required to declare void the ordinances 

6 1 ANDREW JOHNSON. 

of secession, and to promise not to pay the debts incurred 

to support the rebellion. To this they all acceded, and Johnson was ready to re-admit 

them to the Union. 

But Congress demurred. The Republican party insisted upon the exclusion of 
Confederate leaders from citizenship, and upon the admission of the negroes to equal 
political rights with the former voters, especially as several of the seceded States had 
passed laws that seemed like attempts to re-enact slavery. Several acts of Congress 
embodying this policy — the Freedmen's Bureau bill, — the Civil Rights bill — a bill 
for the education and protectio'n of the freedmen — were vetoed by the President. The 
man, who had shown himself implacable against those convicted of the murder of 
Lincoln, was equally implacable against the men who insisted upon citizenship for the 
emancipated slaves. These vetoed acts were passed by Congress notwithstanding. 
Military governors were accordingly appointed, and reconstruction proceeded under 
taos. bayonet rule. Virginia and Georgia however did not yield, until the 

ratification of the fourteenth amendment made further resistance futile. 

§ 812. The effects of these acts were not what the authors of them anticipated, al- 
though a bitter quarrel with the President had been foreseen and welcomed. The 
tenure of office act, passed in 1867, provided that the president must first ask and pro- 
cure the consent of the Senate, before removing important office-holders. Johnson, 
lses. believing the act unconstitutional, and dissatisfied with Mr. Stanton, 

the great war secretary of Mr. Lincoln, whose astonishing energy had been of price- 




926 



AMERICA. 




EDWIN M. STANTON. 



less value to .the countrj', removed him from the cabinet. The President was at once 

impeached, but> as less than two thirds of the Senate voted to sustain the charges, he 

was, after a long trial, acquitted. 

General Grant accepted Stanton's place, 

and soon became the conspicuous figure of the 

country. In 1868 he was nominated for the 

presidencj' by the Republicans, and elected by 

a large majority. 

§ 813. As the election turned upon the 

reconstruction measures of Congress, it looked 

as if the country had responded to Grant's ex- • 

hortation, " Let us have peace ! " But the end j 

was not yet. A fifteenth amendment was next 

adopted, forbidding any State to deprive any 

person of a vote by reason of " race, color, or : 

previous condition of servitude." This made, 

of course, an enormous addition to the voting 

population, and brought a strain upon Demo- 
cratic institutions of the severest kind. And it 

developed two dangerous elements in the Southern States, the Carpet-bagger and 

the Kuklux. The Carpet-bagger sought to control the negro, and to use him for 

corrupt ends ; the Kuklux, on the other hand, terrorized him and attacked the white 

Republicans. Ultimately, the negroes 
ceased to vote, or voted with the whites. 
But this end was reached only after a 
desperate struggle, in which more than 
one State government appealed to the 
President for military support. The 
Republicans however lost one State 
after another, and in 1877 the South 
became " solid " and has remained so 
ever since. 

Not only so. The enfranchisement 
of the negro increased the number of 
representatives alloted to the seceding 
States, and consequently their power in 
the electoral college. And gradually 
the cry of " Universal Amnesty and 
Universal Suffrage," urged so vehe- 
mently by Horace Greeley, brought back 
to political life most of the ancient 
leaders of the South. 

Jefferson Davis remained in prison 
1805-180*. two years, but was never tried. He and Robert Toombs refused to 

return to the old flag; but others took the oath of allegiance, and found their way 

back to places of power in the nation and the state. 




?Pk*»<p?P 



CARL SCHURZ. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



927 



These uniting with the Democratic party of the North which survived the 
war, and grew rapidly stronger during the struggles over reconstruction, have 
created a political situation in the United States, both peculiar and perilous. The 
normal condition of our political life requires two parties, not only nearly equal, but 
equally distributed over the surface of the country. But sectional feeling produces 
political blindness. The interests of the commonwealth are common interests, and 
their protection depends upon an interchange of thought, .ifiiiiiin 

upon mutual understanding, and the promotion of harmony, 
whereas the present situation tends to perpetuate division j|| 
and to encourage antagonisms, and to confer enormous 
power upon a few localities in the North, which are neither 
the wisest nor the best. 




RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 



i. Recent History. 

§ 814. General Grant began his adminstration with a 
conflict, his appointment of the great merchant A. T. Stewart, 
of New York, provoking violent opposition. This conflict 
developed into a dangerous schism of his party, when the San Domingo annexa- 
tion scheme was pressed upon the country. The use of Federal troops to support the 
unstable governments of Southern States, added to the dissatisfaction, and the 
power of certain senators in controlling appointments to office, widened the breach 
between the two sections of the Republicans. 

Sumner, Greeley, Schurz, and Fenton led the liberals into open revolt, and or- 
ganized the convention of 1872, which nominated 
Greeley for the presidency. One great achievement, 
though, lifted this first administration of the famous 
tsii. soldier into permanent history, the 

treaty of Washington. This treatjr between Great 
Britain and the United States referred all disputes 
between the two nations to courts of arbitration. The 
Alabama question, most difficult of all, was settled in 
is7s. favor of the United States, Great Britain 

paying $15,000,000 for the damage done by the Anglo- 
Confederate cruisers. 

The Northwestern boundary question was also 
decided against Great Britain by the Emperor of Ger- 
many, to whom it was referred. In the matter of the 
fisheries, however, the decision was .against the United 
samuel j. tilden. States. Greeley and Brown, the candidates of the 

Liberal Republicans, were accepted by the Democratic leaders in convention, but the 
rank and file of the party supported the ticket without enthusiasm. Grant was re- 
elected, and Greeley wore away his brain and his life in the excitement of the conflict, 
and the chagrin of defeat. 

§ 815. But the second administration of Grant was a time of financial distress 
and political reaction. In 1873 a wave of disaster carried down great fortunes, and 
blighted the prosperity in which the country had rejoiced exultantly. The Northern 




928 



AMERICA. 



Pacific Railroad Company defaulted suddenly, and revealed the hollowness of the 
railroad building operations going on all over the country. To make the feeling worse, 
scandals were revealed in Congress and in the cabinet. The Credit Mobilier stock 

18*3. placed " where it would do the most good " was traced to the hands 

of leading congressmen ; other strange transactions were discovered, and Belknap, 
the secretary of war, was impeached for bribery. Whiskey rings and rings of 

i8i5. Indian contractors were detected and disclosed, so that the cry for re- 




JORN SHERMAN. 



form became clamorous and urgent. Grant declined a nomination for a third term, 
and General Hayes of Ohio was made the nominee of the Republicans. 

The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, who had become the most con- 
spicuous figure of their party, by his destruction of the Tweed gang in New York City, 
and his desperate struggle with the canal ring in the Empire State. 

The election was exceedingly close, and issued in an exciting contest that kept 
the country in excitement for several months. The votes of Florida and Louisiana 
were disputed, and yet upon them depended the result. The Senate 



late. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



929 



was Republican, the House of Representatives was Democratic. Plainly therefore 
these would not agree. Civil war seemed imminent. 

§ 816. In the crisis an electoral commission was created, consisting of five sena- 
tors, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. By a strict party 
vote, the majority of the commission decided that Hayes had been elected. His ad- 
ministration was quiet, clean, and uneventful, excepting that the financial question 
threw its ominous shadow across the horizon. This question was first brought into 
prominence by Mr. Pendleton of Ohio, who, early in 1868, had urged the payment of 
the public debt in legal tender notes, so as to increase the circulating medium of the 
country. The cry for " more money " began to resound in the land, especially in Ohio. 
But the enormous production of precious metals in the Pacific States, made them the 
natural rivals of paper money schemes, and the people began to clamor for the resump- 
tion of specie payments. In 1875 the act to resume had been passed, and Mr. Sher- 
man, the secretary of the treasury, determined to make it effective, and in 1879 legal 
tender notes were exchanged for gold. The Green- 
backers, as they called themselves, had grown rapidly 
in numbers, after the panic of 1873. When anybody 
is scarce of money, he thinks the nation is; and as 
the impecunious were numerous from 1873 to 1879, 
there was a great multitude eager to increase the 
wealth of the country by increasing the quantity of 
jtsjs. circulating medium. But suddenly, 

in 1878, Mr. Bland, of Missouri, discovered that 
silver had been demonetized in 1873, and ought 
now to be remonetized. The apostles of silver soon 
displaced the prophets of paper. Congress ordered 
the coinage of $2,000,000 a month in silver dollars, 
in a ratio of sixteen to one of gold. President 
Hayes vetoed the bill, but it was passed over his 
veto. This imposed upon the treasury an enormous 
task. To pay the legal tender notes in gold, and at 
the same time to keep the silver dollar equal to the gold 
dollar in value, in the face of a falling market for silver. Nevertheless specie payments 
were resumed ; the national debt refunded at exceedingly low rates of interest ; the 
voice of the Greenbacker died away in the land; and prosperity returned to the 
farmer, the merchant, aud the manufacturer. Yet the advocates of free coinage (or 
rather the unlimited coinage of silver at a ratio of sixteen to one), were still restless 
and unhappy. The Warner silver bill was passed in July, 1879, but defeated by the 
Democrats of the Senate, under the lead of Mr. Bayard. The last message of Presi- 
dent Hayes urged emphatically the free coinage of silver dollars at an honest ratio, 
isso. that is, putting into the silver dollars a market equivalent for the gold 

dollar. But that kind of free coinage seemed not to be desired. 

§ 817. The election of 1880 made James A. Garfield president, and Chester A. 

Arthur vice-president of the United States. But quarrels about appointments led 

to a fierce excitement and strife between the Republican factions of New York, the 

supporters of Grant and of Blaine, whose favorites had been both defeated for the 

59 




THOMAS F. BAYARD. 



930 



AMERICA. 




JAMES A. GARFIELD. 



nomination. When the conflict was fiercest, the President was shot by Guiteau, a dis- 
isst. appointed office-seeker. Garfield died on the 19th of September, deeply 

regretted everywhere. His successor ruled amid general prosperity. The public debt 
was rapidly reduced, and a surplus began to fill the treasury. Crops were enormous 
and easily marketable ; manufactures and commerce flourished. Under these circum- 
stances the tariff question excited attention. It had entered 
largely into the struggle of 1880, and in 1883 a tariff com- 
mission reported in favor of lower duties. Congress 
adopted their reports, but the tariff reformers were not satis- 
fied, and demanded greater reductions. 

Meanwhile Congress passed an act to reform the civil 
iss3. service. In Jackson's day, offices came to 

be regarded as the property of the president, to be dis- 
tributed to his friends ; gradually, senators and representa- 
tives acquired liens upon this patronage, which they com- 
pelled the president to recognize ; but lower down, the 
party workers obtained a " pull " upon their representatives, the creatures of their 
political energy, and demanded consideration. Integrity, fitness, patriotic service, 
availed but little against the man who had a " pull." Civil service reform received 
the support of able men in both parties, conspicuously, Mr. Pendleton, of Ohio, Mr. 
Jenkces, of Rhode Island, and Mr. Curtis, of New York. But the practical politician 

endured it reluctantly in party platforms, 
and expelled it sedulously from appropria- 
tion bills at every opportunity. 

§ 818. The Panama Canal company, 
since collapsed, caused a long and eager 
correspondence between France and the 
Union. Chili refused to listen to the remon- 
strances of the United States, and punished 
Peru with great severity, after conquering 
her neighbor in armed conflict. But in gen- 
eral, foreign relations were exceedingly tran- 
quil. 

Silver dollars were piling up in the 
vaults of the treasury, nobody prefer- 
ing them to the paper notes, and the im- 
pecunious not having discovered just how to 
get them to their pockets. No efforts were 
made, however, in the face of general pros- 
peritjr to go further with free coinage at six- 
teen to one, during this administration. For 
parties were preparing for a desperate struggle ; the Greenbackers had vanished ; the 
Prohibitionist was making himself heard ; Republicans and Democrats were alike 
issj. aware of the value of a few votes, especially in New York, and hence 

avoided risks, while they combined to increase appropriations. 

§ 819. In 1884 Grover Cleveland, of New York, who had been nominated by the 




JAMES G. BLAINE. 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



931 




CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 



Democratic convention in spite of the vehement opposition of Tammany Hall, defeated 
James G. Blaine for the presidency, by a few votes in the State of New York. The 
contest was bitterly personal, perplexed by many cross currents, and illuminated by 
no great principles on either side. 

§ 820. But the administration of Cleveland soon 
created changes in the political situation. The President 
demanded a change in the existing tariff system, which he 
described as "a vicious, inequitable, and illogical source 
of unnecessary taxation," although he found it impossible 
to carry all the members of his party with him. 

On the other hand, as the people did not care to circu- 
late the silver dollar, silver certificates, based on the idle 
silver dollars sleeping in the treasury vaults, were issued to 
the country. The Mormons were disfranchised ; the Inter- 
State Commerce bill was passed. This established a commission to regulate the rail- 
way traffic between the various States, and to relieve the people of secret and perni- 
cious combinations. 

— Chinese immigration was prohibited for a period of 

twenty years, and the Tenure-of-Office law was repealed. 

if RtHH V ^ or t ' ie ^ 1;st t '" u ' smce ( ' ie war ' men i prominent in the 

' rebellion, became officers of the National government, while 
isss. the Dependent Pension bill, which involved 

an immense expenditure for Union soldiers was vetoed by 
the President, and finally defeated. 

The Canadian fisheries became, in 1887, again the cause 
issj. of trouble. American ships were seized quite 

frequently. Finally a treaty was agreed to by the President, 
but rejected by the Senate, as altogether too concessive. 
Mr. Seward had purchased Alaska from Russia for $7, 000, 000, in 1867. The seal 
fisheries of the Behring Sea were found to be exceedingly profitable, and the Cana- 
dians refused to be excluded from them. This led to further correspondence with 
Great Britain. And finally the British minister at Wash- 
ington meddled foolishly in the Presidential election of 1888, 
isaa. and at the request of Mr. Cleveland, re- 

ceived his recall. 

§ 821. For Mr. Cleveland had been renominated by 
his part}', and the tariff issue made by him accepted, though 
not with any great moral enthusiasm. Conspicuous among 
the frigid advocates of his election was Governor Hill of 
New York; and other leaders were almost or quite as cold. 
Accordingly, he was defeated by Benjamin Harrison, of 
Indiana, the Republican nominee, under whose administra- 
tion a positive and aggressive policy at once began. 

In foreign affairs the Samoan difficulty with Germany led to a reassertion of the 

isso. Monroe doctrine, and a treaty with Germany and England, most 

popular at the time, but now of somewhat doubtful value. The Behring Sea ques- 




G ROVER CLEVELAND. 




BENJAMIN HARRISON. 



932 AMERICA. 

tion, after long discussion, was referred to a court of arbitration. The murder of 
isoi. Italians, by a mob in New Orleans, led to serious trouble with Italy. 

But the Italian government receded from peremptory demands, and consented to be 
appeased. 

The most serious difficulty of all, however, occurred with Chili where President 
Balmaceda and his Congress were engaged in civil war. The United States cruiser, 
Baltimore, lying in the harbor of Valparaiso was attacked by a mob of " Insurgents " 
or " Congressionals," who killed an officer, and wounded several seamen. Balmaceda 
had been displaced by the insurgents, and when the United States asked apology and 
reparation for this outrage on the Baltimore, the}' sent back an insolent reply. The 
President immediately prepared for war. The Chilian authorities, grown saner by this 
time, apologized fully, and offered ample satisfaction for the injuries committed. These 
were accepted, and peaceful relations reestablished. 

The Pan-American Congress, which met at Washington, in 1889, made their final 
report in June, 1890. Ten republics were represented in this body, but its influence 
upon affairs was hardly noticeable. 

§ 822. But the great event of the Harrison administration was the passage of 
the McKinley tariff bill. This increased duties on one hundred and fifteen articles 
left them unchanged on two hundred and forty-nine. It enlarged the free list, 
giving up entirely the revenue for sugar, and giving a bounty to sugar-growers in 
the South and Southwest. But it provoked a strong reaction, and produced a Demo- 
cratic Congress in 1890. And now the silver question returned to plague the people. 
isoi. The Sherman coinage act was passed, requiring the purchase of fifty- 

four million ounces of silver annually, not for coinage, but for storage and the issue 
of silver certificates therefore. This, of course, made the United States government 
the purchaser of a depreciating commodity, and provoked a number of similar schemes 
to use the nation as a steadier of values. For wheat and, in fact, all sorts of grain 
were falling in price as rapidly as silver, and if the government could interpose to 
help the miner, why not relieve the farmer also ? Why not store his wheat and issue 
wheat certificates? Suddenl} r a new political party was formed, whose storm-centre 
seemed to be Kansas. It drew largely from the Republicans, and captured that state, 
and showed great power in the adjoining regions. And from this party proceeded 
demands for government interference in the business of the country, which indicated, 
on the one hand, immense distress and discontent among the farming population, and, 
on the other, that invincible belief in legislative panaceas that characterizes the polit- 
ical movements of recent years all over the world. " If I can only see the Czar, he 
will set all things right! " says the Russian moujik. "If I can only prevail upon Con- 
gress to pass my bill, that will set all things right," says the American voter. But 
the Czar is not easily found, and Congress grinds out wisdom most exceedingly slow. 

§ 823. When therefore Mr. Harrison was re-nominated against his old antagonist 
— Mr. Cleveland, these forces of discontent combined to bring about a change. The 
Republicans were defeated as never before in their history, and Mr. Cleveland en- 
tered upon a second administration. 

But before his inauguration, signs of a coming storm appeared. And hardly 
was his cabinet appointed, when the storm broke loose. Yet for a while the dif- 
ficulty in Hawaii absorbed attention. A revolution on the island had deposed 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 933 

the Queen. Mr. Harrison concluded a treaty of annexation with the provisional 
gevernment, and sent it to the Senate. This was withdrawn at once by Mr. Cleve- 
land, who sent a special commissioner to investigate the circumstances of the change, 
and the existing situation. The commissioner reported against the wisdom of annex- 
ation ; the President coincided with this view, and the government of Hawaii can 
hardly be accounted stable, although a new constitution has been proclaimed. 

But this question was soon overshadowed by financial troubles. The task im- 
posed upon the government, of keeping gold and silver dollars at par, when the intrin- 
sic value of the one was double that of the other, began to prove quite hard. The 
gold reserve in the treasury steadily decreased. Men grew anxious and ceased to 
trade. American securities poured across the ocean in a steady stream. Then the 
rottenness of certain trusts and railroads and banks was disclosed in defaults and 
suspensions. Money suddenly disappeared from circulation. The ordinary opera- 
tions of commerce were blocked. Loans could not be negotiated ; exchanges stopped. 

Congress was asked by the President to repeal the Sherman bill. The House re- 
is»3. sponded with alacrity ; the Senate dallied until the disaster was be- 

yond the reach of this or any other legislative remedy. The country was in the 
throes of a financial crisis. 

A tariff bill, framed by Representative Wilson, passed the House of Representa- 
tives, but lingered in the Senate. If this had been enacted promptly, no such 
isoj. mischief could have been wrought as followed upon the long delay. 

Meanwhile the mills were idle, the prices of grain unprecedentedly low, strikes abounded, 
and idle men marched toward Washington to seek relief. 



§ 824. Industrial Development. (1849-1894.) Yet the secret of this condition is 
to be sought, not in our political, but in our industrial history. 

The invention of the telegraph furthered amazingly the development of the rail- 
road, and the discovery of precious metals on the Pacific coast led finally to the trans- 
i8eo-iss3. continental railroads. To construct these, the government assisted 
and gave away vast tracts of land (public). Homestead bills were passed, and settlers 
enticed into the Western country, wherever railroads penetrated. The agricultural 
population was thus spread over vast areas, and in many places was absolutely de- 
pendent upon a single railroad for access to the markets of the world. The soil was in 
many places exceedingly fertile, the harvesters, invented by Marsh and improved into 
the twine-binders by Appleby, made the gathering of crops a holiday task, so that pro- 
duction increased enormously, while the farmer did not always reap the profits of his 
industry. Even when grain brought high prices at the sea-board, it often sold quite 
low at the nearest railroad station. Next came the consolidation of railroads, and a 
few great corporations soon covered the whole land with the network of their tracks, 
and their influence. Statutes in their interest were passed without difficulty ; their 
power and wealth excited envy; and a reaction began, which led to drastic legislation, 
that wrought more mischief than it remedied. But the feeling engendered by the 
strife lived on, even after these statutes were repealed. 

§ 825. Meanwhile trusts developed, exciting, at first, surprise and then intense 
hostility. The discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania and elsewhere, in 1859, estab- 



934 AMERICA 

lished a new and lucrative industry. The price of oil, however, fluctuated extremely, 
j«s2. and led to speculation of the wildest sort. A few shrewd men com- 

bined to buy up all the wells, and thus control the price. These constituted the 
Standard Oil trust, first, most powerful, and parent of them all. Their example spread 
with exceeding rapidity, and combinations to control prices confronted the buyer 
everywhere, and the seller too. For having accpuired control of the market, the trust 
could face both ways, dictating the price of what it bought and what it sold. Small 
establishments ceased to be profitable, and were easily driven to the wall or absorbed; 
the country entered into a new and startling phase of industrial development. Again, 
the protective tariffs, made necessary by the war, developed rapidly a multitude of im- 
portant manufacturing interests. And the march of science and invention increased 
their number and their efficiency. Tiie millionaire appeared and multiplied. And the 
newspaper, penetrating into every hamlet of the country, made him the envy and the 
apparent enemy of many an industrious household. For was not all this wealth ac- 
cumulated at the expense of the tiller of the soil? Was there not some evil necro- 
mancy, by which the sweat of the farmer was converted into the stocks of the capital- 
ist, and the coupons of the bondholder? 

§ 826. Coincident with this development of bitterness among the farmers, came 
the growth of discontent among the artisans and operatives of the large cities and 
manufacturing towns. The tides of immigration had filled the cities as well as the 
prairies and the mines, with a polyglot multitude struggling for life and wages. The>e 
too formed their combinations to regulate the price of the one thing the}' have to sell, 
their time and energy. Strikes became both frequent and destructive. The great 
railroad strikes of 1877 have been succeeded almost annually with labor troubles of 
some kind ; now in the mines and now in the mills, now on the street cars, now on 
some great railway-line, now in the coke regions, now in the coal-fields, now in the 
car shops ; among masons, carpenters, shoemakers, and tailors, men and women and 
children. The inevitable result has been the gradual diffusion of the belief that the 
present system is an organized and legalized wrong, to be abolished and reshaped by 
legislative enactment. 

S 827. The socialistic ideas, disseminated so rapidly through Europe, began to 
spread through' America. Marx, though not studied, was quoted and adored. Capti- 
vating books, like " Progress and Poverty," and " Looking Backwards." diffused 
quickly distrust and discontent. College students began to declaim against the ine- 
qualities of the social order, and popular preachers to clamor for a readjustment of 
society. The flaunting of wealth, the follies and luxuries of fashionable idlers, the 
occasional insolence of the powerful, asking "what are you going to do about it?"' or 
exclaiming. " damn the public," the escape of colossal criminals from condign punish- 
ment, the invasion of the United States Senate by millionaires, the enormous fortunes 
acquired by practical politicians, and by gamblers in stocks and grain, increased the 
general irritation. . Deep answered deep. The distress of the farmer to the discon- 
tent of the artisan. The agitated surface of society began so cast up all manner of 
schemes, while splendid speculations built on the sand perished suddenly. Real diffi- 
culties were multiplied by exaggerated rhetoric and unwholesome fear. And the 
people, having learned to trust in legislation, began to cry for a miracle. 

Yet the progress of our industries has been amazing. The telermone, the electric 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 935 

motor, and the electric light, the rapid and daring application of machinery to every 
kind of production and manufacture, the discovery of oil, and coal and minerals of 
every kind, have made us the richest people in the world.* The destruction of slavery, 
though fatal to the wealth of the former slaveholder, did not destroy the productive 
energy of the former slave. The nation gained economically by his emancipation, for 
the negro is more productive than ever. The new South is richer than the old, while 
the creative enterprises of the North are vaiious, and numerous, and bold, giving em- 
ployment to thousands, and adding annually to the permanent wealth and welfare of 
the people. 

The tallow dip has been replaced by the coal-oil lamp, the tapestry carpet costs 
no more than the ancient product of the rag-bag and the hand loom, the faces of the 
" loved and lost " look down upon the poorest, from the neatly papered walls, the fur- 
niture of a room costs hardly more than our fathers paid for a table ; children carry 
watches, for which Queen Elizabeth would have given a fortune, and the literature of 
the world can be had for less than she paid to get half a dozen books. The luxuries of 
former centuries have become the necessities of American life ; so that the discontent 
of American society is but the friction generated by our tremendous progress, a wit- 
ness of our power, and a warning of our danger. For the development of the intelli- 
gent citizen and the happy home is the only worthy goal of human progress; free in- 
stitutions neither create nor preserve themselves ; population is not the measure of 
prosperity ; and it is far more important to study and to learn the immutable laws that 
regulate human movement, than to elect legislators, or even to control their legisla- 
tion. The best and wisest rulers can but follow the leadings of that higher law, upon 
which depends the peace of mankind, and the happiness of the world. 

§ 828. The extent to which the American people have realized their ideals was 
shown in the two great celebrations of 1876 and 1893; each a marvel of its kind, the lat- 
ter the 'wonder of the century. Its vast extent and noble architecture excited universal 
astonishment. Its varied display of material and intellectual achievements startled the 
spectator with the growth of human power, and the possibilities of the future. Where, 
two decades before, the flames had devoured a city, there appeared a prodigy of strength 
and beauty, that seemed to challenge distant generations. 

The rise of Chicago is but one marvelous chapter in the history of American cities. 
From 1850 to 1890 they have grown in number and in population, until they have be- 
come a source of great anxiety. Occasional riots, like those of Cincinnati, in 1884, of 

*The valuation of the property of the United States mnrle in the Eleventh Census is as follows: Real Estate. $39,544,- 
5i4,333; Live Stock and Farm Implements, $2,703,015,040: Mines and Quarries. $1,291,291,579; Coin and Bullion. $1,158,744,- 
9JS; Railroads and Railways, $8,685,407,323; Telegraphs and Telephones, $701,755,712; Miscellaneous, 87,S93,708,S21 ; Total. 
565,037,091,197. 

From a bulletin issuedby the census bureau it is shown that the entire receipts by the national, state, county, town- 
ship and municipal governments of the United States combined, including schools and postal service and all forms of 
taxation, reached in 1890 an aggregate of $1,040,473,013. The total expenditures for the government of the people, from 
the support of the district school to the payment of the expenses of Congress and the interest on the public debt in the 
same year, amounted to $915,954,055, leaving a balance of $124,518,958 ill the treasuries of the various states, cities and 
counties. The revenues are made up from various sources, the largest being local taxation upon real and personal prop- 
erty, which was $443,096,574. The liquor dealers of the United States contributed to the support of government the sum of 
$24,7S6,496. 

The largest expenditures of the people of the United States are for charities, amounting in 1890 to $146,895,671. The 
second largest sum is paid for education. $145,583,115. Omitting interest on the public debt, the next item in amount is 
for roads, sewers and bridges, $72,262,023. The postal service cost $66,000,000. the army and militia $35,500 000. and $15,174,- 
403 was paid for the support of the navv. The cost of sustaining the police in all the cities and towns of the Coiled States 
aggregated $24,000,000, and the tire departments $16,500,000. The judiciary system of the country cost $23.000,000 : $12,000,- 
000 was paid for the support of prisons and reformatories. Sll.000.000 for lighting the streets of the towns and cities of the 
United States ; $3.2S0.294 was paid for protecting the public health. $2,962,697 for sustaining parks and public resorts. It 
costs the United States government $6,608,047 to support tlie Indians, and $11,737,738 for the improvement of rivers and 
harbors. It cost every man, woman and child in the United States the sum of $13.15 to maintain the national, state and 
local governments in the year 1S90. 



936 



AMERICA. 



New York and Brookkyn, in 1886 and 1887, and of Chicago, in the same year, have cre- 
ated much alarm ; the development of the Tweed ring in New York city, the Gas ring 
ia Philadelphia, and of city '-bosses," in nearly every city of the Union, has excited 
earnest reflection, which has thus far borne not much fruit ; although various States, 
conspicuously New York and Pennsylvania, have created able commissions to report 
upon the best methods of municipal government, and Brooklyn and Philadelphia are 
now living under improved charters. But the radical defect has not been reached. 
Municipal charters must be made independent of legislative caprice ; no structure can 
ever rest secure upon the shifting sands of party exigency. Tweeds may die in prison, 
and Jacob Sharps within the shadow of the jail ; yet their tribe increases. For the spoils 
are greater than the peril ; to plunder a city is, under existing charters and circum 
stances, less difficult and less dangerous than any other kind of pillage, as it happens 
mostly under cover and color of the law.* Nevertheless, the people are alive to these 
defects of political structure, and are striving to remove them. In many States new 
constitutions have been adopted for the redress of evils, and the ballot-reform move- 
ment has swept before it the combined and cunning opposition of the mercenary politi- 
cians. The most that these could do, was to check and mutilate the measures adopted 
in several of the States, and to impede their successful operation. The American citi- 
zen has ceased to boast of his institutions, and begun to study them ; he is discovering 
their value and their failures ; he is learning the limits of law, and the necessity of 
political training. Citizens, he sees, are neither born nor naturalized, but made. 
When the magnitude and glory, the difficulties and dangers of self-government in the 
United States are fully discerned, there will doubtless be a flow of energy into public 
life, such as marked the conduct of the civil war ; an application of intelligence to 
political problems, like that which has conquered mountains and achieved the 
triumphs of American industry. Our fathers, as this history shows, fought, from the 
beginning, the battle of self-government; and yet reached a crisis, in 1784, that threat 
ened the destruction of their future welfare. Then they were three millions only, and 
almost all of one stock. Under the pressure of its own weight, and the condemnation 
of progressive intelligence, slavery gave way, almost destroying the nation in its wreck. 
But the people rallied from the calamities of civil war, and developed a prosperity that 
challenged and received the admiration of the world. They now confront problems 
of a different kind, as yet but dimly grasped and feebly stated. To attempt the solu- 
tion of them has been the chief glory of the noblest epochs hitherto ; to solve them 
approximately, only, will make the American people the saviors of civil liberty. 



*Tlie following table shows the principal cities of the United States arranged in the order of the expenditure per 
capita for the maintenance of their city governments: it does not show, however, what each city gets for its money. 



St. Paul $39.07 

Boston 32.63 

New York 24.56 

Columbus (O.) 24.23 

Buffalo 1 23.41 

Minneapolis 22.95 

Los Angeles 21.59 

San Francisco 18.86 

Hartford (Conn.) 17.64 

Lynn (Mass.) 17.29 

Providence 17.23 

Cambridge 16.94 

Worcester 16.73 

Detroit 16.61 

Rochester 15.91 

Atlanta 15.75 

Albany (N. Y.) 15.73 

Richmond (Va.) 15.43 



Newark (N. J.) $14.96 

Cleveland 14.56 

Lowell 14.48 

St. Louis 14.45 

Omaha 14.17 

Baltimore 14.02 

Grand Kapids 13.98 

Chicago 13.80 

Brooklyn 13.67 

Syracuse 13.35 

Charleston 13.35 

Philadelphia 13.10 

Dayton 13 08 

Jersey City 12.52 

Pittsburg 12.04 

Fall River 11.93 

Toledo 11.44 



New Haven $11.33 

Troy 11.18 

Louisville 10.89 

Nashville 10.88 

Memphis 10.82 

St. Joseph (Mo.) 10.44 

Allegheny ... 10.20 

Evansvilte 9.32 

Indianapolis 9.27 

Trenton 9.25 

New Orleans 8.65 

Wilmington 8.44 

Paterson 8.41 

Kansas City 8.17 

lies Moines 7.38 

Scranton 6.20 

Reading 5.07 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 937 

§ 829. 'Educational Progress. — The older universities of the United States have 
been munificently endowed and intellectually transformed in recent years. As wealth 
accumulated, it began to pour into the treasuries of learning ; as science triumphed 
over matter and bigotr}^ it forced its way into the halls of education, and compelled 
a change in the topics and methods of instruction ; as intercourse with Europe in- 
creased through the development of steamships, and the laying of the Atlantic cable, 
the influence of Germany led to innovation and imitation, startling and almost revolu- 
tionary. The lecture displaced the text-book ; special investigation took the place of 
the older training in the classics and mathematics ; the student elected his pursuits 
and his professors ; and a multitude of subjects were provived for his choice. This 
movement pervades the whole country, and has wrought both good and evil. It has 
filled the land with callow specialists, and has developed a few great scholars ; it has 
led to much parade of erudition, and to a few displays of specialized intellectual power ; 
but the modern Harvard can boast neither of an Emerson or a Lowell, a Prescott, a 
Motley, a Parkman, or a Holmes. Alongside of the older institutions, new and splen- 
did foundations, like Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and Lehigh have appeared, and with 
them, colleges for women, like Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, and Bryn Mawr. 

In no respect is the change so marked, as in this eagerness to provide the high- 
est education for young girls. Many of the universities and colleges admit both sexes 
to their classes, and others provide means for their separate instruction. 

The State universities of the West are firmly rooted in the affections of the 
people, and the common school system still remains intact.* Yet the latter is shaken 
occasionally by demands, from the Roman Catholics, for a division of the funds. In 
various localities the parochial school has insisted upon recognition by the State. In 
1893 the Pope sent as legate to America, Archbishop Satolli, whose utterances and 
movements attracted much attention; and for the present the school question 
seems to sleep. Meanwhile, the new Catholic University at Washington excites the 
eager interest of Catholic and Protestant. The growth of Catholic schools and col- 
leges has been commensurate with the rapid development of the Catholic church in 
recent years. The floods of immigration have lifted Romanism in the United States 
into commanding power, and their schools and seminaries are conducted with great 
skill, and supported with great liberality. 

The theological schools of the country have multiplied rapidly, and two of them. 
Andover and Union, have been the centres of unusual interest. The attempts of 
their teachers to restate theology, in the light of modern scientific and historical re- 
searches, have provoked fierce criticism and angry debate. 

Law schools and medical schools have likewise multiplied, and industrial schools 

•Of all the States New York expends the most money for school purposes, $18,438,164. Pennsylvania is second. $13,370- 
459. Then come Illinois. 811,416,703; Ohio, $11,069,254; Massachusetts, $8,527,656 ; Iowa, $6,570,063; Indiana, $6,191,009. Of 
the Southern States, not including Missouri, Texas stands first in the expenditure of money for education with $3,307,320; 
Kentucky second, $2,088,165. Then come Maryland, $2,012,868; Virginia, $1,816,214: West Virginia, $1,372,191, and 
Tennessee, $1,324,441. Alabama spends but$613,562, Louisiana $754,728 and South Carolina but $545,755 for schools. 

The average cost of education in the United States per capita of population is $2.24, while in 1880 it was only $1.59. 
California pays more than any other State for the education per capita other population, $4.24, and Colorado per capita 
of her pupils enrolled, while Alabama pays the least, 37 cents per capita of population, and $1.85 per capita of pupils 
enrolled. 

The average cost of education per capita of population in New England and the North Atlantic States is $2.74, a little 
above the average for the country; in the South Atlantic States, 98 cents; in the North Central States, $2.81 ; in the South- 
ern States, $2.74, while in the Rockv Mountain and Pacific States it is 83.35. The cost per capita of pupils enrolled for the 
United States is $11.03. In the North Atlantic and New England States it is $15.35: in the South Atlantic States. $4.96; in 
the Northern Central States, $12.56; in the Southern Central States, $4 39, and in tiie Eocky Mountain and Pacific States, 
$19 71 

The total expenditures for school purposes in tiie United States increased from $79,528,736 in 1880 to $139,065,537 in 
1890. 



938 AMERICA. 

have been liberally endowed. The Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and the Armour 
Institute of Chicago are splendid gifts to their respective communities, and to the 
future of America. 

§ 830. Indian Education. — The Sioux Indians of western Minnesota, after 
frequently complaining of their treatment by the whites, attacked the frontier settle- 
ments in August, 1862. General Pope was hastily despatched to drive them from 
the State, and a number of the leaders were subsequently hanged. When Sitting Bull 
became their chief, they rose once more, but were driven into southern Montana, to- 
ward the Big Horn river. General Custer was surprised by them, and he and his 
regiment of cavalry completely destroyed. 

Three years before, the Modocs of southern Oregon had resisted desperately an 
attempt to drive them from their "lava-beds." They killed the peace-commissioners 
sent out to pursue them, and fought for a whole year in their country of volcanic 
ruins and subterranean fortresses. 

In 1877 the Nez Perce Indians also refused to leave their reservation, and took 
up arms. They were pursued from Idaho through Montana, but fought like a brave 
and honorable foe. They were finally compelled to surrender. But under the pres- 
sure of public opinion, the administration of General Grant started a policy of peace, 
and a system of Indian education. The reservation lines had come to be regarded as 
" a wall that fences out law and social order, and admits only greed, and despotism, 
and lawlessness." The government agent, living within this wall, was usually some 
precious product of the spoils system ; the creature of an Indian ring. The result was 
inevitable ; discontent and frequent Indian war. In 1878 Congress, therefore, passed 
the general land and severalty bill, which authorized the President to allot the land 
of a reservation to the Indians located on it. In 1882 the education division of the 
Indian bureau was created, and the work of instruction thoroughly organized. 

Bureau Schools, comprising boarding, day. and industrial training schools have an 
enrolled attendance of ten thousand one hundred and seventy-two pupils. 

Special Schools, like those of Hampton, Va., and Carlisle, Pa., have an enrolled 
attendance of two thousand one hundred and thirty-seven scholars, and the Contract 
Schools, maintained by missionary and church organizations, but receiving stipulated 
sums from the government, enroll three thousand five hundred and ninety-seven 
Indian children. Industrial training is a conspicuous feature of all these institutions ; 
the children are of all tribes, and both sexes, and vary in age from eight to eighteen. 
The Pine Ridge and the Osage Indians have compulsory education laws, of their own 
adoption and administration, while the civilized tribes of the Indian Territory have, 
each of them, an independent school system, where instruction is given in the English 
language only. These five nations enroll, in their primary schools, eight thousand 
pupils ; and in their secondary schools, fifteen hundred. 

In fact, the history of the Five Nations throws- more light upon the Indian 
problem, than all the pamphlets written on the Indian question ; and the departure 
from the policy that established them so firmly in their homes, has been the fruitful 
source of all our Indian miseries. 

S 831. Public Libraries also have been munificently provided for — the Ridgway- 
Rush of Philadelphia, the Carter-Browne of Providence, the Lenox and the Tilden of 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 939 

New York, the Peabody and the Pratt of Baltimore, the Newberry of Chicago are but 
a few of these great lights that bring knowledge to the reach of all that read. 

Literature. The conspicuous feature of recent literary life in America is the develop- 
ment of the magazines. Harpers, the Atlantic, Scribners, the Century, have created 
for themselves an influence co-extensive with the country. These and other 
periodicals have discovered talent, and fostered the literary spirit; they have brought 
to American homes the genius of the old world, and filled the homes of Europe with 
the echoes of the new. While personality has vanished from the great dailies, it has 
reappeared in the weeklies and the monthlies. Men and women are heard, not only 
for what they say, but for what they are ; and questions of prime importance are il- 
luminated by those in whom the people have, for some reason, learned to trust. 

James Russell Lowell, George William Curtis, William D. Howells, Charles 
Dudley Warner, J. G. Holland, R. W. Gilder, have all distinguished themselves in the 
conduct of these magazines. Holmes wrote for the Atlantic his famous "Autocrat" 
papers, Henry James has contributed to it and to others, striking stories and 
criticism. " Mark Twain " has made them the vehicle of his peculiar humor ; Har- 
riet Beecher Stowe wrote for them novels and sketches of New England life ; Con- 
stance Woolson and Helen Hunt Jackson and Sara Jewett have adorned their pages 
with stories of rare beauty; Stedman and Stoddard have given us alternately fine 
poetry and noble criticism ; Aldrich furnished verses and charming prose ; Hopkinson 
Smith, bright sketches of travel, and attractive stories of American life. Nelson Page 
has painted for their pages the South before the war. George W. Cable has mingled 
truth and fiction in strange impressions of the " Old Creole " times in Louisiana. " Charles 
Egbert Craddock " (Mary N. Murfree) has depicted for her readers, the mountaineers 
of Tennessee, while James Whitcomb Riley and Edward Eggleston have made them 
familiar with Hoosier schools, and the pathos of life upon the Indiana prairies. Joel 
Harris made "Uncle Remus" the joy of all the children, Bret Harte brought to their 
pages the mining camp of the Pacific, and Walt Whitman chanted through them his 
rude and powerful lines. 

These magazines are the chief educators of the American people, the meeting 
places of their noblest minds, the intellectual inspiration of aspiring youth, the sup- 
port of all good causes, and the promise of a glorious literature of the future? 

Of the older literary men, Holmes alone survives. Longfellow died with Morit- 
uri Salutamus streaming from his golden lips, Whittier covered the nation with his ben- 
ediction of the " Eternal Goodness," and Lowell left us, breathing out loft}' indigna- 
tion against the men that betray the hopes of mankind. Often misunderstood, but al- 
ways faithful, his essays will abide, and his poems will endure ; the one to show the 
breadth of his mind and the wealth of his culture, the other to reveal the depth of his 
feeling, the tenderness and sweetness of his humor, the beauty of his intellectual vis- 
ions, and the nobility of his ideals. 

§ 832. History. Francis Parkman began, in 1849, a marvellous series of histori- 
cal narrations, dealing with the discoveries and settlements of the French in America. 
Their learning, their accuracy, their impartiality, their vivid and luminous style, won 
for them instant recognition, and placed their author at the head of the splendid com- 
pany of historical writers. John Lothrop Motley devoted himself with enthusiasm 

lsis-isii. and with brilliant success, to the story of the Dutch struggle for civil 



940 AMERICA. 

and religious liberty. Hubert Howe Bancroft began, in 1869, to collect materials for 
a complete history of the Pacific slope, which has proven voluminous and valuable. 

Justin Windsor planned and executed, in co-operation with many leading inves- 
iss». tigators, a " Narrative and Critical History of America," which abounds 

in learning and splendid disquisitions. John P'iske has told the story of the American 
Revolution with great charm and power, Moses Coit Tyler has recovered for us the 
true soul and nature of Patrick Henry. John Bach McMaster has wrought into a pic- 
turesque narrative, the newspapers, memoirs, and pamphlets of former periods ; Carl 
Schurz has recreated the political environment of Henry Clay, and made the great 
Kentuckian move before our fascinated fancy, while Hay and Nicolay have wrought 
the life of Lincoln into a " History of the Causes and Conduct of the Civil War." 

§ 833. Theology. Horace Bushnell wrote books on great themes that made 
for him a name in the world ; Philip Schaff contributed a splendid " Histor} r of the 
Christian Church ; " Henry Ward Beecher poured forth sermons and essays full of po- 
etry and philosophy, and at once profound and popular ; Elisha Mulford described the 
republic of God as conceived by a noble Christian thinker ; Theodore Munger has 
dealt with the problems of life and immortality; Henry M. Dexter told, with splendid 
erudition, the story of the Congregationalists ; Abel Stevens has depicted with mar- 
velous power the rise and progress of Methodism ; Charles A. Briggs has interpreted 
the " Higher Criticism ; " Arthur McGiffert has enriched us with the finest edition of 
Eusebius ever published ; George P. Fisher has made valuable contribution to Christ- 
ian history ; McCliutock and Strong have published a valuable encyclopedia, and 
James Freeman Clarke has enlarged our knowledge of the great religions. 



§ 834. Philosophy has been cultivated with unusual energy. Dewey of Michi- 
igan has given us a fine psychology, and so did Porter of Yale. Ladd has quite re- 
cently opened up to Americans the path of physiological psychology explored by 
Wundt and Lotze of Germany, and Bowne of Boston has expounded the views of his 
great German teacher with unusual success. McCosh of Princeton has given us the 
fruits of a vigorous old age, and Stanley Hall of Clark has brought to us the inspira 
tion of his great Leipzig instructor. William T. Harris has won for himself a high 
place as the expounder of German philosophy, and James of Harvard has published a 
treatise on psychology, brilliant, acute, and profound. 

Francis Lieber gave the first impulse to the study of political philosophy in the 
United States, in his work on "Civil Liberty; " Theodore Woolsey and Elisha Mulford 
have followed him with contributions of great value. Wayland and Bowen, Carey and 
Perry, Newcomb and Walker have written ably but inharmoniously, upon economic 
subjects, and have been followed by a multitude of others. The bewildering confu- 
sion, prevailing among American students of economics, is re-echoed in the national 
legislature and in the public mind. Hence dogmatic vehemence and exasperating 
controversy, mixed with bold assertion, gilded platitudes and cunningly manipulated 
statistics, strut about as scientific demonstrations. For as yet we have no science, but 
only attempts at a science of political economy. 

§ 835. Inventions and the Sciences. The Marsh harvester, which has supplanted 
almost every other form of reaping machine, was first built in 1858, and has not been 
changed materially since then, in principle or in form. It was the invention of the 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 941 

two brothers Marsh, of De Kalb county, Illinois. A multitude of inventors next began 
to think out an automatic binder, in order to perfect the Marsh harvester; and finally 
John F. Appleby swept ahead of all the rest, with the twine binder, now in general 
use. Marshs and Appleby were greatly furthered in their efforts by William 
Deering of Chicago. " He established," writes Mr. C. W. Marsh, " twine binding 
machines as the grain harvesters of the time and the future." 

Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell perfected the telephone of Philip Reis 
of Frankfort ; and the speaking wires now vibrate all over the globe. Bond, of Cam- 
bridge, and Henry Draper, of New York, photographed the moon and the spectra of 
the stars. Edison invented the incandescent light, and he ami Tesla have astonished 
the world with their electric discoveries. The sleeping cars of Pullman and of Wagner, 
air-brakes and continuous platforms, have made long journeys easy and comparatively 
safe ; and the transforming mind of the inventor has introduced most startling changes 
into every form of manufacture. 

Louis Agassiz gathered about him at Cambridge a company of eager young biolo- 
gists, who are now at work in every corner of the land. Asa Gray acquired, in botany, 
a renown of equal splendor. Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institute, ranked with 
Michael Faraday, and his successor, Langley, is an acknowledged expounder of the 
new astronomy and the recent theories of solar energy. Newcomb of Washington, 
Young of Princeton, and Holden of the Lick observatory, are famous in both hemis- 
pheres for their knowledge of the skies, while Cooke of Cambridge expounds, with 
clearness and beauty, the wonders of the new chemistry. Whitney, and Gildersleeve, 
and Goodwin have won recognition from the philologists of Germany. Bache made a 
survey of the coast of the United States, marvellously complete and accurate ; Hayden 
explored the Rocky Mountains ; and Major Powell has published a complete descrip- 
tion of the geolog}^, botany, zoology, and ethnology of the Colorado river. Elisha Kane 
explored the arctic regions in search of Sir John Franklin ; Commodore Perry opened 
up Japan ; Hall and Howgate, and finally Greely, surpassed all others in their discov- 
eries among the ice-bergs and the northern lights, while an American editor sent Stan- 
ley to the heart of Africa to discover David Livingstone. 

a. The gold produced in the United States from 1792 to 1892 is estimated at $1,937,881,769 ; the silver at $1,148,161,465 ; or 
$789,720,304 more ol gold than silver. The production in 1892 was of silver $74,989,390 ; gold $33.000.000 ; $41,989,390, more 
than twice as much silver as gold. In five years, 1889—1893, we exported in gold. $322,000,000 and imported in gold $112,- 
000,000; $210,000,000 more exported than imported ; in silver, exported $161,000,000. imported $100,000,000: $64,000,000, more 
exported than imported. That is we have lost nearly seven times one year's gold product, and less than a single year's 
silver product in these five years. 

b. In 1890 there were 221,087 hands employed in the woolen, and 140.978 in the iron and steel industries. The manufac- 
ture of cotton goods lias nearly doubled in a' decade, but so it has throughout the world, for two-thirds of our cotton crop, 
which has also doubled in the last twelve years, still goes abroad. The total area under cotton was, in 1890, 19,566.271 
acres: under cereals, 141.704.000 acres. The total value of all mineral products reached $674,356,848. as follows : Coal, 
$207,637,139 ; pig iron, $131,161,039: silver, $74,989,390; copper, $37,977,142; gold, $33,000,000; petroleum, $26,034,196. 

c. Population of the United States: 

1790 3,929.214 I 1830 12,866.020 i 1S70 38.5S8.371 

1800 5,308,483 1840, 17,069,453 1880 50.155.783 

1810 ....7.239,881 | 1850 23,191.876 1890, 62,622,250 

1820 9,633,822 i860, 31,443,321 

d. The immigrants, since June 30, 1868, aggregate 12.875,876, not including those from Canada and Mexico, nor aliens 
not registered as immigrants. 

e. New States have been admitted in the following order. 



1. Vermont Mar. 4. 1791 

2. Kentucky* June 1, 1792 

3. Tennessee June 1, 1796 

4. Ohio Nov. 29, 1802 

5. Louisiana April 30, 1812 

6. Indiana Dec. 11, 1816 

7. Mississippi Dec. 10, 1817 

8. Illinois Dec. 3, 1818 

9. Alabama Dec. 14, 1819 

10. Maine Mar. 15, 1820 

11. Missouri Aug. 10, 1821 

— * Slave states in italics. 



12. Arkansas June 15. 1836 

13. Michigan Jan. 26, 1837 

14. Florida March 3, 1845 

15. Texas Dec. 29. 1845 

16. Iowa Dec. 28, 1846 

17. Wisconsin May 29. 1848 

18. California Sept. 9, 1850 

19. Minnesota May 11. 1858 

20. Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 

21. Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 



22. West Virginia June 19, 1863 

23. Nevada Oct. 31, 1864 

24. Nebraska Mar. 1,1867 

25. Colorado Aug 1, 1876 

26. North Dakota T 

27. South Dakota ( ,„„„ 

28. Montana f lbw 

29. Washington J 

30. Wyoming} i R q n 
31 Idaho / 18B0 




942 AMERICA. 

V. CANADA. 

§ 836. a. From the Conquest to the Union of the Two Oanadas. 

\ 

iUEBEC passed to England in 1763, and with it all the territory now 

no3. known as British North America. Although the 

English made liberal promises to the French inhabitants, yet many 
of them left the country. Their places were taken by English 
from across the sea and from New England. But General Murray, 
who governed the province with the rule of the soldiery, respected 
the religion and customs of the French, and the latter reluctant]}' 
accepted the situation. Sir Guy Carleton, an exceedingly popular general and diplo- 
mat, became governor in 1766. He conciliated the French without weakening his own 
1774 control. In 1774 the Quebec act was enacted by the English Parlia- 

ment. This was opposed by London merchants, and by the Continental Congress. 
New England objected to it as a covert attack upon the Protestant religion ; Pennsyl- 
vania and New York because of its boundary provisions. 
The chief features of the Quebec act were : — 

The preservation of the Catholic religion to the French Canadians; the establish- 
ment in the province of the criminal law of England ; the continuance of the French 
civil code and practice ; and the creation of an executive council. 

The Quebec act and the wise administration of Sir Guy Carleton so strengthened 
the loyalty of the Canadians, that the expedition of Arnold and Montgomery, against 
Quebec, ended most disastrously for the Americans. 

When, however, Sir Guy was superseded in command of the army by General Bur- 
goyne, he resigned angrily. The defeat of Burgoj-ne at Saratoga, and the success of 
the American Revolution, drove thousands of loyalists into Canada. They settled 
i-isi. along Lake Erie as far as Detroit. Haklimand, the new governor of 

the province, fearing their republican opinions, permitted none of them to dwell on 
the frontier. Especially anxious did he become, upon learning that certain dissatisfied 
men in Canada were in secret correspondence with eminent citizens of the United 
States. After eight years of Haldimand's suspicious and narrow policy, Sir Guy Carle- 
ton came back as Lord Dorchester. His second administration was one of great pros- 
perity. He favored free institutions, and was therefore hot displeased when the loj'al- 
ist settlers petitioned for a share in the government. They were, however, violently 
opposed by the English speaking people of Montreal and Quebec. This opposition. 
i79i. though, proved unsuccessful, and Parliament passed the Act of 1791, 

dividing the province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada. Each division re- 
ceived two houses of parliament ; a council appointed by the crown, an assembly chosen 
by the people. This act provided also for the support of "a Protestant clergy," em- 
powering the governors to erect and endow parsonages. 

§ 837. The settlers of Upper Canada at first endured great suffering ; the famine 

of 1788 was long remembered among them. The country was then but a vast forest, 

without towns, without roads, and without direct communication with the world. 

When John Graves Simcoe, a loyalist officer of the Revolutionary war, summoned his 

JS93. first Parliament in 1792, two only of the five councillors, and five only 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 943 

of the sixteen assemblymen, answered the governor's call. They met in a misera- 
ble log hut at Niagara. It was harvest time, and hence the absence of their colleagues. 
Nevertheless, the little company passed eight important statutes. They established 
the law of England in the province, divided the country into counties, opened the 
lands to settlers, and invited thousands to cross the Niagara river and make a home 
among them. They chose London to be the military station, and Toronto (York) to 
be the capital of the province. The population of the new province rose rapidly from 
twelve to thirty thousand; settlers flocked in from all quarters, Scotchmen, English- 
men, Highlanders, Huguenots, French Emigres, and Thomas Talbot's bold frontiers- 
men. And yet the "sedition act " of 1804, gave power to arrest any person under 
suspicion, who had been less than six months in the province. 

Gov. Simcoe's successors were conspicuously incompetent. And Upper Canada 
soon became a scene of party strife. The original settlers, the loyalists from the 
States, proscribed the later emigrants, and drove them to their defence. And as all of 
them were contentious and fond of fight there was no lack of turbulence. 

This quarrel was silenced temporarily by the war between Great Britain and the 
ism. United States, in 1812. The capture of General Hull, and the victory 

of the Canadians at Queenstown heights, marked the first year of the war. But in the 
isi3. second, Niagara was burned ami the Canadian fleet destroyed by Com- 

modore Perry. Toronto, then called York, also fell into the hands of the Americans, 
and when the year closed, they were in possession of all the western peninsula of Up- 
isij. per Canada. The Niagara frontier was fought for in 1814. The Cana- 

dians lost Fort Erie, and were repulsed at Chippewa, and the bloodiest battle of the 
war was fought at Lundy's Lane. But in November, the Americans withdrew entirely 
from Canada, and have never since returned. 

§ 838. The Family Compact. John Strachan, rector of York (Toronto), was a 
leader of public opinion during this three years' struggle with the United States. 
Strachan, though an English clergyman, was a fighting Scotchman, pugnacious, perse- 
vering, courageous, indefatigable, cunning, and greedy of power. He, in conjunction 
with Chief Justice Powell, John Beverly Robinson, and others of like minds, formed, 
1S20. in 1820, a party which was known for many years as the Family Com- 

pact. These men ruled the governor and the council. They drove Robert Gourlay, 
an honest and capable man, from the province, because, in prosecuting his business, he 
dared to circulate a list of questions tha-t seemed to reflect upon their conduct ; and 
they filled the offices with their favorites and tools. They became, however, so obnox- 
is24. ious to the people, that in 1824, an Assembly was elected, hostile to their 

tyranny. The. Colonial Advocate was started at the same time by William Lyon Macken- 
zie, an impetuous Scotchman, whose vehement opposition soon brought down upon him 
the hatred of the Compact and their adherents. The Advocate office was gutted by a 
mob ; but the damages recovered by Mackenzie from his persecutors, lifted him from 
poverty, and public sympathy made him a member of the Assembly. And Robert 
Baldwin, a man of integrity and of noble character, was chosen to represent York 
(Toronto) in opposition to the candidate of the Cabal. But Sir John Colborne, who 
succeeded Maitland as governor, was like him enamored of oligarchic measures, and 
like him helped, of course, the Famity Compact. 

§ 839. The Clergy Reserve Controversy. And a religious quarrel intensified the 



944 AMERICA. 

strife of parties. The Act of 1791 provided for the maintenance of a clergy by the 
state. One-seventh of the crown lands was alloted for the support of a Protestant 
clergy. When, however, a Scottish Presbyterian congregation asked for the loan of 
one hundred pounds from the clergy reserve fund, a furious fight began, that lasted 
through thirty years. Lord Bathurst, the British secretary for the colonies, decided, 
when appealed to, that the term "a Protestant clergy," might include the Scottish 
church, but not Dissenters, although Lord Grenville had declared, at the time of its pas- 
sage, that the bill meant to provide for any clergy that was not Roman Catholic. Dr. 
Strachan was in 1823 chairman of the Upper Canada Reserves Corporation. He threw 
himself with untiring energy into the battle. He claimed for the Episcopalians of the 
province a monopoly of loj-alty to England, and he insinuated that the Methodists of 
the province were saturated with republican ideas, imbibed from their American 
preachers. This brought Egerton Ryerson and the Methodists, whose avowed leader 
he soon became, into a quarrel hitherto confined to Episcopalians and Presbyterians. 
Strachan petitioned the Crown authorities that the Church of England be alone 
allowed the benefits of the act. The Assembly there upon declared that the Scottish 
church was entitled to a share of the funds. But the legislative council supported 
Strachan, and refused to concur in this declaration of the Assembly. The latter 
thereupon appealed to the King, but his majesty decided that the " clergy reserve fund " 
had been created by Parliament exclusively for a clergy of the established church. 
sir John cot- Elated by this success, Strachan now hastened to England and obtained 
bome, the charter, a land endowment and a money grant of one thousand 

is3s-is3o. pounds a year, for a King's College, grounded on the thirty-nine articles 
of the English church. His conduct provoked intense excitement and violent recrim- 
inations, which grew furious when Sir John Colborne erected secretly forty-four rec- 
tories of the Church of England, under the "glebe clause" of the act of 1791, and en- 
dowed them with extensive and valuable lands. The Assembly in 1840 denied again 
the exclusive claim of the Church of England ; and the authorities of the crown, eager 
to compromise this bitter quarrel, procured the passage of an act vesting the revenues 
of the public lands in the imperial parliament for religious purposes. Strachan now 
become Bishop, entered immediately upon a series of devices that resulted in the 
transfer of the fund to Canada in 1853. And in 1854, the controversy was finally 
settled by an act securing their life interests to the clergy alreadj' in the enjoyment of 
grants, and devoting the remainder of the fund to public education. 

§ 840. PapinemCs Rebellion. While Upper Canada Christians were quarreling 
about the mammon of unrighteousness, Louis Papineau was elected year after j - ear 
speaker of the Assembly of the French-speaking province. Lord Dalhousie, the gov- 
ernor-general, refused to recognize him, whereupon he was himself transferred to India. 
A committee of the British Parliament then recommended a reform in the government of 
the province, and in 1832 the local revenues were passed over to the control of the 
Assembly. The French Canadians seized them eagerly, and started at once to starve 
out the English judges and civil officers. Salaries were unpaid ; the government 
seemed blocked. The French Canadians confronted the "Constitutional Associations" 
of the English. Lord Russell next intensified the strife by the four resolutions that 
he introduced into the House of Commons, in which the legislative assembly of Lo^er 
Canada was condemned, and the oligarchic council defended. Both provinces were 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 945 

now demanding that councillors should be elected by the people. Excited meetings 
were held in Lower Canada ; Papineau tribute was collected ; liberty caps displayed ; 
homespun coats and gowns became the fashion ; drilling begun ; and fighting took 
place between angry groups of " Constitutionalists " and " Sons of Liberty." But Sir 
John Colborne acted promptly and decisively. He attacked the insurgents wherever 
ts37. they collected. Dr. Nelson, the leader of one band, was captured, and 

Papineau escaped across the border. 

§ 841. Mackenzie's Rebellion. William Lyon Mackenzie, excited by this move- 
ment in Lower Canada, broke suddenly into an insurrection that led to much ruin and 
distress in Upper Canada. 

He had been for years bitterly assailed by the forces of the Family Compact ; and 
had been too radical and too straight-forward to hold the opposition solid. In 1830 the 
oligarchy was strong enough to pass the "everlasting salary " bill, which made judges 
and councillors independent of the Assembly for their pay. Mackenzie, though three 
times elected to the House, was three times expelled by the tyrannical majority. All 
this added to his popularity. The law officers of Great Britain pronounced his expul- 
sion illegal. Reelected by a large majority, the House once more refused to admit 
him. But Toronto made him the first mayor of the city, and his triumph was assured, 
when an unfortunate expression of Joseph Hume, adopted by Mackenzie, enabled his 
enemies to cry out " disloyalty ! " Nevertheless, he and his adherents controlled the 
Assembly of 1835, which exposed the Family Compact, and compelled the recall of 
Sir John Colborne. But Sir Francis Plead, Colborne's successor, threw his entire 
strength against Mackenzie ; Hume's expression, " the baneful domination of the 
mother country," was quoted against him continually ; " Hurrah for the British con- 
nection ! " shouted the servants of the " Family Compact." This shout carried the 
discredited oligarchy back to place and power, and the overwhelmed Mackenzie began 
to lose his head. He entered into communication with Louis Papineau ; he formed a 
committee of vigilance, and he agreed with Papineau to head an uprising in Toronto, 
on the same day that the insurgents met their enemies in Montreal. He proclaimed a 
"Provisional Government of the State of Upper Canada," and assembled eight hun- 
dred adherents a few miles from Toronto. But while he hesitated to take the city, 
Colonel McNab dispersed his men, and put a price upon Mackenzie's head. He fled 
to Navy Island, where he flung his flag to the breeze ; but the flag soon ceased to 
flutter, and Mackenzie had thrown away the chances of a patriotic and useful career, by 
his lack of patience and political sense. 

§ 842. Durham and the Act of Union. In 1838 the Earl of Durham became 
governor-general of Upper Canada. He was swift to perceive the conditions and 
needs of the province. Yet his rule was hardly successful. Sixteen rebels were ex- 
iled by his decree, among them Dr. Nelson, conspicuous in connection with Mackenzie. 
"Lord High Seditioner! " cried Durham's enemies in England. And the government 
disallowed and disavowed him ; Durham attacked in turn his British superiors ; the 
ministry thereupon recalled their angry (in)subordinate. But his report on Canada 
is invaluable. Upper and Lower Canada differ, he said, in their political conditions ; 
in the one there is a conflict of principles, in the other a conflict of races. He recom- 
1839. mended a union of the two. In 1839 Lord John Russell introduced into 

Parliament a bill embodying his suggestions. To ascertain the sense of the Canadians, 
60 



946 AMERICA. 

isjo. a special envoy of great tact and abilit} r was sent over from England, 

John Poulett Thompson. Upon his return, the union was accomplished. This act of 
union of 1840 contained the following features: 

The legislature was to consist of an equal number of members from each 
province. 

English alone should be spoken in Parliament (this was subsequently modified). 
A civil list over which the Assembly had no control was made out. and made perma- 
nent. 

The relation of the Executive to the Legislature was not clearly defined, but to 
prevent a recurrence of the former troubles, it was provided that the governor should 
only exercise power according to instructions from the crown. This act satisfied 
neither the rebels nor the Family Compact. But the moderates were highly pleased. 

b. From the Union to the Formation of the Dominion. (184.0-1867.) 

§ 843. Thompson, to whose report as envoy the passage of the act was clue, came 
again to Canada as Governor-General, and Lord Sj-denham. He chose his cabinet 
from the moderate members of both factions. Baldwin, the liberal chief, and Draper, 
afterward chief-justice, were the ministerial leaders. But the Assembly affirmed, 
plainly and emphatically, that the governor was subject to the advice of the council. 
Sydenham skillfully avoided and evaded difficulty. But his successor, Lord Metcalfe, 
i843-is4e. refused to listen to the council, and made his own' appointments. The 
ministry at once resigned. The assembly denied him the prerogatives that he claimed, 
and the struggle terminated only with his death. 

The coast provinces had similar struggles. Nova Scotia was ruled bj' an olig- 
archy, and New Brunswick rejected a new constitution sent over by Lord John Rus- 
is4o. sell. In Nova Scotia, however, the Assembly led by Joseph Howe 

demanded a responsible government, declared a want of confidence in the governor of 
the provinces, Sir Colin Campbell, and asked for his recall. The struggle in each 
province was long and difficult, but they were both organized finally on the same 
principle as L T pper and Lower Canada. 

§ 844. The Losses Bill. — The new Parliament of Canada met in 1844. It opened 
js44. with a quarrel. Upper Canada had obtained ten thousand pounds, in 

order to pay losses incurred during the rebellion. Lower Canada now demanded an 
equal sum. The ministry granted the settlement of losses in Lower Canada : and 
Upper Canada thereupon broke out in wrath. Lord Elgin became governor-general in 
the midst of the tumult. Great excitement greeted him at Montreal. The English 
minority failing to defeat the ministry (La Fontaine — Baldwin), signed a manifesto, 
demanding annexation to the United States. Nevertheless, the losses bill was carried. 
i8so. Wild excesses followed. Lord Elgin was mobbed on his way home 

bv the minority, and the Parliament house was sacked and burned. But the new gov- 
ernor-general was calm and wise. He developed the resources of the country, encour- 
aged canals and railroads, and greatly furthered the cause of education. 

§ 845. The Land and Rent Excitement. — The losses bill trouble was followed by 
a sharp conflict about land and rent charges. Lands in Canada had been divided orig- 
inally into seigniories ; these were owned at first by members of the French nobility, 
and the Canadian tenant farmers were compelled to pay large revenues to their de- 



THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 947 

seenclants. These rents had become exceedingly onerous and oppressive ; finally the 
seigniors were induced to accept two million five hundred thousand dollars, in lieu of 
all their claims. Lord Elgin's administration was also memorable for the reciprocity 

iss*. treaty, negotiated with the United States. The adoption of free trade 

by England had greatly depressed Canadian industry, so that this treaty was hailed 
with great delight, 3 r et the prosperity that rushed in like a flood, was soon followed by 
disaster. The " clergy reserve " question was also settled in Lord Elgin's time ; the 
reserves were secularized, and the Church of England in Canada made practically 
independent. 

§ 846. The Clear Grits. — Upper Canada, which had been growing rapidly since 
the union, now demanded increased representation in Parliament. George Brown, 
the leader of the " Clear Grits," a split from the liberal party, put the Conservatives 
in the minority, on the question of a capital site. But Sir Edmund Head, the gover- 
nor, refused to dissolve Parliament. The Cartier ministry was then defeated on the 

1802. militia bill and a dead-lock ensued. Ministry followed ministry in quick 

succession. Confusion prevailed, until the three leaders, Brown, MacDonald, and 
Cartier formed a coalition ministry, which set about the deliverance of the country 
from the dead-lock, and the formation of a union of all the Canadian colonies. The 
warfare that ensued was bitter and demoralizing, but finally a conference met at 
Quebec, composed of delegates from both Canadas and Nova Scotia, New Brunswick 
and Prince Edward's Island. Seventy-two articles were here agreed upon, for sub- 
mission to the various legislatures. During this contest in Canada, the civil war was 
raging in the United States, and Canada was threatened with serious difficulties. Ref- 
ugees and conspirators from the South gathered upon the borders and in the Canadian 

isea. cities ; Fenian raids were attempted from the States, and incursions 

made from Canada into Vermont. Nothing came of it all, but alarm, and irritation, 
and diplomatic correspondence. 

-c. The Dominion. (1867-1894.). 

§ 847. In 1867 the English Parliament passed the British North American Act, 

iso7. which created the Dominion of Canada. This act, the passage of which 

■called forth great rejoicing, united in one confederation, Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- 
wick and Nova Scotia. Four years later Manitoba and British Columbia were in- 
cluded. Prince Edward's Island followed in 1874. The Dominion's Parliament con- 
sists of two chambers ; a Senate and a popular Assembly. The members of the Senate 
are nominated by the prime minister, and hold office for life. The chief features of 
government are described in the act creating the Dominion, but the British constitu- 
tion is referred to as the authoritative guide in questions of peculiar difficulty. After 
the formation of the Dominion, Sir John MacDonald became conspicuous in Canadian 

lsio. politics. He was prime minister during Fuel's short first rebellion in 

Manitoba. He was one of the commissioners who arranged the treaty of Washington, 
by which the Alabama claim and other outstanding questions between England and 

tan. the United States were referred to arbitration. But as the parts of 

this treaty relating to Canada were exceedingly unpopular in the Dominion, Sir John 
and his party barely escaped defeat the following year. To carry the elections for 
MacDonald and the Conservatives, Sir Hugh Allan contributed enormous sums of 
jnoney, receiving in return the pledge of the ministry to put through Parliament the 



948 AMERICA. 

charter of the Canadian Pacific Railroad Company, of which Sir Hugh was president. 

1813. When Parliament met an investigation was demanded; Sir John 

offered no defence, but his majority defeated the resolutions appointing a committee, 
finally he was compelled to yield, and a committee was appointed, which brought in 
Lora nufferin. a report incriminating the Premier and his colleagues. Lord Dufferin, 
isi3-isis. the Governor-general, was obliged to convene a special session of Par- 
liament, which met, discharged the committee, and appointed a royal commission of 
three judges to report to the House in October. When Parliament reconvened, in- 
tense excitement prevailed. A motion of censure was introduced and debated hotly ; 
but before the vote was taken, the ministry resigned. Alexander Mackenzie now be- 
came prime minister, and under the administration of the Liberals, the Dominion pros- 
pered exceedingly. Notwithstanding the scandal that overthrew the Conservatives, the 
construction of the Canadian Pacific road was gradually pushed forward. But when a 

is3«. period of financial stringency set in, the country began to clamor for 

protection. Mackenzie refused to adopt a change of policy, but MacDonald was more 
than willing. He strode forward as the champion of a national system. Rallying the 
entire Conservative party to his new standard, in two years time he regained the con- 

isis. trol of Canada. Lord Dufferin's term of office now expired. He had 

been exceedingly popular, having managed affairs with exquisite tact. Sir John Mac 
Donald carried his national policy into effect. A high protective tariff was enacted, a 
revival of trade followed, general prosperity returned, and the Canadian Pacific rail- 

i8so. way was completed, regardless of expense. In 1880 the British Par- 

liament transferred the dominion and jurisdiction of all the British possessions in 
Canada, except Newfoundland and its dependencies, to the Parliament of the Domin- 
ion. But the inexcusable neglect of department officials in adjusting the claims of 
settlers in the Northwest, led to an uprising of Indians and half-breeds under Kiel. 
The insurrection was promptly suppressed. Riel and ten Indians were arrested, tried, 
convicted and sentenced to death. The leader and eight of the others suffered the 
extreme penalty, and more than a score expiated their offence in jail. 

§ 848. The Canadian Pacific railway, after desperate financial struggles, was com- 

i8se. pleted in 1886. In 1887 the Dominion received another grant of 

power from the imperial Parliament. Henceforth she might negotiate her own com- 
mercial treaties, in connection with the ministry representing Her Majesty. At the 

iss?. same time delegates from the various provinces met to consider amend- 

ments to the act of 1876 ; they recommended an enlargement of the powers of provin- 
cial officers. The question of reciprocity with the United States provoked a hot dis- 
cussion, but the administration triumphantly opposed the policy. Difficulties, touch- 
ing the rights of American fishermen on the banks of Newfoundland, severely 
strained the relations between the Dominion and the United States, while the destruc- 
tion of seals in the Alaskan waters, by Canadian •fishermen, produced another sharp 
and dangerous controversy. These differences, are now in process of final settlement; 
the British and American government having submitted them to a court of arbitra- 
tion, which met and passed upon them in the summer of 1893. Sir John MacDonald 

is9i. died in 1891. In a few months investigations were demanded into the 

conduct of various departments, and unpleasant revelations led to the overthrow of 
several popular leaders : — conspicuous among them being Mercier, the hitherto all 
powerful leader of the French in Lower Canada. 




[MMMMMMT^MMMSMl 



B. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 

I. MEXICO. 

The Struggle for Independence and the Subsequent Revolutions. 

§729. 

OSfi DE ITURRIGARAY was Spanish Viceroy in 
Mexico when Napoleon I. drove the Bourbon king from 
isos. Spain. He sought to conciliate the 

Mexicans while pursuing his exactions, partly for his 
own advantage and partly to satisfy the demands of 
the Bonapartes. A conspiracy was framed against him 
and he was sent back to Spain a prisoner. His suc- 
cessors were timid and irresolute. This brought to the 
sejj*. isio. front Miguel Hidalgo, a native priest, 
strong with the clergy and trusted by the discon- 
tented. He was supported by Ignacio de Allende, a man 
of some skill as a soldier. After a brief period of suc- 
cess Hidalgo was defeated by Calleja, in 1811, and 
obliged to fly with his broken army. And he with his com- 
panions, Jimenes and Allende, were soon captured and 
promptly shot by the victorious royalists. Jose Maria 
Morelos, however, continued the struggle with a valiant 
remnant of the insurgents. He too failed, was captured 
and executed in 1815. But his stubbornness and courage 
had increased the strength of the insurgents, and in 1816 
they held their own against a force of 80,000. But in 1817 the leaders were obliged 
to succumb. In 1820 the news reached Mexico that Ferdinand VII. was once more 
King of Spain. The revolutionists now made overtures to a man who had been most 
active in suppressing the former rebellion, Augustin de Iturbide. The latter accepted, 
and in 1821 entered the gates of the capital as the conqueror of Mexico. For in spite 
1822-1823. of the opposition of the republicans, he proclaimed himself Emperor 
and compelled the Congress to acquiesce. 

Santa Anna organized an army of liberators ; the soldiers deserted to the re- 
(949) 




950 



AMERICA. 



public ; Iturbide abdicated and gladly accepted permisson to embark for Italy. The 
1S2S-1SX0. United' States of Mexico opened their history in 1824, with Guadaloupe 
Victoria as president of the republic. 

Spain, however, did not yield until 1836, and then only after an ignominious failure 
to reconquer the country made in 1829. 

Party struggles disgraced the new Union and kept the people in unceasing turmoil. 
In 1841 Santa Anna entered the capital at the head of an army ; but his stay was 
short ; in 1842 Herrera proclaimed him a rebel and he fled the country. 

Meanwhile the Americans had entered Texas. In 1833 there were already 
20,000 of them there. The United States offered repeatedly to purchase the terri- 
tory, but Mexico refused to sell, and Santa Anna was sent to bring the Texans to 
obedience. He was met at San Jacinto by General Samuel Houston, taken prisoner 
and compelled to agree to the independence of Texas. Mexico repudiated the con- 
i84e-i&4s. tract ; and in attempting to regain control, was obliged to do battle 
with the United States, and this resulted in the additional loss of Upper California, 
New Mexico, and Arizona. 

§ 730. Santa Anna, who had been compelled to fly in 1842, returned during the 
war with the United States to the presidency of the Republic and to the control of 
the army, but proved so weak that in 1855 he was compelled to abdicate once more. 
A period of anarchy then followed. Finally General Alvarez obtained the presidency, 
and with the help of the liberals and radicals ruled with dictatorial violence. He 
sketched a new constitution in which the clergy especially were great sufferers ; the 
property of the church being in many cases confiscated. A reaction soon took place, 
in consequence of which Zuloaga, a Conservative, became president and the constitu- 
tion of 1857 was abolished. The radicals, however, stuck to their principles, stirred up 
the people of the provinces against the 
"reactionary classes" of the capital, and 
made Juarez their president. There were 
now two governments, one at Vera Cruz 
isas. and one at Mexico, and a 

civil war ensued between the Guerilla 
bands of Juarez and the regular troops of 
General Miramon. 

The United States demanded the right 
of transit across the Isthmus of Tehuan- 
tepec. Zuloaga refused this demand, 
whereupon the government at Washing- 
ton recognized Juarez as president. Jua- 
rez confiscated the properties of the 
church, and prosecuted energetically the 
war against the Conservatives ; and in 
December 1860 his General, Ortega, made 
a triumphal entry into the capital. 

But meanwhile Mexico had become greatly indebted to the bankers of Europe ; 
besides this the European residents of Mexico clamored for compensation, for the losses 
incurred by them during the civil war. This led to the convention at London, in 




MAXIMILIAN. 



CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 



951 



which England, France, and Spain declared that, owing to the weakness of the Mexican 
authorities, they were compelled to demand better protection for their citizens resident 
in Mexico, and to require the fulfillment of the financial obligation entered into by 
the Mexican state. Three squadrons were sent to America to demand satisfaction for 
the past and security for the future ; thej' took possession of Vera Cruz together with 
Bee. isei. other harbors ; the Spanish under General Prim encamped at Orizaba, 
the French at Tehuacan, and the English at Cordova. But the allies soon disagreed 
April a, lse*. and the English and Spanish withdrew. But the honor of France 
and of the French Emperor, required that an undertaking so ostentatiously begun 
should not be ingloriously abandoned, notwithstanding the attacks which were made 
upon it by the French Republicans and the opposition that it encountered in Mexico. 
May is, lsaa. After much suffering and many difficulties, the French overcame all 
resistance ; capital and provinces alike surrendered. A triumvirate was chosen and 
an assembly of notables convened. The republic was abolished, a limited hereditary 
monarchy was established, and the imperial crown was offered to Maximilian, of 
Austria. The choice was a prudent one. Maximilian was a younger brother of the 
Emperor of Austria ; was finely educated, had traveled much, was full of energy, of 
courage, and of ambition. His wife, Marie Charlotte, supported him in this great 
ism. adventure, and they departed for Mexico with eager expectations. The 

United States at once made known its discontent, and their Congress declared that the 
people of the United States found it irreconcilable with their principles, to recognize 
au imperial government that had been established upon the ruins of the Mexican 

republic, under the auspices of a European 
power. Maximilian soon found that the 
Mexicans would not support him, and that 
the French army of occupation were un- 
able to put down the guerilla bands of 
Juarez and the Republicans. The reve- 
nues of the land were insufficient, and it 
was impossible to borrow money in Eu- 
rope. The United States had reached the 
close of the Civil War, and now demanded 
the withdrawal of the French from Mex- 
ico. Maximilian was thereupon aban- 
doned, first by the French Emperor and 
then by his Mexican supporters. The 
Empress Charlotte journeyed in vain to 
Paris and to Rome, seeking help from Na- 
poleon and from the Pope. The only re- 
sult of her mission was her own insanity. 
Bazaine, the French commander in Mexico, 
advised Maximilian to abdicate, but he re- 
iser, fused. For the Mexicans who had been faithful to him, saw in his re- 
maining, their only hope of safety. In 1867 the French troops returned to Europe. 
The last of them had scarcely left Vera Cruz, when the army of the liberals and the 
guerilla bands attacked the empire. The inhabitants of the capital urged the Emperor 




MARSHAL BAZAINE. 



952 



AMERICA. 



to withdraw, and Maximilian acceded to their wishes. He retired to Queretaro where 
he was soon surrounded. But he and his little army defended themselves with des- 
perate courage. He was finally betrayed for money bj T Colonel Lopez, a man whom 
he had distinguished and rewarded above all others. A court-martial was convened 
and Maximilian was condemned to be shot. On the day of his execution the capital 
June 19, tsar, surrendered to Diaz, and eight days after Juarez entered Vera Cruz in 
triumph. Juarez retained the chief magistracy until his death. A few attempts at 
rebellion were promptly suppressed. Under his successor Tejada, however, Diaz raised 
the standard of rebellion, overthrew the existing government and began a period of 
liberal reform. This old guerilla chieftain, the right hand of Juarez, and the de- 
i8s*. struction of Maximilian's empire, was re-elected to the presidenc} r in 

1884. 




PORFIEIO DIAZ. 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



MS 



II. SOUTH AMERICA. 




The Struggles for Independence and the Formation of the Republics. 
§ 735. 

HE Spanish dominion in South America was one of cruelty, selfish- 
ness, and extortionate greed. As in Mexico, so everywhere, only 
Spaniards from the mother country could bear rule. The Creole 
population suffered for the most part in sullen silence, the natives 
with the patience of despair. The War of the Spanish Succession 
made the former restless, and the War of American Independence 
opened the eyes of the Americans, to the immense profits that 
were drawn by the Spaniards from their colonies. For their intercourse with the 
French revealed to them ihe enormous gains of the Spanish system of colonial monop- 
olies. Nevertheless, the attempt of Miranda of Caraccas to stir the people of South 
America to energetic resistance, failed entirely. The interests of the different provinces 
were too various, the population was politically too ignorant, and the antagonism 
between Spaniard, Creole, and Native was too irreconcilable for him and his French 
and English supporters to succeed. 

But in the beginning of this century, the career of Napoleon Bonaparte reshaped 
the American as well as the European world. It gave Louisiana to the United States, 
which carried with it the surrender of Florida b} r Spain, and it broke the bond that 
united Mexico and South America to the mother country. When the Bourbons were 
driven from the Spanish throne, and Joseph Bonaparte placed there by his powerful 
brother, the Spanish possessions in America consisted of four vice-royalties (New 
Granada, New Spain or Mexico, Rio de la Plata or Buenos Ayres, and Peru), and of 
five general captaincies (Chili, Venezuela, Guatemala, Cuba and Porto Rico). For a 
while the Spanish authorities in the conies were undecided and discordant. Mariana 
Morena, an enterprising, educated and resolute citizen of Buenos Ayres, sought to use 
this want of promptness and of harmonj' among the Spanish rulers for the creation of 
a patriotic party, and to win the people generally for freedom and independence. But 
he and his adherents encountered a fearful enemy in the Guachos, the wild sons of the 
Pampas. On these great grass plains, stretching from the torrid regions of the palm 
tree to the ice fields of Patagonia, roved a multitude of savage herdsmen upon their 
half-tamed horses, whose wild life knew nought of any moral code ; who hated every 
social organization, and looked with contempt upon the " tenderfeet " that dwell in 
cities. 

§ 736. In Chili the Captain-General Carrasco was opposed by Martinez de Kosas, 

j%a u isio. an influential man who organized the patriots, and in Venezuela Simon 

isi4. Bolivar raised the standard of independence at the head of a powerful 



954 



AMERICA. 



and intelligent party. Napoleon's demand that the colonies should recognize the new 
ICing Joseph found there the same reception as in the mother country. His governors 
were everywhere expelled, and in most cities juntas were formed, which acted for 




BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE ANDES. 

Ferdinand VII., but desired and worked really for independence. The separation was 
accomplished in most of the colonies without blood-shed ; Quito was an exception, for 
their twenty-eight patriots were slaughtered, and their homes plundered by the Spanish 
garrison. 

When the Cortes were called together at Cadiz to form a liberal constitution for 
Spain, the American representatives, who were present upon invitation, desired for the 
colonies equal rights with the mother country ; equality of representation in the 
Cortes and full liberty of trade. These demands found no response ; for to have con- 
ceded them, would have transferred the political superiority to the Americans, and 
would have given a mortal blow to the opulent trade at Cadiz. Equal rights were 
granted to all ■ the races of South America, and the old restrictions upon agriculture 
and industry were abolished. But the dissatisfied Americans declared themselves in- 
dependent of the Cortes, organized themselves as independent states, and, although 
not eveiwwhere victorious, maintained themselves with honor against the Spanish Gov- 
ernors and their troops, and would have conquered even greater results if the jealousy 
of the cities and the discord of the sections had not prevented concerted action. 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



955 




NATIVE OF BRAZIL. 



§ 737. After the restoration of 
Ferdinand, the Spanish colonies 
would have returned to their allegi- 
ance, if the ill-advised king had not 
refused their just demands and re- 
isi*. quired of them uncon- 

ditional submission to his roj r al will. 
But the South Americans put no 
confidence in the monarch who, by 
cruel persecution of the Spanish lib- 
erals, bad displayed such hatred to 
all political progress. Instead of 
yielding to the royal will, they re- 
newed their claini for equality of 
rights with the mother country, and, 
when this was refused them, they 
unsheathed the sword to fight for in- 
dependence. A life-and-death strug- 
gle began in which the South Ameri- 
cans displayed virtues which no one 
had expected of them ; their fortitude 
in misfortune, their self-denial, their 

enduring of unspeakable distresses, their sacrifice of peace and prosperity, of strength 
and of life, have been seldom paralleled in human history. Assembling in masses 

they would attempt a blow and, if it 
failed, they scattered like dust before 
the wind. Their troops were com- 
posed of peasant farmers, of workers 
in the sugar mills and in the mines, 
who were accustomed to live on horse- 
back, and in the open air, and who 
passed readily, by long habit, from- 
plenty to want; they had the advan- 
tage of requiring no fixed centre of 
operations, no strategy, no organiza- 
tion and no commissary. To-day 
they might be in the depths of want 
and to-morrow rejoicing in a lucky 
conquest; and this wild life was their' 
vital breath, for it gave them oppor- 
tunity to satisfy, now a private re- 
venge, and now the longing of a sud- 
den impulse. Ferdinand sent his 
isis. cruel general Morillo 

(a second Alba), to South America, 
and with him the Inquisitor Tomes, 




INDIAN OF THE AMAZON. 



956 



AMERICA. 



charged with extraordinary powers. But Rio de la Plata had so solidly established 
her independence and her republican constitution, that her success encouraged the 
other states to persevere even though their struggle was a harder one. Three re- 
publics, La Plata, Bolivia, and Uruguay were established, 
isig. and Paraguay was for a long time gov- 

erned by the astute advocate, Dr. Francia, with dictatorial 
power. The war for freedom in New Granada and Peru 
is connected with the Creole Simon Bolivar, of Caraccas. 
This distinguished general and statesman chose Wash- 
ington for his model, and dedicated his energy and his 
fortune to the redemption of his people, not departing 
from his great purpose even when ingratitude was heaped 
upon him. Venezuela had declared her independence as 
early as 1811, but a terrible earthquake almost totally 
destroyed the capital Caracas, and killed' in Valencia 
march isi2. twenty thousand people. This was inter- 
preted by the priests as the punishment of heaven for 
their rebellion, and used cunningly to bring the land back 
to Spanish rule. The unsparing cruelty with which the 
vindictive Spaniards hunted down the republicans, brought 
the extinquished fire to a fresh conflagration. Bolivar led 
600 men across the Andes ; thousands rushed to his stand- 
ard to avenge the death of the slaughtered patriots; the 
National Assembly of New Granada hailed him as their 
saviour and appointed him Dictator ; and he organized at 
once a war to the knife, in the decree of Trujillo, con- 





PARAGUAY INDIAN. 

demning to death every Spaniard 
found supporting the royal cause. 
A fearful, fluctuating, dangerous, 
arduous and wasting war arose be- 
tween Bolivar and Morillo, Bolivar 
being supported by the black gen- 
eral, Paez. When the Spaniards 
conquered, the blood of Republi- 
cans flowed in streams ; to revenge 






m 



SIMON BOLIVAR. 



SOUTH AMERICA. 957 

them, Bolivar executed eight hundred Spanish prisoners. The Spaniards acquired a 
terrible ally in the Llaneros, who like the Gauchos of the Pampas, lived a Bedouin 
life on the grass plains of Terra Firma, who were capable of great endurance and 
abstinence, and who as troopers fought with the pike, the lasso, and the fire-brand. 
Bolivar was compelled to lay down his command and to seek safety in flight to 
San Domingo. The Royalists exulted now in corpses, in confiscation, and in 
forced contributions. But Bolivar soon returned ; his appearance restored the sink- 
ing courage of the Republicans and victories increased his power. Venezuela and 
New Grenada formed a union, choosing Bolivar as captain-general, and at the Con- 
Dec. i7, 1810. gress of Angostura the two republics were united into the single free 
state, Colombia. The Spaniards now determined to send a new army to America. 
This was the same which, by raising the standard of rebellion, had brought about the 
rule of the Cortes in Spain. But even the Cortes would not recognize the independ- 
ence of the colonies. So tlie war was renewed, but to the disadvantage of the dis- 
cordant Spaniards. Colombia conquered her liberty and chose Bolivar as president. 
A treaty of commerce united the young republic to North America. Bolivar next 
appeared as the savior and liberator of Peru. This land with the help of St. Mar- 
tin, the cunning and enterprising liberator of Chili, and of the Englishman Cochrane, 
had adopted a republican constitution and named St. Martin as protector. Discord 
however weakened the power of the Republicans; St. Martin resigned and returned to 
Chili ; the' Spaniards prevailed ; the republic seemed lost. At this crisis Bolivar appeared. 
The discordant Spaniards were beaten and forced to withdraw, and the liberator was 
182*. named protector for life by the Congress in Lima. This heaping of 

power and of honor upon Bolivar awakened the envy and the anxiety of the Repub- 
licans. Conspirators lay in wait to kill him ; he was accused of ambitious designs and 
treasonable purposes. He resigned his office with deep sorrow, and death soon freed 
him from labor and from care. But this did not establish harmony among the shat- 
tered and dissevered states. Their history, since their independence, is painfully 
marked with jealousies and discord. 

§ 854. The Chilian Civil War. — Chili adopted a constitution in 1833 resembling 
i83s. that of the United States. This constitution was revised in 1874, so 

is?j. that the voting franchise was extended, public education provided for, 

and religious tolerance secured. But the Liberal party, as it became supreme, split 
into factions, and quarreled about leadership and the " spoils." The radicals, under 
the lead of Balmaceda, soon became more numerous than the moderates, their leader 
being the most popular man in Chili, and indeed in South America. He had been 
minister of war during the campaigns against Peru, and minister of the Argentine Re- 
public in a period of great importance. He was easily elected president by an over- 
whelming majority, and for a while received enthusiastic support. He established 
a complete system of popular education, secularized the cemeteries, separated church 
and state, and banished sectarian teaching from the schools. He built railroads, 
dredged harbors, erected wharves, and lifted the country into great prosperity. 

But who can appease the hunger of the office-seeker? The moderate Liberals 
joined forces with the Nationalists or Monntvarists to drive the President from power. 
An opposition Congress passed hostile laws which he vetoed, and by a vote of censure 
forced his cabinet to resign. Balmaceda now resorted to violent and unconstitutional 



958 AMERICA. 

measures, and finally declared himself dictator and proclaimed martial law. A des- 
perate civil war ensued, which ended in the defeat of Balmaceda, and the ruin of his 
adherents. 

The provisional government, established at Santiago by the revolutionary Junta, 

isot. was then formerby recognized bj r foreign governments, and the recon- 

struction of Chili begun. Admiral Jorge Montt was inaugurated first president under 
the new constitution, December 26, 1891. 

Since then amnesty has been granted to most of those who took part in the rebel- 
lion. And as Balmaceda committed suicide, he has ceased to trouble the country. 
§ 855. Brazil. — Brazil was discovered in 1499, by Vincent Pencon, who sailed 

t-too. as far as the Amazon, and thence to the mouth of the Orinoco. But 

Cabral, a Portuguese commander, reached the Brazilian coast the next year, and sent 
word of his discovery to the King at Lisbon. Emanuel .sent Amerigo Vespucci to ex- 
plore the country, but no attempt to introduce organized authority was made, until 

is3i. Martin de Sousa discovered Rio de Janeiro on the first of January 

1531. Captaincies were then established, and settlements begun. Thome de Sousa 

is49. became governor-general, and arrived at Bahia in April, 1549. with 

three hundred and twenty 'persons in the King's pay, three hundred colonists, four 
hundred convicts, and six Jesuits. Nobrega, one of these Jesuits, established the col- 
lege of St. Paul, which diffused knowledge through Brazil, and became at once the 
centre of colonization and of civilization. 

The French occupied Rio Janeiro in 1558, but the treacherous conduct of Vil- 

i5ss. ligagnon toward the Huguenot settlers, weakened their settlement, and 

iso-i. the Portuguese acquired it in 1567. 

From 1578 to 1640 Brazil, along with Portugal, was under the Spanish crown. 
Accordingly, the Dutch attacked it in the period of their strength, and Maurice, 
of Nassau, established Dutch supremacy along the Brazilian coast, from the San Fran- 
cisco River to Maranhao. 

But in 1640 a revolution restored the throne of Portugal to the house of 

i64o. Braganza, just in time to rescue Brazil from the hands of Holland. 

The inhabitants of San Paulo however longed for independence, and would have 
achieved it, but for their chosen king, Amador, who declared for Portugal, and retired 
to a convent, leaving them without a leader. Yet fourteen } 7 ears elapsed before the 
Dutch were driven out of the country, and in 1710 the Portuguese were compelled to 
defend Rio de Janeiro against a French invasion commanded by Duclerc. 

San Paulo attracted settlers, and the colonists married frequently with the natives 
of the vicinity. New colonies were settled in the north and west ; and a hardy and 
adventurous people spread over the country. 

The Portuguese minister, Pombal, the enemy of the Jesuits, attacked them in 
Brazil, and expelled them from the country in 1760 ; and reorganized the country, 
abolishing feudal privileges, and admitting all races to equal rights before the law. In 

i7so. 1789 a project was formed in Minas to throw off the yoke of Portugal, 

but the conspirators were detected and banished, except their leader, Silva Xavier, 
who died upon the scaffold. When Napoleon Bonaparte resolved to conquer Spain, 
the prince regent of Portugal, afterward King John VI., took refuge in Brazil. 



SOUTH AMERICA. 959 

isos. He and the Queen, Maria, arrived at Bahia on the 21st of January, 

1808, and were welcomed with great enthusiasm. 

Dom John opened the ports of Brazil to foreign commerce, excepting from the 
general privilege of export under any flag, only diamonds and Brazil wood. English 
artisans and shipbuilders, German engineers, French manufacturers, and Swedish iron 
founders entered the country, and created plants of industry. But the Brazilians paid 
the expenses of the kingdom, and the Portuguese governed the court. The foreign 
nobility were ignorant and profligate and greedy; they delayed and perverted justice, 
and confusion reigned in all departments of government. Republican feeling devel- 
oped rapidly, and the King surrounded himself with troops from Portugal. These re- 
volted in 1821, and compelled Dom John to accept the system established by the Lis- 
bon revolution of 1820. Deputies were elected to the Cortes of Lisbon, and arriving 
there, rebuked the Portuguese for beginning to frame a constitution in their absence. 

is2i. Angry scenes resulted. Dom Pedro, the prince and favorite of Brazil, 

was ordered to Europe. The news excited great uproar in Brazil. The Portuguese 
were driven out; Dom Pedro, the prince regent, was proclaimed emperor, and before 
the end of 1823 the independence of Brazil and the imperial authority were every- 
where acknowledged. 

§ 856. In 1824 the Emperor adopted a liberal constitution, saving himself from 

iss4. overthrow, and Brazil from anarchy. But in 1828 his popularity 

is2s. waned; the defeat of his army by the Argentines, troubles with foreign 

powers, and financial embarrassments combined to ruin him. A bold attempt to destroy 
the liberal party ended in his own abdication. 

A regency now administered the government, until Dom Pedro II. became 

is4o. emperor in 1840. Order was established, the slave-trade abolished, 

and Rosas, the dictator of Buenos Ayres, effectually crushed. In 1870 Lopez, the dar- 
ing dictator of Paraguay, was destroyed by the Brazilians, after a desperate struggle of 

isii. six years, involving an immense expenditure of life and money. In 1871 

the first step was taken toward the abolition of slavery ; enterprises of all kinds began 
to multiply, and public instruction advanced quite rapidly. But the frequent absences 
of the Emperor, and the popular dislike of his daughter and heir, led to the conspiracy 

mso. that drove him from the throne, and established the republic of 1889. 

Fonseca convened a Congress elected by universal suffrage, and a new constitution was 

isoi. proclaimed February 24, 1891. A federal republic was established, 

with a president and two houses. But in November, Peixoto, the vice-president, 
drove Fonseca from office, and a period of confusion followed. Rio Grande do Sul 
revolted, and the movement spread to other States. Peixoto struggled desperately with 
his difficulties, but finally Admiral Mello withdrew from his cabinet, and, forming a 
conspiracy of naval officers, demanded of Peixoto that he resign. This the latter re- 
fused, and the intervention of foreign officers was necessary to prevent Mello shelling 
the city of Rio de Janeiro. A Brazilian ship, assailing an American vessel, was 
fired into by Admiral Benham of the United States Navy, and compelled to strike her 

1893. colors. Mello however retired wounded from the conflict, and Da 

Gama took command of the forces combined against Peixoto, who maintained himself 
with difficulty. 



TABLE OF 

SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



Assyrian Kings. b. c. 

Ninirod or Belus, ' 2245 

****** 

Ninus, 2069 

Ninyas, > 2017 

Semiraniis, . . . . . . . 2007 

Ninyas, 1965 

Arius, 1927 

Aralius, 1897 

****** 

Belochus 1446 

Belatores, . 1421 

****** 

Rirnmon-nirari I., 1320 

Salmanasser I., 1300 

Tiglath-adar I., 1280 

****** 

Tiglath-pileser I., ..... 1140 

Assur-bel-Kala, 1110 

****** 

Assur-dau II., 911 

Rimmon-nirari II., 889 

Assur-natsir-pal, 883 

Salmanasser II., 858 

Samas Rimmon II. 823-810 

****** 

Assur-nirari, . . . . . 753 

Tiglath-pileser II., 745 

Salmanasser IV., 727 

Sargon II., (the Tartan), .... 722 

Sennacherib, 705 

Assur-hadon, 681 

Assur-hani-pal, ...... 668 

Assur-hadon II., (Sardanapalus), . . 625 605 

Babylonian Kings. b. c. 

Nabonassar, 747 

Ukiuziru 732-729 

Tiglath-pileser (of Assyria), . . . 729-722 

Merodach-baladan II., 722 

Assyrian Viceroys, 705-640 

Nabu-abla-utzar (Nabopolassar), . . . 640 

Nebuchadnezzar, 625 

Evil Merodach, . ... . . . 561 

Neirglissar, . 559 

Labynetus, 556 

Nabonadius, 551 

61 



b. c. 
Belshazzar, 539-538 

Egyptian Kings (Pharaohs). b. c. 
Menes abt. 3000 

****** 

Khufa (Cheops), " 2500 

Moris " 2200 

****** 
Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, . . 2100-1580 

Aahmes I., 1580 

Amenhotep, abt. 1560 

Thothmes I., " 1540 

Thothnie3 II. and Hatasoo, . . . " 1520 

Thothmes III., " 1500 

Amenhotep II. " 1480 

Thothmes IV., " 1460 

Amenhotep III. " 1440 

Amenhotep IV., "1420 

Rameses I., . . . . ' . . " 1400 

Seti Sesostris, 1400 

Rameses II., 1388 

Meneptah, 1300 

****** 
Rameses III., . . . . . . 1200 

****** 

Shabat, 700 

Tirhakah, 693 

Psamraetichus I., 653 

Necho II., . 610 

Psammetichus II., 595 

Hophra, 590 

Amasis, 570 

Psammetichus III. 526 

Persian Rule, 525-424 

Armyrtseus, 424-406 

Hebrew Kings. b. c. 

Saul, 1050 

David 1030 

SolomoD, 1000 

Kings of Judah. b. c. 

Rehoboam, 975 

Alijah 958 

Asa, 955 

Jehoshaphat, ...... 914 

Jehoram, 889 

(961) 



962 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



Aliaziah, 

Athaliah, 

Joaz or Jehoahaz, 

Amaziah, 

Uzziab or Azariah 

Jotham, 

Ahaz, 

Hezekiah, . 

Manasseh, . 

Anion, 

Josiah, 

Jehoahaz, 

Jehoiakin, . 

Jehoiachim, 

Zedekiah, 



Kings of Israel. 



Jeroboam, 

Nadab, 

Baashah, 

Elab, . 

Ziniri, 

Omri, . 

Ahab, . 

Ahaziah, 

Jehoram or 

Jehu, . 

Jehoahaz, 

Jeboash, 

Jeroboam II 

Auarchy, 

Zechariah, 

Shallum, 

Menahem, 

Pekahiah, 

Pekah, 

Hoshea, 

Arbaces, 



Kings of Media. 



B. C. 

885 
884 
878 
839 
810 
758 
742 
725 
695 
643 
638 
608 
608 
598 
t 96-588 



975 
954 
953 
930 
929 
925 
918 
897 
896 
884 
857 
841 
825 

784-773 
773 
772 
772 
761 
759 

730-721 



B. C. 



Kings of Macedon. 



842 



Deioces, .... 




709 


Phraortes or Arphaxad, 


656 


Cyaxares . 


632 


Astiages, ...... 


594-558 


Kings of Persia. 




Cyrus, 


558 


Cambyses, .... 




529 


Darius Hystaspes, 




521 


Xerxes, .... 




485 


Artaxerxes I., LoDgimanus, 




465 


Darius II., Notbus, 




425 


Artaxerxes II., Mnenou, 




405 


Artaxerxes III., Ochus, 




359 


Arses, ..... 




328 


Darius III., Codoruanus, 




336-331 



Caranus, 








761 


Perdiccas I., 








729 


Argseus I., . 








684 


Philip I., . 








640 


* * * 


* 


* 




* 


Amyntas I., 








540 


Alexander I., 








500 


Perdiccas II., 








454 


Archelaus, 








413 


Pausanias, . 








394 


Amyntas II., 








393 


Argseus II., 








392 


Amyntas II., 








390 


Alexander II., 








369 


Perdiccas III., 








364 


Philip II., . 








360 


Alexander III., the Great, 








336 


Philip III., Aridaeus, . 








323 


Kassander, . 








316 


Alexander V., 








298 


Demetrius I., Poliorcetes, 








294 


Antigonus Gonatas, 








277 


Demetrius II., 








239 


Philip IV., . 








232 


Antigonus Doson, 








229 


Philip V, . 








220 


Perseus, 








178-168 


Seleucids of Syria. 


Seleucus Nicator, 301 


Antiochus I , Soter, 








280 


Autiochus II., Theos, . 








261 


Seleucus II., 








246 


Seleucus III., Ceraunus, 








226 


Antiochus III., the Great, 








224 


Seleucus Philopator, . 








187 


Antiochus IV., Theos-Epiph 


anes, 






176 


Antiochus V., Eupalor, 








164 


Demetrius Soter, 








162 


Alexander Bala, . 








150 


Demetrius Nicator, 








14G 


Antiochus VI., Sidetes, 








137 


Demetrius Nicator, 








128 


Antiochus VII., Grypus, 








125 


Antiochus VIII., 








111 


Seleucus V., 








95 


Antiochus IX., Eusebes, 








94 


Philip, 








85 


Tigranes of Armenia, . 








83 


Antiochus X., 








69-65 


Ptolemies of Egypt. 


Ptolemy I., Soter 323 


Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, ... 280 


Ptolemy III., Euergetes, .... 247 


Ptolemy IV., Philopator, 








221 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



9&c 











B. C. 








A. D. 


Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, 


205 


Gordianus, . 




237 


Ptolemy VI., Philometor, . 


181 


Balbinus and Pupienus, 




. 238 


Ptolemy VII., Euergetes, . 


146 


Gordian III., 




238 


Ptolemy VIII., Soter II. and Cleopatra I., 


117 


Philip Arabs, 






244 


Alexander I., and Cleopatra I., . 


107 


Decius, 






249 




89 


Gallienus, 






260 


Alexander II., and Cleopatra I., . 


81 


Claudius II., 






268 


Ptolemy IX., Auletes, 


80 


Aurelianus, 






270 


Berenice and Tryphsena, 


58 


Tacitus, 






275 


Ptolemy IX., 


55 


Probus, 






276 


Ptolemy X., and Cleopatra II., . 


51 


Cams, . 






282 


Cleopatra II., . . . . 


43-30 


Diocletian, . 






284 


Maccabees op Jud^a. 




Constantius I., Chlorus, 




305 


Judas Maccabasus, .... 


165 


Constantine, the Great, 




306 


Jonathan Maccabseus, 


160 


Constantius II., . 




337 


Simon Maccabasus, .... 


143 


Julian, the Apostate, . 




361 


John Hyrcauus I., 


135 


Jovian, 




. 363-364 


Judas, Aristobulus, .... 


107-70 


Empeeoes op 


the West. 


Kings of Rome. 




Valentinian, 




364 


^^^^^^| ^^H^^K^^^^^H 


753 


Gratian, 




375 








Valentinian II., . 




383 


Numa Pompilius, 


... 


715 








Tullus Hostilius, 




672 


Eugenius, . 




392 


Ancus Marcius, . 




640 


Theodosius, the Great, 




394 


Tarquinius Priscus, 




615 


Honorius, 




395 


Servius Tullius, . 




578 


Valentinian III., 




425 


Tarquinius Superbus, 




534-509 


Maximus, . 
Avitus, 




455 

455 


Roman Empeeoes. 




Marjorian, . 




457 


The Csesars. 




Severus, 




461 




30 


Antemius, . 




467 




A. D. 


Olybrius, 




472 


Tiberius, . ... 


14 


Glycerius, . 




473 


Caligula, 








37 


Nepos, 




473 


Claudius, 








41 


Romulus Augustulus, 




. 475-476 


Nero, 








54 








Galba, . 








68 


Empeeoes of 


THE EAS r 


r. 


Otho, . 








68 








Vitellius, 








68 


Theodosius, the Great, 


. 


379 


Vespasian, 






... 


69 








Titus, . 








79 






408 


Domitian, 








81 






450 


The Good Emperors. 




Leo I., . . . 




457 
474 


Nerva, ...... 


96 






474 


Trajan, 


98 






491 


Hadrian, 


117 






518 


Antoninus Pius, ..... 


138 


Justinian I., 




527 


Marcus Aurelius, .... 


161 






565 


The Military Despots. 




Tiberius II., 




578 


Commodus, 


180 






582 


Pertinax, 


193 






602 


Septimius Severus, .... 


193 


Heraclius, . 


. 


610 


Caracalla, 


211 


Constantine III., Heracleons 


s, . • 


641 


Heliogabalus, 


218 


Constans II., 


. 


641 


Alexander Severus, .... 


222 


Constantine IV., Pogonatus, 


. 


668 


Maximinus, 






. 


235 











964 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 









A. D. 




A. D. 


Leontius, 695 


Peter de Conrtenay, 


1216 


Tiberius III., Aspimar, 






698 


Robert de Conrtenay, . 


1221 


Justinian II., 






705 


Baldwin II., .... 


1228 


Philippicus-Bardanes , 






711 


The Palxologi. 




Anastasius II., 






713 


Michael VIII., .... 


1261 


Theodosius III., . 






716 


Andronicus II., Palseologus, 


1282 


The Isaurians 




Andronicus III., .... 


1328 


Leo III., the Isaurian, 


718 


John Paheologus I., 


1341 


Constantine V., Copronymus, 






741 


Mauuel II., Palseologus, 


1391 


Leo IV., .... 






775 


John Palaeologus II., . 


1425 


Constantine VI., 






780 


Constantine XIII., Palasologus,. 


1448-1453 


Irene, . . . 






797 


Kings of Peesia (Sassani 


DES). 


Nicephorus I., Logothetes, . 






802 


Artaxerxes I., 


226 


Stauracius, .... 






811 


Sapor I., .... 


240 


Michael I., . 






811 


Hormisdas I., 


272 


Leo V., the Armenian, 






813 


Varanes I, . 


273 


Michael II., the Stammerer, 






820 


Varanes II., .... 


277 


Theophilus, 






829 


Varanes III., 


293 


Michael III., Porphyrogenitus, 






842 


Karses, ..... 


294 




Hormisdas II., .... 


301 


The Macedonians. 








Sapor II., 


309 


Basilius I., the Macedonian, 


867 


Artaxerxes II., .... 


380 


Leo VI., ..... 






886 


Sapor III. 


385 


Constantine VII. and Alexander, 






911 


Varanes IV., .... 


390 


Eomanus Lecapenus, . 






919 


Yezdejird I., 


404 


Constantine VIII., 






928 


Varaues V., .... 


420 


Romanus II., 






959 


Yezdejird II., .... 


440 


Xicephorus II., Phocas, 






963 


Hormisdas III., .... 


457 


John I., Zimisces, 






969 


Feroze, 


458 


Basilius II., 






976 


Pallas 


484 


Constantine IX., 






1025 


Kobad 


. • 486 


Eomanus III., Argyropulus, 






1028 


Jamaspes, 

Kobad, ..... 


497 


Michael IV., Paphlagonian, 






1034 


497 


Michael V., Calaphates, 






1041 


Chosroes I., .... 


531 


Constantine X., Monomachus, 






1042 


Hormisdas IV., .... 


590 


Theodora, .... 






1054 


Chosroes II., .... 


591 


Michael VI., Stratiotes, 






1056 


Siroes, ..... 


628 


The Comneni. 


Artaxerxes III., . 


629 


Isaac I., Comnenus, 1057 


Purandokt, . 


630 


Constantine XL, Dncas, 






1059 


Shenendeh, .... 


631 


Eomanus IV., Diogenes, 






1067 


Arzemdokt, 


. . 631 


Michael VII., Parapinaces, 






1071 


Kesra, 


631 


Nicephorus III., . 






1078 


Ferokhdad, .... 


632 


Alexius I., Comnenus, 






1081 


Yezdejird III., .... 


. 632-641 


John Comnenus, . 






1118 


Kings of Italy (Medlsv 


al). 


Manuel I., Comnenus, 






1143 


Odoacer, 


476 


Alexius II., Comnenus, 






1180 


Gothic Kings. 




Andronicus I., Comueuus, . 






1183 


Theodoric 


493 


Isaac II., Augelus-Comnenus, 






116., 


Athalaric, 


526 


Alexius III., Angelus, 






1195 


Theodatus, .... 


534 


Isaac II., and Alexius IV., . 






1203 


Vitiges, . . 


536 


Alexius V., 






1204 


Theodebald (Hildebald), . 


540 


Latin Emperors. 


Totila, 


. 541-552 


Baldwin I., of Flanders 1204 


Lombard Kings. 










1206 


Alboin, 


568 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



965 



Cleoph, 

Autharis, 

Agilulph, 

Adaloald, 

Arioald, 

Rotharis, 

Rodoald, 

Aribert I., . 

Bertharit and Godebert 

Grimoald, . 

Bertharit, 

Cunibert, 

Luitbert, 

Ragimbert, . 

Aribert II., . 

Ansprand, . 

Luitprand, . 

Hildebrand, 

Raebis, 

Astolph, 

Desiderius, . 



The Popes. 



Gregory the Great, 
Sabiuianus, 
Boniface III., 
Boniface IV., 
Deusdedit, . 
Boniface V., 
Houorius I., 
Severiuus, . 
John IV., . 
Theodorus I., 
Martin I., . 
Eugenius I., 
Vitalianus, . 
Adeodatus, . 
Dominus I., 
Agathon, 
Leo II., 
Benedict II., 
John V., 
Conon, 
Sergius, 
John VI., . 
John VII., . 
Sisiunius, 
Constantine, 
Gregory II., 
Gregory III., 
Zacharias, . 
Stephen II., 
Paul I., 
Stephen III , 
Adrian I., 
Leo III., 



A. D. 




573 


Stephen IV., 


575 


Pascal I., 


591 


Eugenius, 


615 


Valentinus, 


625 


Gregory IV., 


636 


Sergius II., 


652 


Leo IV., 


653 


Benedict III., 


661 


Nicholas I., the ( 


662 


Adrian II., . 


671 


John VIII., 


686 


Marinus, Martin 


700 


Adrian III., 


701 


Stephen V., 


701 


Formosus, . 


712 


Boniface, 


712 


Stephen VI., 


744 


Rom an us, 


744 


Theodorus II., 


749 


John IX., . 


756-774 


Benedict IV., 




Leo V., 




Sergius III., 


590 


Anastasius III., 


604 


Landonius, . 


606 


John X., 


607 


Leo VI., 


614 


Stephen VII., 


617 


John XL, . 


625 


Leo VII., . 


640 


Stephen VIII., 


640 


Marinus II., (Me 


642 


Agapetus II., 


649 


John XII., . 


654 


Leo VIII., . 


657 


Benedict V., 


672 


John XIII., 


676 


Benedict VI., 


678 


Domnus II., 


682 


Benedict VII., 


684 


John XIV., 


685 


John XV., . 


686 


John XVI., 


687 


Gregory V., 


701 


Silvester II., 


705 


John XVII., 


708 


John XVIIL, 


708 


Sergius IV., 


715 


Benedict VIII., 


731 


John XIX., 


741 


Benedict IX., 


752 


Gregory VI., 


757 


Clement II., 


768 


Damasus II., 


772 


Leo IX., 


795 


Victor II., . 



Great, 



II, 



in.: 



A. D. 

816 

817 

824 

827 

827 

844 

847 

855 

858 

867 

872 

882 

884 

885 

891 

896 

897 

897 

898 

898 

900 

903 

904 

911 

913 

914 

928 

929 

931 

936 

939 

942 

946 

956 

963 

964 

965 

. 972 

974 

975 

984 

984 

985 

996 

999 

1003 

1003 

1009 

1012 

1024 

1033 

1044 

1046 

1048 

1048 

1055 



966 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



Stephen IX., 

Nicholas II., 

Alexander II., 

Gregory VII., (Hildebrand] 

Victor III. Didier, 

Urban II., . 

Pascal II., Eanieri, 

Gelasius II., 

Calixtus II., 

Honorius II., 

Innocent II., 

Celestine II., 

Lucius II., . 

Eugenius III., 

Anastasius IV., 

Adrian IV., 

Alexander III., 

Lucius III., 

Urban III., 

Gregory VIII., 

Clement III., 

Celestine III., 

Innocent III., 

Honorius III., 

Gregory IX., 

Celestine IV., 

Innocent IV., 

Alexander IV., 

Urban IV., 

Clement IV., 

Gregory X., 

Innocent V., 

Adrian V, . 

John XX., . 

Nicholas III., 

Martin IV., 

Honorius IV., 

Nicholas IV., 

St. Celestine V. 

Boniface VIII., 

Benedict XL, 

Clement V., 

John XXIL, 

Benedict XII., 

Clement VI., 

Innocent VI., 

Urban V., . 

Gregory XL, 

Urban VI., . 

Boniface IX., 

Innocent VII., 

Alexander V., 

John XXIII., 

Martin V., . 

Eugenius IV., 

Nicholas V., 

Calixtus III., 



A. D. 




1057 


Pius II., 


1058 


Paul II., 


1061 


Sixtus IV., . 


1073 


Innocent VIII., 


1086 


Alexander VI., 


1088 


Pius III., . 


1099 


Julius II., . 


1118 


Leo X, 


1119 


Adrian VI., 


1124 


Clement VII., 


1130 


Paul III., . 


1143 


Julius III., 


1144 


Marcellus II., 


1145 


Paul IV., . 


1153 


Pius IV., . 


1154 


St. Pius V., 


1159 


Gregory XIII., 


1181 


Sixtus V., . 


1185 


Urban VII., 


1187 


Gregory XIV., 


1187 


Innocent IX., 


1191 


Clement VIIL, 


1198 


Leo XL, 


1216 


Paul V., 


1227 


Gregory XV., 


1241 


Urban VIIL, 


1243 


Innocent X., 


1254 


Alexander VII , 


1261 


Clement IX., 


1265 


Clement X., 


1271 


Innocent XL, 


1276 


Alexander VIIL, 


1276 


Innocent XII., 


1276 


Clement XL, 


1277 


Innocent XIII., 


1281 


Benedict XIII., 


1285 


Clement XII., 


1288 


Benedict XIV., 


1294 


Clement XIIL, 


1294 


Clement XIV., 


1303 


Pius VI., . 


1305 


Pius VII., . 


1316 


Leo XII., . 


1334 


Pius VIIL, . 


1342 


Gregory XVI., 


1352 


Pius IX, . 


1362 


Leo XIIL, . 


1370 




1378 


Ca 


1389 


Abu Bekr, . 


1404 


Omar I., 


1409 


Othman, 


1410 


Ali, . 


1417 


Hassan, 


1431 


The Ommiads, 


1447 


The Abbassides, 


1455 


Harun-al-Raschid 



Caliphs of Arabia. 



a. D. 
1458 
1464 
1471 
1484 
1492 
1503 
1503 
1513 
1522 
1523 
1534 
1550 
1555 
1555 
1559 
1566 
1572 
1585 
1590 
1590 
1591 
1592 
1605 
1605 
1621 
1623 
1644 
1655 
1667 
1670 
1676 
1689 
1691 
1700 
1721 
1724 
1730 
1740 
1758 
1769 
1775 
1800 
1823 
1829 
1831 
1846 

1878- 



632 

634 

644 

656 

661 

661-750 

750-1258 

. 786-809 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



967 



Kings and Queens of 


England. 


House of Stuart. 






Anglo Saxon Kings. 




A. D. 




A. D. 


James I., 1603 


Egbert, 


827 










1625 


Ethelwolf, . 






837 


The Commonweallh, 








1649 


Ethelbald, . . 






857 


Charles II., 








1660 


Etkelbert, . 






860 










1685 


Ethelred I., 






866 


William III., 








1689 


Alfred the Great, 






871 


Anne, 








1702 


Edward the Elder, 






901 


Hotise of Brunswick. 


Athelstan, . 






925 




Edmund I., 






940 


George I., 








1714 


Edred, 






946 


George II., . 








1727 


Edwy, 

Edgar, 






955 


George III., 




. 




1760 






957 


George IV, 




• 




1820 


Edward the Martyr, . 






975 


William IV, 




• 




1830 


Ethelred II., 






979 


Victoria, 




• 


1837 


Snieyn, 






1013 


Kings and Queens of Scotland. 


Ethelred II., 






1014 


House of Kenneth. 


Edmund Ironside, 






1016 


Fergus II. 404 


Danish Kings 






Eugenius II., 










420 


Canute the Great, 




1017 


Dongardus, . 










451 


Harold I., Harefoot, 




1035 


Constantine I , 










457 


Hardicanute, 




1039 


Congallus I., 










479 


Saxon Kings. 




Goranus, 
Eugenius III., 










501 
535 


Edward the Confessor, 


1042 


Congallus II., 










558 


Harold II., 


1066 


Kinuatellus, 










569 


Norman Kings. 




Aidauus, 










570 


William the Conqueror, 


1066 


Kenneth, 










605 


William Rufus, 


1087 


Eugenius IV., 










606 




1100 


Ferchard I., 










661 




1135 


Donald IV., 










632 


The Planiagends. 




Ferchard II., 










646 


Henry II., Plantageuet, 


1154 


Malduinus, 










664 


Richard I., Coeur de Lion, . 


1189 


Eugenius V., 










684 




1199 


Eugenius VI., 










688 


Henry III., 


1216 


Amberkeletus, 










698 




1272 


Eugenius VII., . 










699 


Edward II., 


1307 


Mordachus, 










715 


Edward III., 


1327 


Etfinus, 










730 


Richard II., 


1377 


Eugenius VIII., . 










761 


House of Lancaster. 




Fergus III., 
Solvathius, . 










764 
767 


Henry IV., 


1399 


Achaius, 










787 


Henry V 


1413 


Congallus III., 










819 


Henry VI., 


1422 


Dougal, 










824 


House of York. 




Alpine, 










831 


Edward IV., ' 


1461 


Kenneth II., 










834 


Edward V, 


1483 


Donald V., . 










854 


Richard III., 


1483 


Constantine II., . 










858 


House of Tudor. 




Eth, . 










874 


Henry VII., 


1485 


Gregory, the Great, 










876 


Henry VIII 


1509 


Donald VI., 










893 


Edward VI., 


1547 


Constantine III, 










904 


Mary, 


1553 


Malcolm I., 










944 








1558 


Indulfus, 










953 



968 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 









A. D. 








A. D 


Duff, 961 


Clovis III., 691 


Cullerj, 






965 


Childebert III., 






695 


Kenneth III., 






970 


Dagobert III., 






711 


Constantine IV., 






994 


Chilperic II., 






715 


Kenneth IV., 






995 


Clotaire IV., 






717 


Malcolm II., 






1003 


Chilperic II., 






720 


Duncan I., 






1033 


Thierry IV., 






720 


Macbeth, 






1039 


Interregnum, 






737-741 


Malcolm III., 






1057 


Childeric III 






742 


Donald VII., 
Duncan II., 






1093 
1094 


Carlovingians. 




Donald VII., 






1094 


Pepin, the Short, 


752 


Edgar, 






1098 


Karl the Great, Charlemagne, 






767 


Alexander I., 






1107 


Louis I., le Debonnaire, 






814 


David I., . 






1124 


Karl, the Bald, 






840 


Malcolm IV., 






1153 


Louis II., the Stammerer, 






877 


William, the Lion, 






1165 


Louis III. and Carloman II., 






879 


Alexander II., 






1214 


Karl, the Fat 






884 


Alexander III., 






1249 


Eudes, or Hugh, 






887 


Interregnum, 




1285-1292 


Karl, the Simple, 






898 


Houses of Baliol and Bruce. 


Robert, .... 
Rudolf, or Raoul, 






922 
923 


John Baliol, 1292 


Louis IV., d'Outre Mer, 






936 


Interregnum, 




1296-1306 


Lothair, .... 






954 


Robert I., Bruce, 




1306 


Louis V., .... 






986 


David II., Bruce, 
Edward Baliol, . 




1329 
1332 


House of Capet 




David II., . 




1334 


Hugh Capet, 


987 


Bouse of Stuart. 


Robert II., ... 
Henry I., 






996 
1031 


Robert II., Stuart, 1371 


Philip I., the Fair, 






1060 


Robert III., John Stuart, 


. 


1390 


Louis VI., the Fat, 






1108 


James I., 




1406 


Louis VII., the Young, 






1137 


James II., 
James III., 




. 


1437 
1460 


Philip II., Augustus, - . 
Louis VIII., Cceur de Lion, 






1180 
1223 


James IV., 




. 


1488 


Louis IX., Saint, 






1226 


James V., . 




. 


1513 


Philip III., the Hardy, 






1270 


Mary, 




. 


1542 


Philip IV., the Fair, . 






1285 


James VI., (James I. of England), . 1567-1603 


Louis X., the Headstrong, 






1314 


Sovereigns op France. 


John I 






1314 


Merovingians. 
Pharamond, 420 


Philip V., the Long, . 
Charles IV., the Handsome, 






1316 
1322 




House of Valoi 


9. 


Merova?us, ...... 447 


Philip VI., the Fortunate, 


1328 




John II., the Good, 






1350 


Clovis I., the Great, 481 


Charles V., the Wise, 






1364 


Childebert, Clodorair, Thierry and Clotaire, 511 


Charles VI., the Beloved, . 






1380 


Clotaire 558 


Charles VII., the Victorious, 




I 


1422 


Charibert, Gontrara, Sigebert and Chilperic, 561 


Louis XL, 






1461 


Childebert II., 575 


Charles VIII., the Affable, 






1483 


Clotaire IT., 613 


Louis XII., 






1498 


P'gobert I., '628 


Francis I., . 






1515 


Clovis II. and Sigebert II., . . . 638 


Henry II., .... 






1547 


Clotaire III., 656 


Francis II., 






1559 


Childeric II., 670 


Charles IX., 






1560 


Thierry III., 


. 


• • 


670 


Henry III., 






1574 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



969 



House of Bourbon. 



Henry IV., tlie Great, 
Louis XIII. , the Just, 
Louis XIV., the Great, 
Louis XV., ihe Well Beloved, 
Louis XVI., 
Louis XVII 



Nap 



First Republic. 

The National Convention, 
The Directory, 
The Consulate, 

First Empire. 
NapoleoD I., Bonaparte, 

House of Bourbon. 
Louis XVIII., .... 
Charles X., .... 

House of Orleans. 

Louis Philippe 

Second Republic. 
Louis Napoleon, President, 

Second Empire. 
apoleon III., .... 
Third Republic. 

Thiers, 

MacMahon, .... 

Grevy, 

Carnot, 

German Emperors. 
Carlovingians. 
Karl, the Great, 
Louis I., le D6bonnaire, 
Lothair I., 
Louis II., . 
Karl II., the Bald, 
Karl III., the Fat, 
Arnulf, 

Louis III., the Blind, 
Louis IV., the Child, 

Saxon Emperors. 
Conrad I., . 
Henry I., the Fowler, 
Otho I., the Great, 
Otho II., the Bloody, . 
Otho III., the Red, . 
Henry II., the Saint, 

House of Franconia 
Conrad II., the Salique, 
Henry, III., the Black, 
Henry IV., 
Henry V., . 
Lothair II., the Saxon, 



A. D. 
1589 
1610 
1643 
1715 
1774 
1793 



1793 
1795 
1799 

1804 



1814 
1824 



House of Hohenstaufen, or Suabia. 



1830 

1848-1852 
1852 



1871 
1873 
1879 



1887- 



800 
814 
840 
855 
875 
881 
887 
899 
899 

911 
918 
936 
973 
983 
1002 

1024 
1039 
1056 
1106 
1125 



Conrad III., 

Frederick I., Barbarossa, 

Henry VI., 

Philip, 

Otho IV., the Superb, 

Frederick II., 

William, 

Conrad IV., 

Conradin, 

Interregnum, 

House of Hapsburg, 
Rudolph, 
Adolphus, . 
Albert I., . 

Henry VII., of Luxemburg, 
Louis IV., of Bavaria, 
Charles IV., of Luxemburg, 
Wenceslas, of Bohemia, 
Rupert, 
Sigismund, 

House of Austria. 
Albert II., the Great, 
Frederick III., the Pacific, 
Maximilian I. , . 
Charles V., 
Ferdinand I., . 
Maximilian II., 
Rudolph II., 
Matthias, . 
Ferdinand II., 
Ferdinand III., . 
Leopold I., 
Joseph I., . 
Charles VI., 
Maria Theresa, . 
Francis I., of Lorraine, 
Joseph II., . 

Leopold II., 
Francis II., 



A. D. 
1138 
1152 
1190 
1198 
1208 
1215 
1247 
1250 
1250 
1268-1273 

1273 
1292 
1298 
1308 
1314 
1347 
1378 
1400 
1410 

1438 
1440 
1493 
1519 
1556 
1564 
1576 
1612 
1619 
1637 
1658 
1705 
1711 
1740 
1745 
1765 
1790 
1792-1806 



Confederation of the Rhine, 1806-1815. 

Germanic Confederation, 1815-1866. 

North German Confederation, 1866-1871. 

House of Hohenzollern. 

William I, 1871 

Frederick (William) III., . . . 1888 

William II 1888 

Kings of Prussia. 

Frederick I., 1701 

Frederick William 1 1713 

Frederick II., the Great, .... 1740 

Frederick William II., .... 1786 

Frederick William III. 1797 

Frederick William IV., .... 1840 

William I., 1861-1871 



970 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



Kings of Poland. 
House of Piast. 

Boleslas I., 

Miecislas II., 

Casimir I., 

Boleslas II., the Intrepid, 

Ladislas I., the Careless, 

Boleslas III., Wry-mouth, 

Ladislas II., 

Boleslas IV., the Curled, 

Miecislas III., the Old, 

Casirnir II., the Just, 

Lesko V., the White, 

Miecislas IV., 

Ladislas III., 

Lesko V., 

Boleslas V., the Chaste, 

Lesko VI., the Black, 

Anarchy, 

Premislas, 

Ladislas IV., the Short, 

Wenceslas, 

Ladislas IV., 

Casimir III., the Great 

Louis of Hungary, 

Maria, 

The Jagellon. 
Ladislas V., 
Ladislas VI., 
Casimir IV., 
John I., Albert, 
Alexander, 

Sigismund I., the Great, 
Sigismund II., Augustus, 

Elected Monarchs 
Heury, de Valois, 
Stephen, Bathori, 
Sigismund III., . 
Ladislas VII., Vasa, 
John II., Casimir V., 
Michael Wiesnowiski, 
John III., Sobieski, . 
Frederick Augustus I., 
Stanislas I., Lesczinski, 
Frederick Augustus I., 
Frederick Augustus II., 
Stanislas II., Poniatowski, 

Kings of Aeagon. 
Ramiro I, 
Sancho Ramirez, 
Peter I., of Navarre, . 
Alphonzo I., the Warrior, 
Ramiro, the Monk, 
Protronilla, 
Alphonso II., 
Peter II., . 



A. r>. 
992 
1025 
1041 
1058 
1081 
1102 
1138 
1146 
1173 
1177 
1194 
1200 
1202 
120S 
1227 
1279 
12S9-1295 
1295 
1296 
1300 
1304 
133S 
1370 
1382 

1384 
1434 
1445 
1492 
1501 
1506 
1548 

1573 
1575 
1587 
1632 
1648 
1669 
1674 
1697 
1704 
1709 
1733 
1764-1795 

1035 
1065 
1094 
1104 
1134 
1137 
1163 
1196 





A. D. 




1213 


Peter III., . • . 


1276 


Alphonso III., the Beneficent, . 


1285 


James II., the Just., 


1291 


Alphonso IV., the Meek, 


1327 


Peter IV., the Ceremonious, 


1336 




1387 


Martin, 


1395 


Interregnum, 1410-1412 


Ferdinand I., the Just, 


1412 


Alphonso V., the Wise, 


1416 


John II., 


1458 


Ferdinand II., the Catholic, . . 1479-1512 


Kings of Castile and Leon. 




Ferdinand I, the Great, 


1035 


Sancho II., the Strong, 


1065 


Alphonso VI., the Valiant, 


•1072 


Uraca, and Alphonso VII., 


1109 


Alphonso VII., Raymond, 


1126 


Sancho III., the Beloved, . 


1157 


Alphonso VIII., the Noble, 


1158 




1188 




1214 


Ferdinand III., the Saint, 


1217 


Alphonso X., the Wise, 


1252 


Sancho IV., the Brave, 


1284 




1295 


Alphonso XL, 


1312 


Peter, the Cruel, .... 


1350 


Henry II., the Gracious, 


1369 




1379 


Henry III., the Sickly, . . . 


1390 




1406 


Henry IV., the Impotent, . 


1454 


Isabella, 


1474 


Joanna and Philip I., of Austria, 


1504 


Ferdinand V., 


506-1512 


Kings of Spain. 




House of Trastamora. 






1512 


House of Hapsburg. 




Charles I., 


1516 


Philip II., 


1556 


Philip III., 


1598 


Philip IV., 


1621 


Charles II., 


1665 


House of Bourbon. 






1700 


Ferdinand VI., the Wise, . 


1746 


Charles III., 


1759 


Charles IV . 


1788 


House of Bonaparte. 




Joseph Bonaparte, .... 


1808 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



971 



House of B 


ourbo 


n. 








A. D. 


A. D. 


Eric I 


850 


Frederick VII., 1813 


Eric II 


854 


Isabella II., 1833 


Gormo, the Old, 


883 


House of Savoy. 


Harold, Bluetooth, 


941 


Aniadeo I., 1870 


Sweyn, the Forked Beard . 


991 




Canute II., the Great, 


1014 


Republic- 1873-1874 


Canute III., .... 


1035 


House of Bourbon. 


Magnus, of Norway, . 


1042 


AlptaonsoXII 1874 


Sweyn II., 


1047 


Alphonso XIII., .... 1886 


Interregnum, .... 


1073-1076 




Harold, the Simple, 


1076 


Kings of Portugal. 


Canute IV., .... 


1080 




Olaus IV., the Hungry, 


1086 


House of Burgundy. 


Eric I., the Good, 


1095 


Alphonso I . 1139 


Interregnum 


1103-1105 


Sancbol., . 








1185 


Nicholas I., .... 


1105 


Alphonso II., the Fat, 








1212 


Eric II., Harefoot, 


1135 


Sancho II., the Idle, . 








1223 


Eric III., the Lamb, . 


1137 


Alphonso III., 








1248 


Sweyn III., .... 


1147 


Dennis, .... 








1279 


Canute V., .... 


1147 


Alphonso IV., 








1325 


Waldemar, the Great, 


1157 


Pedro, the Severe, 








1357 


Canute VI., the Pious, 


1182 


Ferdinand I., 








1367 


Waldemar II., the Victorious, 


1202 


John I., the Great, 








1385 


Eric IV., 


1241 


Edward, 








1433 


Abel, 


1250 


Alphonso V., the African, 








1438 


Christopher I., .... 


1252 


John II., the Perfect, 








1481 


Eric V., . 


1259 


Emanuel, the Fortunate. 








1495 


Eric VI., 


1286 


John III 








1521 


Christopher II., 


1320 


Sebastian, 








1557 


Interregnum, .... 


1334-1340 


Henry, 








1578 


Waldemar III., .... 


1340 


Anthony. ... 








1580 


Olaus V., 


1376 






Margaret, 


1387 


United with Spain. 1580-1640 


Margaret and Eric VII., 


1397 


House of Braganza. 


Eric VII 


1412 




Interregnum .... 


1438-1440 


John IV 1640 


Christopher III., 


1440 


Alphonso VI., 








1656 






Peter II., . 








1683 


House of Oldenburg. 




John V., . 








1706 


Christian I., .... 


1448 


Joseph Emanuel, 








1750 


John, . . . • . 


1481 


Peter III., and Maria I., 








1777 


Christian II., the Cruel, 


1513 


Maria I., 








1786 


Frederick I., 


1523 


John VI., . 








1816 


Christian III., .... 


1533 


Peter IV., Dom Pedro, 








1826 


Frederick II., .... 


1559 


Maria II., da Gloria, . 








1826 


Christian IV 


1588 


Dom Miguel, 








1828 


Frederick III 


1648 


Maria II., . 








1833 


Christian V., 


1670 


Peter V., Dom Pedro, 








1853 


Frederick IV., 


1699 


Louis I., . 








1861 


Christian VI 


1730 


T"lrt,v» Porlno 








ip q o 


Frederick V., . 


1746 


1'Olli V^allUb, i.e.. 


lOOJ 


Kings of Denmark. 


Christian VII., 


1766 




Frederick VI., .... 


1808 


House of Skiold. 


Christian VIII., .... 


1839 


Sigurd Snogoje . . . . . . . 794 


Frederick VII., .... 


1848 


Hardicanute 








803 


Christian IX 


1863 



972 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



Kings of Sweden. 



Dukes of Burgundy. 











A. D. 




A. D. 


OlafSchotkonung, 1001 


Philip, the Bold, ..... 


1363 


Edmund Colbrenner, 




, 




1026 


John, the Fearless, . . 


1404 


Edmund Slerame, 




, 




1051 


Philip, the Good, 


1419 










1056 


Charles, the Bold, .... 1467-1477 










1066 






Ingo I., the Good, 




. 




1090 


Sultans of Turkey. 












1112 




1299 










1118 




1326 


Swerker I., 




. 




1129 


Amurath I., ...... 


1360 










1155 


Bajazet I., Uderim, .... 


1389 


Charles VII., 




• 




1161 


Solomon, 


1403 


Canute, 




• 




1167 


Musa-Chelebi 


1410 


Swerker II., 




a 




1199 


Mahomet I., 


1413 










1210 


Amurath II., 


1421 










1216 


Mahomet II., . 


1451 










1222 


Bajazet II., ..... 


1481 


Waldemar I., 




. 


1250 




1512 


Magnus I., Ladulses, 




, 


1275 


Solomon II., the Magnificent, , , 


1520 












1566 


Magnus II., Smsek, 




. 


1319 




1574 


Erie XII., . 




. 


1350 




1595 


Magnus II., 




. 


1359 


Achmet I., ..... 


1603 


Albert of Mecklenburg, 


. 


13631397 


Mustapha I., .... 


1617 


United with Denmark, 1397-1523. 


Osman II., ..... 


1618 


House of Vasa. 


Mustapha I., 


1622 






1623 


Gustavus I., Vasa, 


1523 




1640 


Eric XIV., .... 




1560 




1649 


John III., 




1569 


Solomon III., 


1687 






1592 


Achmet II., ..... 


1691 


Charles IX., .... 




1604 




1695 


Gustavus II., Adolphus, the Great, 




1611 


Achmet III., 


1703 


Christina, ..... 




1633 


Mohammed V., Malimud, . 


1730 


Charles X., Gustavus, 




1654 


Osmau III., ..... 


1754 


Charles XI . 




1660 




1757 


Charles XII., .... 




1697 


Achmet IV., Abdul-Ahmed, 


1774 


Ulrica Eleanora, .... 




1718 


Selimlll., . . . . '. 


1789 


Frederick I., 




1741 




1807 


Adolphus Frederick, 




1751 


Mahmud II., Mahomet VI., 


1808 


Gustavus III., Adolphus, . 




1771 


Abdul Medjid, 


1839 


Gustavus IV., Adolphus, . 




1792 


Abdul Aziz, 


1851 






1809 


Amurath V., 


1867 


House of Bernadotte. 






Abdul Hamid, 


1876 


Charles XIV., John, . 




1818 


Czaes of Russia. 








1844 






Charles XV., .... 




1859 


House of Buric. 






1872 


Ivan, the Great, Basilovitz, 


1462 


Kings of Naples and Sicily. 


Vasali, Basil V., .... 


1505 


Normans. 


Ivan IV., the Terrible, 


1533 


Roger I., 1131 




1584 


"William I., the Bad, . 






1154 


Boris-Godonoff, 


1598 


William II., the Good, 






1166 




1605 


Tancred, 






1189 


Demetrius, tie Impostor, . 


1606 


William III., 






1194 


Zouinski, Vasali-Chouiski, 


1606 


Constance, . 


. 






1194-1197 


Lad islaus, of Poland, 


1610 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



973 



House of Bomanoff. 

Michael, Feodorovitz, 

Alexis, 

Feodor II., 

Ivan V., and Peter I., 

Peter I., the Great, 

Catharine I., 

Peter II., . 

Anne, 

Ivan VI., . 

Elizabeth, 

Peter III., 

Catharine II., 

Paul, 

Alexander I., 

Nicholas I., 

Alexander II., 

Alexander III., 

Empeeoes of Austeia 
House of Hapsburg. 
Francis I., . 

Ferdinand, .... 

Francis Joseph, 

Kings of Holland. 
House of Orange. 
William Frederick, 
William II., . 

William III 

Wilhelmina, .... 



Leopold I., 
Leopold II., 



Otho I., 
George I., 



Kings of Belgium. 
House of Saxe-Coburg. 

Kings of Geeece. 
House of Bavaria. 

House of Denmark. 



Kings of Italy. 
House of Savoy. 
Victor Emmanuel, 
Humbert, ..... 

Peinces of Roumania 
Alexander Couza, 
Charles I., .... 

Peinces of Bulgaeia 
Alexander I,, 
Ferdinand, .... 

Peinces of Seevia. 
Milosch I., Obrenovitch, 
Michael II., .... 
Michael III , 



a. d. 
1613 
1645 
1676 
1682 
1689 
1725 
1727 
1730 
1740 
1741 
1762 
1762 
1796 
1801 
1825 
1855 
1881 



1804 
1835 



1848- 



1813 
1840 
1849 



1890- 



1831 
1865 



1832 



1863- 



1S61 



1878- 



1859 



1866- 



1879 



1887- 



1829 
1839 

1840 



Alexander, 
Milosch I., 
Michael III., 
Milan IV., 
Alexander, 

Peinces of Montenegeo. 
Daniel, ...... 

Nicholas, 

Shahs of Peesia. 
Suffean Dynasty. 
Ismail, 
Tamasp, 

Ismail II., Meerza, 
Mahommed, Meerza, 
Abbas I., the Great, 
Sophi, 
Abbas II., 
Sophi II., . 
Hussein, 
Mahmoud, 

Ashraff, the Usurper, 
Tamasp II., 
Abbas III., 
Nadir, 
Rokh, 

Interregnum, 
Kureem Khan, 
Anarchy, 

Turkoman Dynasty. 
Aga-Mahommed Khan, 
Futteh Ali, . . . 

Mahommed, 

Nasr-ul-Deen, 

Mogul Empeeoes of India. 
Baber, 
Humayuu, 
Akbar, 
Jehanghir, 
Shah Jehan, 
Aurungzebe, 
Bahadoor Shah, 
Jehander Shah, 
Mahomed Shah, 

Empeeoes of China. 
Chwang-Lei, 
Shun-che, . 
Kang-hi, 
Yung-ching, 
Keen-lung, 
Kea-king, . 
Taou-Kwang, 
Hieng-fung, 
Ki-tsiang, Toung- 
Kwang Su, 



A. D. 

1842 
1858 
1860 
1868 
1889 

1851 
I860 



1502 
1523 
1576 
1577 
1585 
1628 
1641 
1666 
1694 
1722 
1725 
1730 
1732 
1736 
1749 

1751-1759 
1759 

1759-1795 

1795 

1798 
1834 



chi, 



1848 

1526 
1531 
1556 
1605 
1627 
1658 
1707 
1713 
1719-1748 



1627 

1643 ' 

1662 

1723 

1736 

1795 

1820 

1850 

1861 



1875- 



974 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



MlKADOS OF JAI 


'AN, 












A. D. 


A. D. 


Rutherford B. Hayes, 


1877 


Koinei Tenno, 


James A. Garfield, .... 


1881 


Mutsu Hito 1867 


Chester A. Arthur 


1881 


Khedives of Egypt. 


Grover Cleveland, .... 


1885 


Mehemet Ali Pasha 1806 


Benjamin Harrison, .... 


1889 


Ibrahim, ..... 






1848 


Grover Cleveland, .... 


1893 


Abbas, .... 






1848 


Governors General of Canada 




Said, 






1854 


Earl of Durham, .... 


1838 


Ismail, .... 






1863 


Sir John Colborne, 




1838 


Mechmet Tewfik, 






1879 


Lord Sydenham, 




1839 


Abbas Hilmi, 




1892 


Sir Charles Bagot, 




1841 


British Governors of India. 


Lord Metcalfe, . 


. 


1843 


Warren Hastings, ..... 1772 


Earl Cathcart, 






1846 


Sir John Macpherson, 






1785 


Earl of Elgin, 






1846 


Lord Cornwallis, 






1786 


Lord Monck, 






1861 


Sir John Shore, 






1793 


Lord Lisgar, 






1^64 


Marquis Wellesley, 






1798 


Earl of Dufferin, 




1872 


Lord Cornwallis, 






1805 


Marquis of Lome, 




1878 


Sir George Hilaro Barlow . 






1805 


Marquis of Lansdowne, 


1884 


Lord Minto, 






1807 


Lord Stanley of Preston, . 


1888 


Marquis of Hastings, 






1813 


Rulers of Mexico. 




Lord Amherst, . 






1823 


Emperor. 




Lord William Bentnick 






1828 


Augustin Itnrbide, .... 


L822-1823 


Lord Metcalfe, . 






1835 


Presidents. 




Lord Auckland, 






1836 


Guadalupe Victoria 


1825 


Lord Ellenborough, . . 






1842 


Guerrero, . 




1829 


Sir Henry Hardinge, 






1844 


Bustamente, 






1830 


Lord Dalhousie, 






1848 


Pedraza, 






1832 


Lord Canning, 






1855 


Santa Anna, 




. . 


1833 


Lord Elgin, 






1861 


Bustamente, 






1837 


Lord Lawrence, 






1863 


Santa Anna, 






1841 


Lord Mayo, 






1868 


Herrera, 






1845 


Lord Northbrook, 






1872 


Paredes, 






1846 


Lord Lytton, 






1876 


Santa Anna, 






1846 


Marquis of Ripon, 






1880 


Herrera, 






1848 


Earl of Dufferin, 






1884 


Arista, 






1851 


Marquis of Lansdowne, 




1888 


Santa Anna, 






1853 


Presidents of the United States. 


Alvarez, 






1855 


George Washington 1789 


Comonfort, 






1856 


John Adams, 






1797 


Zuloaga, 






1858 


Thomas JeffersoD, 






1801 


Benito Juarez, 






1861 


James Madison, 






1809 


Emperor. 




James Monroe, . 






1817 


Maximilian, of Austria, 


1864-1867 


John Quincy Adams, 






1825 


Presidents. 




Andrew Jackson, 






1829 


Benito Juarez, ..... 


1864 


Martin Van Buren, 






1837 


Lerdo de Tejado, 


. 


1872 


William Henry Harrison, . 






1841 


Porfirio Diaz, 




1877 


John Tyler, 






1841 


Gonzalez, 




1880 


James Knox Polk, 






1845 


Porfirio Diaz, 




1884 


Zacbary Taylor, 






1849 


Rulers of Brazil. 




Millard Fillmore, 






1850 


House of Braganza. 




Franklin Pierce, 






1853 




1822 


James Buchanan, 






1857 


Dom Pedro II., ..... 


1831-1889 


Abraham Lincoln, 






1861 


Presidents. 




Andrew Johnson, 






1865 


Deodora da Fonseca, .... 


1889 


Ulysses S. Grant, 






1869 


Floriano Peixoto, 






1891 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



B. C. 

2500 
2205 
2200 
2100 
2000 
1900 
1800 
1580 
1500 
1550 

1451 

1300 

1263 

1250 

1194 

1104 

1100 

1100 

1068 

1068 

1004 

1000 

975 

962- 

950 

884 

880 

858- 

850 
800 



776 
754 

753 
750 
730 
729 

721 



710 
683 
675 



Building of the great pyramid in Egypt, 

Founding of China, 

Construction of Lake Moris in Egypt, 

Egypt subdued by the Hyksos, 

Time of Abraham, 

Time of Isaac and Jacob, 

Time of Joseph, 

Egypt delivered from the Hyksos, 

Time of Moses, . 

Hellenes conquer the Peloponnesus from 

the Pelasgi, 

Israelites enter Palestine, 

Israel governed by the Judges, . 

Argonautic expedition, 

Conquest of India by Hindus, 

Trojan war begun. 

Dorians enter Peloponnesus, 

Cadiz settled by Phoenicians, 

Time of Samuel, 

Dorians defeated by Codrus, 

First Archon appointed in Greece, 

Consecration of Solomon's Temple, 

The Vedas written in India, 

Kingdom of Israel divided, 
469 Laws of Menu written in India. 

Time of Homer, 

Time of Lycurgus in Greece, 

Carthage founded by Queen Dido, 
810 Conquest of Babylonia and Syria 

by Assyria, 

Time of Hesiod, 

Phido of Argos unites iEgina and north 

eastern states of Peloponnesus against 

Sparta, .... 

Founding of Olympian games, 

Office of Archon opened to all noble 

families in Greece, 

Founding of Eome, 

Rape of the Sabines, 

First Messenian war begius, 

Tiglath-pileser conquers Babylon and 
Samaria, 

Sargon II., of Assyria, conquers Samaria 

and Phoenicia and carries the Israel 

ites into captivity, 

Sennacherib invades Judea, 

Archons elected annually in Greece, 

Assurhadon, of Assyria, conquers Egypt, 



page b. c. 

47 670 Psammetichus of Sais conquers Egypt, 

31 670 Second Messenian war begins, . 

47 665 Destruction of Alba Longa by Rome, 

47 627 Ostia built by Aucns Marcius, . 

52 620 Draco compiles code of laws in Greece, 

52 605 Death of Sardanapalus and destruction 

52 of Nineveh, 

48 600 Periauder tyrant in Coiinth, 

54 600-500 Time of "seven wise men" ir 
Greece, .... 

81 597 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, 
56 594 Solon establishes the laws of Greece, 
56 590 Nebuchadnezzar takes Tyre, 

82 588 Judah carried captive to Babylon, 

32 560 Cyrus conquers Media, . 

82 560 Pisistratus tyrant of Athens, 

86 551-479 Reign of Confucius, 

50 550 Spread of Buddhism in India, 
58 549 Cyrus conquers Lydia, . 

87 540 Persians conquer Phoenicia, 

96 538 Cyrus permits some of the Jews to re- 

62 turn, .... 

35 538 Cyrus conquers Babylon, 

62 530 Polycrates tyrant in Samos, 

35 529 Cyrus destroyed by Tomyris, 

84 527 Cambyses conquers Egypt, 

92 527 Hippias and Hipparchus tyrants in 

51 Athens, .... 
510 A republic established at Athens, 

37 509 Overthrow of the Tarquins, and estab 
86 lishment of the Roman republic, 

507 Lars Porsenna repulsed through the 
bravery of Horatius Codes, 

96 504 Persian invasion of Greece, 

92 500 Death of Pythagoras of Samos, 

499 First Roman dictator appointed {Titus 

96 Lartius.) .... 

150 495 Destruction of Miletus, 

150 494 First seeession of the Plebeians to the 

95 Sacred Mount, 

491 Coriolanus besieges Rome, but is in- 

38 duced to retire, . 

490 Persian invasion of Greece, 

490 Battle of Marathon, Sept. 12, . 

38 486 Spurius Cassius hurled from the Tar 

39 peian Rock, 

96 484 Birth of Herodotus, 

39 481 Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, . 

(975) 



PAGE 
48 

95 
154 
156 

96 

41 

98 



65 
96 
42 
65 
68 
98 
32 
34 
70 
52 

66 
70 
98 
72 
72 

99 
99 

157 

159 
101 
100 

159 
101 

159 

160 
101 
102 

161 

88 

103 



976 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



B. C. 

480 Battle of Thermopy Ire, Aug., 

480 Athens burned by the Persians, 

480 Battle of Salamis, Oct. 20, 

479 Battle of Mycale, Sept. 22, 

479 Battle of Platasa, Sept. 22, 

477 War between Rome and Veii, and death 

oftheFabii, 
471 Themistocles banished from Athens, 
466 End of Persian war, 
465 Terrible earthquake in Sparta, 
465 Rebellion of the Messenians and Ilelots 

in Sparta, 
463 Cirnon ostracized, 
458 Cincinnatns, dictator, conquers the 

jEqui, .... 
457 Jerusalem rebuilt, under Ezra and Nc 

hemiah, 
457 Battle of Tanagra, 
456 Death of iEschylus, 
455 Messenians compelled to give up 

Ithorne, .... 
451 Appointment of decemvirs iu Rome, 
450 Age of Pericles, . 
450 Birth of Herodotus, 
449 Death of Cirnon at Cyprus, 
449 Death of Virginia and overthrow of 

Appius Claudius, 
449 Decemvirs abolished, 
447 Battle of Coronea, between Athens and 

Bceotia, .... 
445 Peace of Pericles, 
415 Marriage between Patricians and Pie 

beians permitted, 
444 Military tribunes created in Rome, 
443 First censors appointed in Rome, 
442 Parthenon built by Pericles, 
431 Peloponnesian war begins, 
429 Terrible plague in Athens, 
427 Plateans yield to the Spartans 
425 Demosthenes takes possession of Pylos 
421 Peace of Nicias concluded between 

Athens and Sparta, 
418 Battle of Mantinea, 
415 Athenian expedition against Syr. 

fuse, .... 
413 Athenians defeated at Syracuse, 
413 Death of generals Demosthenes and 

Nicias, 
407 Battle of Ephesus, 
406 Death of Sophocles, 
406 Death of Euripides, 
406 Battle of Lesbos, 
405 Battle of iEgospotamos, 
404 Athens surrenders to Sparta, 
404 Government of the "Thirty Tyrants" 

in Athens established by Lysauder, 



page B. c. 

105 403 Democracy restored in Athens through 

105 Thrasybulus, 

106 402 Death of Thucydides, . 

107 401 Battle of Cunaxa, 

107 400 Retreat of the ten thousand, under Xen 
ophon, 

160 399 Death of Socrates, 

110 396 Conquest of Veii by Rome, and over 

110 throw of the power of Etruria, 

110 335 Battle of Haliartus, 

394 Battle of Coronea, 

110 394 Sea-fight at Cnidus, 

110 390 Rome taken by the Gauls, 

389 War between Corinth and Spart 

1G0 388 Death of Aristophanes, 

387 Peace of Autalcidas, 

C6 385 Spartans destroy Mantinea, 

110 383 Theban war begins, 

123 383 Execution of Marcus Manlius, 
380 Spartans compel the submission of 

110 Olynthia, 

161 373 Platsea subjected by Thebes, 

111 371 Battle of Leuctra, 

124 370 Rise of the Theban power in Greece, 
111 369 Messene rebuilt by Epaminondas, 

366 Passage of the Licinian laws, . 

162 364 Death of Pelopidas, 

161 362 Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epami 

nondas, .... 

Ill 358 Death of Agesilaus, 

111 358 The Athenians al tempt to subjugate th 

maritime cities, 

162 358 Death of Agesilaus, 

162 357 Sacred wars begun in Greece, 

162 356 Death of Xenophon, 

111 348 Death of Plato, . 

111 343 First Samnite war begins, 

112 342 Defeat of the Samuites at Cumse 
112 342 War between Rome and the Latins, 
112 340 End of Samnite war, 

339 Locrian war, 

112 338 Defeat of the Latins by Decius Mus in 

113 the Battle of Vesuvius, 
338 Death of Isocrates, 

113 338 Battle of Chseronea, 

113 337 Council of Corinth, 

335 Rebelliou of Thebes against Alexander, 

113 334 Alexander marches against Persia 

113 334 Battle of Granicus, 
123 333 Darius defeated in the Battle of Issus, 
123 332 Conquest of Tyre by Alexander, 

114 332 Destruction of Gaza, 
114 332 Founding of Alexandria in Egypt, 
114 331 Battle of Arbela and fall of Persia 

Oct. 1., . 

11*4 330 Battle of Megalopolis, . 



PAGE 

114 
125 
118 

118 
118 

162 
120 
120 
120 
164 
120 
123 
120 
120 
120 
164 

120 
120 
120 
121 
122 
164 
122 

122 
119 

122 
122 
127 

125 
124 
165 
165 
165 
165 
128 

165 
125 
130 
130 
131 
131 
131 
132 
132 
132 
132 

134 
142 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



977 



B. C. 

329 Conspiracy of Parmenio and Philetas, 
328 Death of Clitus, . . * . 

327 Second Samnite war begins, 
327 Conquest of India by Alexander, 
326 Battle with Poms, Callisthenes, (put 

to death) ..... 
325 Voyage of Nearch in the Persian Gulf, 
324 Alexander celebrates the feast of Dion- 

ysos in Equitana, 
324 Death of Diogenes, 
323 Reign of the Ptolemies in Egypt begins 
323 Death of Alexander, the Great, 
322 Death of Demosthenes, 
321 Perdiccas murdered by his army, 
321 Romans defeated by the Samnites, and 

compelled to pass under the yoke 
318 Death of Phocion, 
317 Demetrius, the Phalerian, rules Athens 
317 Syracuse besieged by Cartilage, 
314 Death of ^Eschiues, 
312 Conquest of Syria by Seleucus, 
312 Seleucus conquers Babylon, 
306 Ptolemy defeated by Demetrius n 

Cyprus, .... 
304 End of second Samnite war, 
301 Battle of Ipsus; death of Antigonus 
298 Third Samnite war begins, 
290 Subjection of the Samnites by Rome, 
289 Mamertines sieze Messina, and devaS' 

tate Syracuse, 
281 Pyrrhus makes war with Rome, 
277 Greek translation of the Old Testa 

ment, known as the Septuagint, 
275 Defeat of Pyrrhus at Beneventum, 
272 Death of Pyrrhus at Argos, 
272 Conquest of Tarentum by Rome, 
261 First Punic war begins, 
260 First Roman fleet built; naval battle of 

Mylse, .... 
255 Defeat of Rome by Carthage ; captivity 

of Regulus, 
250 Formation of the Achaian League, 
241 End of first Punic war, 
241 Death of Agis IV., of Sparta, 
240 War with the mercenaries of Carthage, 
238 Sicily made the first Roman province, 
228 Conquest of the Illyrians, 
222 Battle of Sellasia ; defeat of Sparta, . 
222 Rome subdues the Cis-Alpine Gauls, . 
220 Death of Cleomenes, 
219 Siege of Saguntum by Hannibal, . . 
218 Second Punic war begins, 
218 Hannibal crosses the Alps, 
217 Battle at Lake Trasimene ; defeat of 

the Romans, . . 

216 Defeat of the Romans at Cannas, 

62 



PAGE B. C. PAGE 

136 215 First Macedonian war begins, . . 179 

136 212 Syracuse taken by Marcellus, . . 174 

166 212 Death of Archimedes, . . .145 

138 211 Great wall of China completed . 31 

211 Destruction of Capua, . . . 176 

138 208 Conquest of Sparta by the Achaian 

138 League, . . . . .143 

207 Defeat and death of Hasdrubal, . 176 

141 203 Defeat of Hannibal in the battle of 

145 Zama, . . . . .179 

143 202 End of second Punic war, . . 179 

141 200 Second Macedonian war begun, . 179 

142 197 Defeat of Philip at Kynoskephala ; Iu- 

141 dependence of Greece acknowledged, . 179 
192 Roman war with Antiochus, . . 180 

166 183 Death of Hannibal and ScipioAfricanus, 180 

142 183 Death of Philopasmon, " the last of the 

142 Greeks," in a war against the Mes- 

167 senians, ..... 143 
126 172 Third Macedonian war begun, . 181 

143 168 Perseus defeated at Pydna; Macedon 

141 made a Roman province, . . 181 

149 Third Punic war begins, . . 182 

141 146 Destruction of Corinth, . . 183 
166 146 Destruction of Carthage, . . 184 

142 144 Death of Judas Maccabseus, . . 144 
166 135 Death of Simon Maccabsus, . . 144 

166 133 Tiberius Gracchus renews the Licinian 

laws, • . ■ . .188 

167 123 Caius Gracchus renews the proposal of 

166 Tiberius, . . . .188 

121 Agrarian disturbances in Rome ; death 

144 of Fulvius and Gracchus, . . 189 

166 113 Cimbrians and Teutonians defeat the 

167 Romans, . • . .190 
167 112 Jugurthine war begins, . . 190 

167 107 Marius elected Consul, . . . 190 
106 End of Jugurthine war, . . 190 

168 102 Defeat of the Teutons by Marius at 

Aquae Sextise, .... 191 

168 90 War against the allies, . . 192 

142 88 First war against Mithridates, . 192 

141 88 Sylla chosen consul, . . . 192 

142 87 First civil war in Rome, . . 194 
171 86 Athens conquered by Sylla; Delphi 

171 plundered, .... 194 

171 86 Death of Marius, ■ . .194 

143 84 Death of Cinna, ■ ■ .194 
171 78 Death of Sylla, . . .195 
142 74 Second war against Mithridates begun, 197 
171 75 Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain, . 195 

171 72 Revolt of the gladiators, . . 196 

172 71 Overthrow and death of Spartacus . 196 
70 Pompey and Crassus, consuls of Rome, 196 

172 69 Tigranes of Parthia defeated by 

174 Lucullus, . . . 197 



978 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



b. c. 

67 Pompey made dictator over all seas and 

shores, .... 
64 Syria conquered by Pompey, 
63 Death of Mithridates, . 
63 Jerusalem taken by the Romans, 

63 Conspiracy of Cataline, 
60 Formation of first triumvirate by Caesar 

Pompey and Crassus, 
58 Banishment of Cicero, . 
58 Caesar's Gallic wars, 
55 Caesar's first invasion of Britain, 
54 Caesar's second invasion of Britain 
53 Crassus overthrown and killed by Par 

thians, .... 
52 Complete subjection of Gaul, 
49 Second civil war. 
49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon, 
48 Death of Pompey, 
48 Caesar proclaimed dictator, 
47 Caesar conquers Egypt, . 
47 Overthrow of Pharnaces by Caesar. 
44 Death of Caesar, 
43 Formatiou of second triumvirate by Oc 

tavius, Antony and Lepidus, 
43 Death of Cicero, 

42 Defeat and death of Cassius at Philippi. 
42 Death of Brutus, 
31 Defeat of Antony by Octavius at Ac 

tium, .... 
30 Death of Cleopatra; Egypt becomes a 

Roman province. 

13 Formation of Praetorian Guards, 
4 Birth of Jesus Christ, 

A. D. 

6 Tiberius completes the conquest of 

West Germany, 
9 Destruction of Varus and three legions 

by Hermann in the Teutoburger forest 

14 Germanicns in Germany, 

64 Rome burned to the ground under 
Nero, .... 

69 Brief civil war between Vitellius and 
Vespasian, 

70 Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 
75 Coliseum built by Vespasian, 
79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pom 

peii by an eruption of Vesuvius, 
84 Conquest of Britain by Agricola, 
102 Pliny, the Younger, governor of Bithy 

nia, .... 

106 Dacia conquered by Trajan, 
114 Erection of column of Trajan, 
121 Hadrian visits Britain, 
136 Final overthrow of Jewish nation, 
162 Marcus Aurelius, conducts a war against 

the Parthians, . . . . 



AGE A. D. PAGE 

226 Artaxerxes I., founds Sassanides dynasty 

197 in Persia, . . . .235 

197 250 Invasion of Rome by Goths, . . 236 

198 269 Claudius II., conquers the Goths in 

145 Pannonia, • • - .236 

198 270 Dacia Relinquished by Aurelian . 238 
273 Conquest of Palmyra by Aurelian, . 238 

199 312 Constantine overthrows Maxentius, . 312 
199 313 Constantine issues the decree of Milan 

199 protecting the Christians, . . 240 

200 321 Observance of Sunday established by 

200 Constantine, Mar. 7, . . . 246 

325 First general council at Nicea, . 246 

202 330 Constantine founds Constantinople and 

200 makes it -the capital, . . . 244 

202 364 Division of the Roman Empire between 

202 Valens and Valentinian I., . . 248 

203 375 Valens allows the West Goths to settle 

203 south of the Danube, . . .249 

204 376 The Huns invade Europe, driving the 

204 Goths before them, . . .249 

206 378 Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrian- 

ople, . • • . .249 

206 402 Alaric invades upper Italy, . . 251 

206 406 Duke Radegais and the Germans de- 

206 feated by Stilicho, . . .252 

207 408 Stilicho forms an alliance with Alaric, 252 

410 Rome plundered by the Goths under 

208 Alaric, Aug. 24. ... 254 

411 Spain conquered by the Vandals, . 254 
208 412 West Goths invade south Gaul, . 254 
219 414 Spain conquered by the West Goths, . 254 
145 430 Vandals conquer north Africa, . 254 

449 Conquest of Britain by the Angles and 

Saxons, . . . . .261 

213 451 The Huns uuder Attila invade upper 

Italy, 255 

Destruction of Aquileja by Attila, . 255 
Rome conquered by the Vandals uuder 
Genseric, July 15, 256 

Odoacer terminates the Western Em- 
pire, ..... 257 
Clovis, king of the Franks, conquers 
Gaul, . . . . .258 
Theodoric establishes his kingdom at 
Ravenna, .... 258 
Clovis defeats the Alemanni and em- 
braces Christianity, . ... 258 
Clovis puts to death the other chiefs of 
the Franks, . . . .258 
Justinian code published, . . 262 
Conquest of Rome by Belisarius, . 262 
Totila, the Goth, reconquers Italy, . 262 
Lombards enter Italy at, the invitation 
of Narses, .... 264 

230 596 Conversion of England to Christianity, 261 



213 


452 


. 214 


455 


. 221 


476 


i 

. 222 


486 


• 224 




. 224 


493 


. 226 


496 


. 226 






507 


. 227 




227 


529 


. 227 


536 


. 230 


544 


226 


568 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



979 



A. D. 

622 Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to 
Medina (Hegira,) July 16, 

932 Death of Mohammed, 
631 Publication of Koran, 
638 Moslems conquer Egypt, Palestiue and 

Syria, ..... 
650 Islam invades India, 
675 Conquest of north Africa by Saracens, 
687 Pipin of Heristal establishes the office 

of " Duke of the Franks," 
711 Conquest of Spain by Moors, 
732 ' Decisive defeat of the Saracens by 

Charles Martel, at Tours, 

754 Destruction of images decreed by Leo, 

755 Foundation of the Caliphate of Cordova 
in Spaiu, ..... 

755 "Donation of Pipin," establishing the 
temporal power of the Pope, 

744 Karl the Great conquers Saxony and 
Lombardy, .... 

777 Defeat and death of Roland at Ronces- 
valles, ..... 

783 England invaded by the Danes, 

787 Images restored to the churches by 
Irene, ..... 

800 Karl the Great, crowued Emperor of 
Rome, December, 

827 Uuion of the Saxon heptarchy by 
Egbert of Wessex, forming the kingdom 
of England, .... 

843 Treaty of Verdun and separation of Ger- 
many from France, 

862 Founding of Russia by Ruric at Nov- 
govod ..... 

875 Denmark founded by Gorm, the Old, . 

875 Norway founded by Harold Fairhair, . 

891 Arnulf of Germany defeats the Nor- 
mans, and destroys the kingdom of 
Moravia, .... 

900 Sweden founded by the Yinglings, 

911 Germany becomes an elective monarchy, 

912 Charles the Simple grants Normandy to 
Rollo, 2i 

933 Henry the Fowler of Germany defeats 

the Magyars at Merseburg, . . 290 

955 Otto I. defeats the Magyars at Lechfeld, 

and ends their westward progress, 292, 381 
962 Coronation of Otto as emperor of Ger- 
many, ..... 
966 Conversion of Duke Misco of Poland, 

by German missionaries, 
■973 Geisa, king of Hungary, converted to 
Christianity, .... 
980 Greenland discovered by Icelanders, 
988 Vladimir the Great introduces Chris- 
tianity into Russia, 



A.GE 


A. D 




1000 


267 




266 


1000 


267 






1002 


268 


1016 


268 


1018 


270 






1025 


261 




270 


1028 


271 


1042 


264 


1060 


271 


1066 




1077 



275 



279 1081 



280 
286 

265 

280 



261 



282 



1084 
1085 

1096 
1098 
1099 
1099 

1130 





1138 


285 


1140 


379 


1147 


379 


1157 




1155 




1162 


284 




379 


1164 


284 






1170 


379 


1176 



1177 



1180 



292 


1187 




1189 


383 


1192 


381 


1203 


285 


1203 




1209 


385 


1212 



Introduction of Christianity into Sweden 
by Olaf Lapking, 

Stephen, the Saint, establishes the 
Roman Catholic religion in Hungary, . 
Massacre of the Danes in England, 
Canute of Denmark conquers England, 
Olaf the Saint diffuses Christianity in 
Norway, . . . . . 

Canute the Great of Denmark converted 
to Christianity, . . . . 

Canute the Great of Denmark, conquers 
Norway, . 

Saxon Dynasty restored in England, 
Robert Guiscard, a Norman duke, con- 
quers lower Italy, 

Conquest of England by the Normans, 
Henry IV., of Germany, humiliated by 
Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) at 
Canossa, . . . . . 

Henry IV. of Germany leads an ex- 
pedition across the Alps against Gre- 
gory, .... 
Rome taken by Henry IV. of Germany, 
Pope Urban II. begins to preach the 
first crusade, 
First crusade undertaken, 
Crusaders take Antioch, 
Death of the Cid in Spain, 
Capture of Jerusalem by crusaders 

July 15 

Roger II. founds the kingdom of Naples 

and Sicily, 

Separation of Austria from Bavaria, 

Guelph and Ghibelline feuds begin, 

Second crusade, 

Frederick Barbarossa invades Italy, 

Death of Arnold of Brescia, 

Destruction of Milan by Frederick Bar 

barossa, .... 

Constitutions of Clarendon issued in 

England by Henry II. 

Murder of Thomas a Becket, 

Battle of Legnano and defeat of Ger 

many by Italy, 

English conquest of Ireland under 

Henry II. ... 

Barbarossa deposes Henry, the Lion, of 

Bavaria and Saxony, 

Saladin takes Jerusalem, 

Third crusade, 

Richard Lion-Heart imprisoned in Ger 

many, .... 

Fourth crusade, 

Normandy seized by Philip, 

Crusade against the Albigenses, 

Crusade of children, 



PAGE 

370 

381 
286 
286 

379 

379 

380 
286 

288 
289 

298 



298 
298 

302 
302 
306 
272 

306 

288 
321 
320 
310 
321 
321 

321 

359 
360 

322 

366 

323 
312 
312 

312 
314 
360 
319 
314 



980 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. D. 

1215 Magua Charta signed by King John of 
of England, 

1222 "The Golden Privilege" granted to 
Hungary by Andreas II., 

1223 Waldemar II., of Denmark, imprisoned 
by Count Henry of Schwerin, . 

1224 Moguls overrun Eussia, 

1227 Guengis Khan, chief of the Moguls, be 
gins his career of conquests, 

1228 Fifth crusade, 

1229 Othman founds the Ottoman empire at 
Prusa, Bithynia, 

1233 The Holy Inquisition established, 

1241 Moguls defeat Duke Henry of Silesia at 
Lignitz, .... 

1242 Eussia made tributary to the Khan of 
the Golden Horde, 

1245 Hanseatic League established, 

1250 Egypt comes under control of the 

Mamelukes, 
1254 Naples conquered by Conrad IV. of Ger 

many. .... 
1258 The Moguls overthrow the Caliphate 

of Bagdad, 

1265 English Parliament divided into Peers 
and Commons, . . . , 

1266 Florentine guilds established, . 

1266 Battle of Beneventum, and end of the 
power of the Ghibellines in Italy, 

1266 Naples and Sicily conquered by Charles 
of Anjou, .... 

1269 Westminster Abbey rebuilt by Henry 
III., 

1270 Sixth crusade, .... 
1277 The Visconti become paramount in Mi- 
lan, ■ . . . . 

1282 The massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, 

1282 Conquest of Sicily by Peter III. of Ar- 
agou, . 

1283 AVales annexed to England, 

1291 Mamelukes take Antioch and Acre, 
1291 Kobert Bruce and John Baliol contend 
for the Scottish crown, 

1300 Party struggles of the Guelphs and 
Ghibellines in Florence, 

1301 Hungary becomes an elective monarchy, 

1302 Invention of the compass by Flavio 
Gioja, ..... 

1302 Quarrel between Philip the Fair of 
France and Pope Boniface, 

1305 William Wallace of Scotland defeated 
by the English and executed, . . 

1305 Avignon in France becomes the seat of 
the papacy, 

1310 The order of Knights Templar abol- 
ished in France, 



PAGE A. D. p AGE 

1310 Henry VII. of Germany unites Bobe- 

362 mia to the Empire, . . . 341 
1315 Austrians defeated by the Swiss at the 

3S2 Battle of Morgarten, . . . 341 

1322 Frederick of Austria taken prisoner at 

380 the Battle of Miihldorf, . . 341 

385 1330 Organization of Janissaries by Oscar, 388 
1346 Battle of Crecy, . . .352 

386 1347 Calais taken by Edward III. of England, 356 
316 1347 Cola di Eienzi establishes a new Ro- 
man Republic, May 20. Abdicates, 

388 Dec 15, 376 

268 1348 First German university established at 

Prague, . . . . .343 

386 1354 Assassination of Cola di Rienzi, the last 

of the tribunes, .... 376 

385 1355 Failure of the conspiracy against the 
337 Republic of Venice and execution of 

the leader, Marino Faliero, April 17, 372 

316 1356 John Wyclif translates the Bible into 

English, . . . • .346 

326 1356 Karl IV. issues the Golden Bull, . 343 

1356 Battle of Poitiers, . . .352 

386 1358 Insurrection in Paris, . . . 352 
1360 Calais and southwest France ceded to 

363 England, .... 352 
375 1361 Turks enter Thrace and take Adrian- 

ople, . . . . -388 

328 1370 Poland becomes an elective monarchy, 384 

1377 Papal court returns to Rome, . 376 

328 1378 Two popes reign, at Avignon and Rome, 344 

1380 Genoese fleet sails victoriously through 
362 the lagoons of Venice in the Chioggia 

316 war, . . . . .372 

1381 Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed 363 

374 1386 Battle of Sempach and death of Arnold 

330 von Winkelried, . . . 344 

1389 Bajazet overuns provinces of the East- 

367 ern Empire, . . . .388 

362 1396 Christians defeated by the Turks at the 

318 Battle of Nicopolis, . .388 

1397 Genoa comes under the protection of 

362 foreign lords, .... 372 

1397 Union of Calmar, unites Norway, Swed- 

375 en and Denmark under Margarethe, . 380 
382 1402 Bajazet defeated and taken prisoner at 

Angora by Tamerlane, . . . 389 

395 1404 Conquest of Padua and Verona by Ven- 
ice, . . . . .372 

339 1406 Pisa becomes subject to Florence, . 375 
1409 Universit}' of Leipzig founded, 347,404 

362 1410 Poland subdues the Teutonic Order of 

Knights in the Battle of Tannenburg, 384 

340 1414 Henry of Plauen, grand master of the 

Teutonic Knights is deprived of his 

341 dignity, and conspires with the Poles, 384 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



981 



A. D. 

1411 

1415 

1415 

1416 

1416 

1419 

1420 

1421 

1426 

1429 

1429 

1431 

1431 

1435 

1436 

1439 

1440 

1444 



1450 
1453 



1455 
1456 

1456 
1456 

1464 
1466 
1467 
1471 
1476 
1476 



1477 
1477 



1479 
1479 
1482 



1482 
1483 
1483 

1485 
1486 



PAGE 

Council of Constance, . . . 347 

Martyrdom of John Huss, . . 348 

Battle of Agincourt, . . . 356 

Savoy made a duchy, . . . 374 

Martyrdom of Jerome of Prague, . 348 

The Hussite or Holy war in Germany, 348 
Cosmo de Medici rules Florence, . 375 

Murad II. restores the Ottoman empire 389 
University of Lyons erected, . . 378 

Order of Golden Fleece founded . 378 

Joan of Arc delivers Orleans, . . 356 

Council of Basel, . . .349 

Death of Joan of Arc, . . . 358 

Alfonzo V, of Aragon seizes Naples, . 377 
Charles VII. enters Pans, . . 359 

Council of Florence, . . . 390 

Introduction of the art of printing by 
John Guttenberg of Mayence, . 395 

Ladislaus of Huugary and Hunyad de- 
feated and slain at Varna by Sultan 
Amurath, . . . .390 

Francesco Sforza subdues Milan and be- 
comes duke, . ... . 374 
Constantinople taken by the Turks un- 
der Mohammed II., which ends the 
Eastern Roman empire, . . 390,404 
Wars of the Roses begin, ' . . 364 
Hunyad rescues Hungary from the 
Turks, . . . 382,390 
Greece subjected to the Turks, . 390 
Hunyad victorious over the Turks at 
Belgrade, 

Cosmo de Medici dies, 
Peace of Thorn, 
Death of Scanderberg, . 
End of Wars of the Roses, 
University of Upsala founded 
Defeat of Charles the Bold of Burgun- 
dy in the battles of Grauson and Mur- 
ten, ..... 

University of Tubingen established, . 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy defeated 
and slain at the Battle of Nancy, Janu- 
ary 5, .... 
Louis XL annexes Burgundy to France, 
Aragon and Castile united, 
Conspiracy of Louis XL against Maxi- 
milian, guardian of Philip of Bur- 
gundy, ..... 
Death of Maria, Duchess of Burgundy, 
Birth of Martin Luther, November 10, 
Richard III., of England, murders the 
young princes in the tower. 
Battle of Bosworth, Aug. 22, 
Bartholemew Diaz discovers the Cape 
of Good Hope, . . . .396 



390 
375 
385 
390 
364 
380 



378 
421 



378 
379 
367 



379 
379 
406 

364 
364 



A. D. 

1488 

1492 
1492 
1492 
1492 
1492 
1492 

1492 

1495 

1495 

1497 

1498 
1498 

1498 

1499 

1499 

1497 
1499 
1500 

1500 
1500 

1500 

1501 

1502 
1502 
1504 
1506 
1506 

1507 

1508 
1508 
1510 

1512 

1513 



1513 
1513 

1514 



Rebellion of Ghent and the guilds of 
Bruges, 

Death of Lorenzo de Medici, 
Expulsion of the Moors from Spain, 
Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, 
Lorenzo, the Magnificent, dies, 
Columbus sails from Palos, Aug. 3. 
Columbus discovers the Island of San 
Salvador, Oct. 12. ... 

Founding of Hispauiola by Columbus, 
Dec, .... 

Diet of Worms, . 

Naples conquered by Charles VIII., of 
France, ..... 
Discovery of Labrador by the Cabots, . 
Savonarola burned at the stake, May 23, 
Vasco de Gama discovers the sea route 
to India, .... 

Discovery of South America by Co- 
lumbus, . . ... 
Milan conquered by Louis XII., of 
France, ..... 
Maximilian acknowledges the independ- 
ence of the Swiss, 
Sebastian Cabot discovers St. John, 790, 799 
Discovery of Brazil by Vincent Peneon, 958 
Ludovico, the Moor, led captive to 
France, ..... 
Birth of Charles V., Duke of Burgundy, 
Brazil discovered and acquired for 
Portugal, .... 
Columbus deposed and sent in chains to 
Spain, ..... 
Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 
Spain subjugate and divide Naples, 
Fourth voyage of Columbus to America, 
University of Wittenberg founded, 
Spain acquires Naples aud Sicily, 
Death of Philip of Burgundy, . 
Death of Columbus at Valladolid, Spain, 

May 2., 

City of Ormuz, Persia, conquered by 
Albuquerque, .... 
League of Cambray agaiust Venice, 
Luther goes to Wittenberg, 
Albuquerque founds a Portuguese 
colony in India, 

Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, 
April 4, • ■ • • . ■ 

James IV., of Scotland defeated by 
Henry VIII., of England in Flodden 
Field, Sept. 9, . 
Alliance of Scotland with France, 
Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean, 
Reuchlin accused of heresy by the Do- 
minicans, .... 405 



379 
376 
368 
370 
376 
398 

400 

400 
350 

377 
402 
376 

396 

400 

374 

351 



374 
379 

398 

400 

377 
400 
406 
378 
379 

400 

398 

272 
406 

398 

787 



366 
366 

402 



982 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



406 
406 

406 

407 

421 
464 
402 

408 

408 

408 

416 



A. D. PAGE 

1515 Death of Albuquerque, . . 398 

1515 Battle of Marignano, . . 374, 416 

1517 Leo X. publishes general indulgences 
throughout Europe, 

1517 Commencenieut of the Reformation, 

1518 Luther defends himself at Augsburg, 
October, . . 

1519 Debate between Luther and John Eck 
at Leipzig, .... 

1519 Duke Ulric driven from Wurtemberg by 
the Swabian union, 

1519 Death of Leonardo da Vinci, 

1520 Magellan circumnavigates the globe, . 
1520 Luiher appears before the Diet of 

Worms, April, .... 

1520 Luther ex-communicated by the Pope 
and his writings condemned, June 16, 

1520 Luther burns the Papal bull of condem- 
nation, Dec. 10, . 

1520 First war between Charles V. and 
Francis I., 

1520 Christian II., of Denmark, massacres 

the Swedish nobility at Stockholm, 381, 436 

1520 Death of Raphael, . . 377,464 

1521 Conquest of Mexico by Cortez, . 402 
1521 Luther excommunicated by the Diet of 

Worms, May 26, ... 

1521 Gustavus Vasa takes Upsala, 

1522 Knights of St. John compelled to sur- 
render the Island of Rhodes to the 
Turks, ..... 

1522 French lose Milan and Geneva, 

1523 Final separation of Denmark and 
Sweden, .... 381, 436 

1523 Verrazzano explores coast of North 
Carolina, .... 

1524 League of the Pope and Ferdinand of 
Austria against the Reformation, 

1524 Death of Chevalier Bayard, 

1525 French driven from Milan by the Span- 
iards, ..... 

1525 The peasant war, 

1525 Battle of Pavia, 

1526 Louis II., of Hungary, defeated by the 
Turks at Mohacz, . . 383 

1526 Hungary united with Austria, 

1526 Peace of Madrid ; France gives up Milan 
and Burgundy, - 

1527 The Holy League formed against 
Charles V., 

1527 Second war between Charles V. and 
Francis I. .... 

1527 Rome taken and pillaged by the Ger- 
mans and Spaniards, May 6, 

1527 Gustavus introduces Reformation in 

Sweden, . . . . .436 



408 
436 



318 
418 



790 

410 
418 

374 
410 
418 

418 
383 

418 

418 

418 

418 



A. T>. PAGE 

1527 Frederick I., of Denmark, concedes to 
the Protestants equality with the 
Catholics, .... 436 

1527 Pampi lo deNarvaezperishesin Florida, 787 

1528 Andreas Doria restores the independ- 
ence of Genoa, .... 372 

1528 Death of Albrecht Diirer, . . 466 

1529 Siege of Vienna by Solomon, the Splen- 
did, . . . . .390 

1529 Discovery of Peru by Francis Pizarro, 403 
1529 Protestation of the German reformers 

at the Diet of Speyer, . . . 412 

1529 Conference at Marburg, . . 413 

1529 Ladies' Peace of Cambray between 
Charles V., and Francis I., . . 419 

1530 Alexander de Medici made Duke of 
Florence, .... 379 

1530 Confession of Augsburg adopted, . 413 

1530 Cardinal Wolsey deposed by Henry 
VIII., 430 

1531 Religious war in Switzerland ; battle 

of Cappel and death of Zwingli, . 414 

1531 Protestant league of Schmalkald, Dec. 

31, 421 

1531 Discovery of Rio de Janeiro by Martin 

de Sousa, ..... 958 

1532 Conquest of Peru by Pizarro and Alma- 

gro, . . . . .403 

1532 Peace at Nuremberg, . . . 421 

1533 Death of Ariosto, . . -377 
1533 Thomas Cranmer made Archbishop of 

Canterbury, . . . .430 

1533 Henry VIII., divorces Catherine of Ara- 

gon, and marries Anne Boleyn, . 430 

1534 Luther publishes a German Bible and 
liturgy, . . . . 409, 462 

1534 Philip of Hesse overcomes the Aus- 

trians at Wurtemberg and restores Ulric, 421 

1534 Henry VIII., recognized as the head of 

the church in England, . . . 430 

1534 Cartier explores the St. Lawrence, . 790 

1535 Pizarro builds Lima, capital of Peru, 403 
1535 Francis I., makes an alliance with the 

Turks, to gain Milan, . . . 420 

1535 Charles V., conquers Tunis, . . 420 

1535 Auababtists sieze Munster, . . 421 

1535 Execution of Sir Thomas More, July 6, 430 

1536 Third war between Charles V. and 
Francis I., .... 420 

1536 Anne Boleyn beheaded, May 19, . 432 

1536 Lutheranism established in Denmark . 436 

1536 Hoie's expedition to America, . 799 
1538 Almagro conquered and beheaded by 

Pizarro, . . . . .403 

1538 Truce of Nice, between Charles V., and 

Francis I., .... 420 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



983 



A. D. 

1539 The " Bloody Articles" adopted in En 
gland, .... 

1539 Ferdinand de Soto explores Florida, 
1510 Milan annexed to Spain, 

1540 Orellano sails up the Amazon, 
1540 Cromwell beheaded, 
1540 Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius 

Loyola, .... 

1540 Cortez withdraws from Mexico, 

1541 Hungary annexed to the Ottoman Em 
pire, .... 

1541 Death of Francis Pizarro, 
1541 Second African expedition of Charles 
V., .... 

1541 Discovery of the Mississippi by De 
Soto, .... 

1542 Fourth war between Charles V., and 
Francis I., 

1542 Henry of Brunswick conquered by Sax 
ous and Hessians, 

1543 Death of Copernicus, 

1544 Peace of Crespy between Charles V., 
and Francis I., ^B_ 

1545 Council of Trent opened, Dec 13, 423,424 

1546 Pedro de la Gasca made governor of 
Peru by Charles V., 

1546 Death of Martin Luther, Feb. 18, 

1546 Beginuing of the religious war in Ger 
many, .... 

1547 Death of Cortez, 
1547 Battle of Muhlberg, 

1547 Paul III., removes the Council of Trent 
to Bologua, 

1548 Augsburg Interim published by Charles 
V 

1548 Book of Common Prayer composed, 

1551 The Council returns to Trent, . 

1552 Religious peace of Passau, 
1552 Maurice of Saxony makes war on 

Charles V., March, 

1552 Execution of Somerset in England 

1553 Servetus suffers martyrdom in Spain, 

1554 Executiou of Lady Jane Grey in En- 
gland, ..... 

1554 Mary Tudor of England marries Philip 
of Spain, .... 

1555 Religious peace of Augsburg, 

1556 Thomas Cranmer burned to death at 
Oxford, ..... 

1558 French occupy Brazil, . 

1559 Peace of Chateau Cambresis, between 
France and Spain, 

1559 Heidelberg catechism adopted, 
1559 Margaret of Parma appointed regent in 
Brussels, .... 

1559 Statutes of Paul IV., mutilated, 



AGE 


A. D 




1560 


430 


1561 


787 


1562 


374 




403 


1562 


432 


1562 




1563 


439 




788 


1564 




1564 


382 


1564 


403 





PAGE 

409, 427 
. 429 



420 

788 

420 

422 
460 

420 



403 
423 

423 
403 
424 

425 

425 
432 
425 

425 

425 
433 

437 

433 

434 
426 

434 
958 

421 
427 

442 
438 



1565 



1565 
1566 

1566 
1567 
1567 

1567 
1568 

1570 
1570 
1571 

1571 

1572 
1572 
1573 
1573 
1574 
1576 
1576 

1576 
1578 

1579 
1580 
1582 
1584 

1584 

1587 
1588 
1588 

1588 
1590 



Death of Philip Melancthon, . 
Death of Mary of Guise, 
Act of uniformity decreed by Eliza- 
beth, ..... 
Council of Trent begins its third session, 
Massacre of Protestants at Vassy, 
Francis of Guise murdered at the siege 
of Orleans, 

Death of John Calvin, 
Death of Michael Angelo, 
French settlement at Fort Caroline near 
St. Augustine, June, 
Four hundred nobles' petition for the 
suspension of the inquisition in the 
Netherlands, 

Founding of St. Augustine, Sept., 
Destruction of images in Antwerp and 
Brussels, 

Murder of David Rizzio, 
Murder of Lord Darnley, 
Duke of Alba enters the Netherlands 
with a Spanish army, 
Brazil acquired by Portugal, 
Counts Egmont and Horn beheaded by 
the Duke of Alba, 
Austria united to Germany, 
Peace of St. Germain, 
Battle of Lepanto — Don Juan over 
throws the Turks, Oct. 7, 
Establishment of the Inquisition in 
Mexico, .... 
William of Orange made Stadtholder, 
Massacre of St. Bartholemew, Aug. 24, 
Zuniga governor of the Netherlands, 
Recall of Alba from the Netherlands, 
Foundation-of University of Leyden, 
Dou Juan governor of the Netherlands, 
"Holy Catholic League" established 
in France, .... 

Death of Titian, 

Alexander Faruese, of Parma, governor 
of the Netherlands, 
Union of Utrecht formed, 
Portugal united to Spain, 
Gregory XIII. reforms the calendar, 
Assassination of William of Orange, 
July 10, . 

Raleigh sends the first colony to Vir- 
ginia, ..... 
Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, 447, 458 
Insurrection in Paris against Henry III., 453 
Assassination of the Duke of Guise 
and Cardinal Louis, . . • 454 

Destruction of the Spanish Armada, 448, 459 
Battle of Ivry and siege of Paris by 
Henry IV .... 456 



435 
438 

450 

450 
427 
464 



442 
788 

442 
457 
458 

442 
958 

442 
426 

450 

440 

788 
444 
452 
444 
444 
444 
446 

452 
464 

446 

446 
441 
438 

447 

800 



984 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. D. 

1592 Dutch West India Company proposed, 

1593 Henry IV. becomes a Catholic, 
1595 Death of Tasso, 

1598 Edict of Nantes issued, April 13, 
1598 Earl of Tyrone heads a Catholic re- 
bellion in Ireland, 
1598 Ships of the Greenland Company said 
to have entered Hudson and Delaware 
rivers, ..... 

1600 War between Sweden and Poland, 

1601 Earl of Essex beheaded, 

1602 Dutch East India Company established, 

1603 Champlain and Pont Grave reach 
Hochelaga, .... 

1601 De Monts explores the Bay of Fundy, 
1605 Gunpowder Plot in London, 
1605 Founding of Port Royal, 
1607 English settlement at Jamestown, 
May 13 

1607 The Popham colony founded in Maine, 

1608 The Elector Palatine forms the Protest- 
ant union, .... 

1608 Champlain founds Quebec, 

1609 Truce of Antwerp, 

1609 Netherlands become independent of 
Spain, ..... 

1609 Maximilian, of Bavaria, forms the 
Catholic League, 

1609 Champlain discovers Lakes Champlain 
and Huron, .... 

1609 Henry Hudson explores Newfoundland, 
Cape Cod, Delaware Bay, and Hudson 
River, ..... 

1609 Lord Delaware appointed governor of 
Virginia, .... 

1610 Pontrincourt settles Port Royal, 

1611 Sir Thomas Dale governor of Virginia, 
161 3 Port Royal attacked by Samuel Argall, 

1615 Champlain discovers Lake Ontario, 

1616 Death of Cervantes, . . . 
1616 Death of William Shakespeare, 

1616 Samuel Argall appointed governor of 
Virginia, .... 

1618 Synod of Dort assembled, 
1618 Thirty Years' war begins, 

1618 Etienne Brule explores Michigan, 

1619 Sir George Yeardley becomes governor 
of Virginia, .... 

1619 First legislative assembly in America 
at Jamestown, June 28, 

1619 Introduction of slavery in America, 
August, ..... 

1620 Battle of Prague, which ruins the Elec- 
tor, Palatine, .... 

1620 Pilgrims sail from Southampton on the 
Mayflower, August 5, 



4.GE 


A. D 


795 


1620 


456 


1621 


377 




456 


1622 


460 


1622 




1624 


795 




437 


1625 


460 


1626 


448 






1627 


791 




791 


1627 


480 


1628 


792 


1628 


800 


1628 


821 


1628 


466 


1629 


792 




448 


1629 




1629 


448 






1629 


466 


1630 


792 


1631 




1631 


796 


1632 


802 


1632 


791 


1632 


802 




791 


1632 


792 


1633 


462 




464 


1634 




•1634 


802 


1634 


448 


1634 


466 


1634 


793 


1634 


802 


1634 




1635 


802 


1635 


803 


1635 




1635 


467 






1935 


812 





PAGE 

Pilgrims land at Plymouth, Dec. 21, . 814 
William Bradford chosen governor of 
Plymouth, . . • .814 
Virginia colony nearly exterminated by 
Indians . . . . .802 
Clayborne driven from Kent Island by 
Governor Calvert . . . 806 
Cardinal Richelieu becomes prime min- 
ister of France, .... 496 
Settlement of Maine, . . .823 
Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island 
from the Indians, . . . 796 
Colonists purchase the English interest 
in the Plymouth plantation, . . 814 
Settlement of Dover, N. H., . . 821 
Duke of Buckingham assassinated, . 481 
The "Petition of Right" signed by 
Charles L, 481 
Rocbelle taken by Cardinal Richelieu, 496 
Massachusetts Bay Colony established 
at Salem, . . . .816 
Edict of Restitution published by Ferdi- 
nand II., . . . .470 
Quebec reduced by the English, . 792 
Massachusetts Bay colony obtains a 
charter, March, .... 815 
Founding of New Hampshire, at Exeter, 821 
Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades 
Germany, .... 472 
Magdeburg taken and destroyed by 
Tilly, May 16, . . . ' 472 
Tilly defeated by Gustavus at Leipzig, 472 
Battle of Lutzen — victory and death of 
Gustavus-Adolphus, Nov. 16, . . 473 
Quebec restored to France, . . 792 
Lord Baltimore obtains the grant of 
Maryland, . . ... 806 
Settlement of Portland, . . . 823 
Treaty of Heilbronn between the 
Swedes and the Germans, . . 474 
Assassination of Wallenstein, Feb. 25 . 474 
Battle of Nordlingen, . . . 476 
Jean Nicollet discovers Lake Michigan, 793 
First colony in Maryland established, . 806 
Clayborne attacks Maryland, . . 807 
Thomas Dudley chosen governor of 
Massachusetts Bay colony, . . . 816 
First settlements in Connecticut valley, 821 
Peace of Prague, ■ ■ ■ 476 
Richelieu organizes the French 
Academy, .... 606 
Death of Samuel Champlain, Dec. 25, . 792 
Roger Williams banished from Mas- 
sachusetts, .... 817 
Settlement of Weathersfield and 
Windsor, . . . .821 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



985 



A. B. 

1636 Henry Vaue elected governor of Mas- 
sachusetts, .... 
1636 Founding of Harvard College, . 
1636 Settlement of Hartford, Conn., 

1636 Settlement of Rhode Island by Roger 
Williams, .... 

1637 Presbyterian rebellion in Scotland, 
1637 Wheelwright banished from Massa- 
chusetts, .... 

1637 Extermination of the Peqnod Indians, 

1638 First Swedish settlement on the Dela- 
ware, at Fort Christina, 

1639 Anne Hutchinson banished from Mass; 
chusetts, .... 

1638 First printing press in New England 

set up at Cambridge, 
1638 Founding of New Haven, 

1638 Settlement of Newport, Rhode Island, 

1639 First written constitution in history 
drawn in Connecticut, 

1639 Settlement of Portsmouth, Rhode 
Island, 

1640 Portugal recovers her independence, 
1640 Death of Rubens, 
1640 The Long Parliament assembled, 

1640 Revolution separates Portugal from 
Spain, .... 

1641 Catholic rebellion in Ireland, 
1641 Impeachment and execution of Lord 

Strafford, May 11, 482 1659 

1641 Sir William Berkeley appointed gov- 
ernor of Virginia, 

1641 New Hampshire united with Massa 
chusetts, .... 

1642 Death of Galileo, 
1642 Beginning of the civil war in England, 

1642 Death of Cardinal Richelieu, Dec. 4, . 

1643 "United colonies of New England" 
formed, .... 814, 817 

1644 Battle of Marsten Moor, July 2, . 486 
1644 Richard Ingle joins Clay borne in an at- 
tack upon Maryland, 

1644 Denial of validity of infant baptism 
made a crime in New England, 

1544 Rhode Island obtains a charter, 

1645 Archbishop Laud beheaded, 
1645 Battle of Naseliy, June 14, 
1647 Peter Stuyvesaut becomes governor of 

New Amsterdam, 

1647 Establishment of grammar schools in 
New Euglaud, .... 

1648 Peace of Westphalia ends the thirty 
year's war, . . . 448, 477 

1648 Colonel Pride's purge, Dec, . . 486 

1648 Civil wars of the Fronde commence in 

France, . . . . .498 



AGE 


A. D. 




1649 


817 




818 


1659 


821 


1650 


823 


1651 


481 






1651 


817 




821 


1651 




1651 


798 






1652 


817 






1653 


818 




821 


1653 


823 






1653 


821 






1654 


823 


1655 


441 


1655 


464 


1656 


482 


1656 




1658 


958 


1658 


482 


1658 



803 


1659 




1660 


821 




460 




486 


1661 


498 


1662 




1662 



1663 



807 


1664 




1664 


818 


1664 


823 




482 


1664 


486 






1665 


797 


1666 




1667 


818 


1667 



1667 

1668 
1668 



Execution of Charles I., of England, 

Jan. 30, ■ . . . . 488 

Battle of Dunbar, Sept. 3, . . . 488 

Maryland Assembly passes severe laws 
regarding religion, _ . . . 807 

Navigation act passed by the English 
Parliament, .... 490 

Naval war between England and Hol- 
land, ..... 490 

Cromwell's victory at Worcester, Sept. 3, 490 
Three Baptists arrested by Governor 
Endicott in Massachusetts, . . 818 

Maine comes under the control of 
Massachusetts, .... 823 

Cromwell dissolves the Long Parlia- 
ment, April, .... 490 

" Barebones Parliament" assembled 
April, . . ... .490 

Oliver Cromwell, Protector of the Com- 
monwealth, Dec, . . . 490 
Port Royal subjugated by Cromwell, . 793 
New Sweden surrenders to the Dutch, 798 
Civil war in Maryland, . . . 807 
Three days' battle of Warsaw, . 478 
Two Quaker women seized in Boston, 819 
Carl X., invades Denmark, . . 478 
Death of Oliver Cromwell, Sept, 3, . 491 
Bill passed in Massachusetts persecut- 
ing Quakers, ..... 819 

Treaty of the Pyrenees between France 

and Spain, .... 498 

Four Quakers hung in Boston, . . 819 

Proceedings against the Quakers in 
Massachusetts suspended by order of 
Charles II., . . . .820 

Death of Cardinal Mazarin, . . 498 

Church of England restored, . . 492 

Connecticut obtains a charter from 
Charles II., . . . .821 

Charles II. grants the Carolinasto Lord 
Clarendon, .... 807 

Death of Rembrandt . . . 464 

Hungary rebels against Austria, . 503 

New Amsterdam surrenders to the 
English and becomes New York, . 798 

New Netherlands becomes New York, 
Aug. 27, . . . . . 826 

Great plague in London, . . 492 

Fire destroys two-thirds of London, . 492 
Disgrace of Lofd Clarendon, . . 492 

Louis XIV., makes conquests in the 
Spauish Netherlands, . . . 499 

Fundamental constitution of Carolina 
drawn up by John Locke, . . 808 

Triple alliance against France, . 499 

Port Royal ceded to France, . . 793 



986 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



makes a secret treaty with 



A. D. 

1670 Charles I[ 
France, KH 492 

1671 Subjugation of the Cossacks by Rus 
sia, 

1672 Louis XIV., invades Holland, 
1672 Count Froutenac becomes governor of 

New France, 

1672 Charleston settled, 

1673 Roman Catholics excluded from the 
English Parliament, 

1673 Maiquette and Joliet discover the 
Mississippi, June 17, 

1673 New York retaken by the Dutch, 

1674 Spain and Germany join Holland against 
France, .... 

1674 New York given back to England, 

1675 Battle of Fehrbellin, . 

1675 Beginning of King Philip's war, 

1676 Nathaniel Bacons' rebellion in Virginia, 
1676 Rebellion in North Carolina, 

1676 Death of King Philip, . 

1677 Louis XIV., authorizes La Salle to ex- 
plore the New World, 

1679 Habeas-Corpus Act passed in England 

May 27, . 
1679 Peace of Nymwegen, 

1679 New Hampshire becomes a royal prov- 
ince, . ' 

1680 La Salle discovers the Falls of St 
Anthony, 

1681 Strasburg annexed to France, Sept., 
1681 La Salle and Father Heuuepin explore 

the Mississippi River, 
1681 "Penn's woods" granted to William 
Penn, .... 

1681 First settlers sent to Pennsylvania. 

1682 La Salle discovers and names Louisiana 
April, 

1682 Penn signs the frame of government for 

Pennsylvania, April 25, 
1682 William Penn lands at New Castle 

Oct. 27, ... 

1682 First assembly meets in Pennsylvania 
Dec. 4, . 

1683 Rye House plot-Execution of Russell 
and Sidney, 

1683 John Sobieski defeats the Turks and 

raises the siege of Vienna, 
1683 Baltimore leaves the colony of Mary 

laud, .... 

1683 First colony of Germans settle German 

town, .... 
1683 Penn's treaty with the Indians, June 

23, .... 

1683 First provincial assembly in New York 

1684 Truce of Regeusburg, Aug. 15, 



516, 385 
500 



794 

808 

492 

793 
798 

502 
798 
502 
820 
804 
808 
820 

794 

493 
502 

821 

794 
505 

794 

823 
824 

794 

824 

824 

824 

493 

503 



A. D. 
1684 
1684 
1685 
1685 
1685 

1685 

1687 

1688 

1688 
1689 

1689 

1689 
1689 
1689 

1690 

1690 

1692 
1692 

1692 



1692 
1693 

1694 
1694 
1697 
1697 
1698 

1699 
1699 
1700 
1700 
1700 
1700 
1701 
1701 



PAGE 

Charter of Massachusetts withdrawn, 820 
Penn returns to England, . . 821 

Duke of Monmouth's rebellion, . 493 

" The Bloody Assizes " of Judge Jeffries, 493 
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Oc- 
tober, . . . . .508 
First printing-press in the middle col- 
onies established at Philadelphia, . 824 
Reputed hiding of Connecticut charter 
at Hartford, .... 821 
Desolation of the Palatinate by the 
French, . . . . .504 
Vera Cruz raided by French freebooters, 788 
Catholic rebellion in Ireland in favor of 
James II., .... 494 
The Bill of Rights passed by the Eng- 
lish Parliament, . . . 494 
Beginning of the Orleans war, . 504 
Revolution in Maryland, . . 807 
Sir Edmund Andros imprisoned in Bos- 
ton, . . . . .820 
Paper and woollen mills started in Penn- 
sylvania, .... 824 
Unsuccessful attempt to establish a 
newspaper in Boston, . . . 898 
Acadia made part of Massachusetts, . 793 
Church of England established in Mary- 
laud, . . . . .807 
Consolidation of Massachusetts, Maine, 
Plymouth, and Nova Scotia under a 
new charter, . . . 814-820 



807 1702 



824 

824 
826 
503 



1702 
1702 

1703 



Salem witchcraft, 

Battle of Neerwiuden. Defeat of Will 

iam III., by the French, Mar. 18, 

University of Halle established, 

Penn released from imprisonment, 

Peace of Ryswick, Dec. 20, 

Acadia ceded to France, 

D'Iberville founds a colony at Biloxi 

Bay, .... 

Peace of Carlowitz, 

Penn visits his colony again, 

War between Sweden and Russia, 

Russians defeated at Narva, 

College of William and Mary founded, 

Yale College founded, 

War of the Spanish Succession begins 

Colonists from Charleston capture St 

Augustine, 

Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII., of 

Sweden, . . . . . 

Delaware given a separate Assembly, 

The two Jerseys placed in the hands of 

the king, .... 

St. Petersburg founded by Peter the 

Great, ..... 



821 

568 
525 
824 
505 
793 

795 
504 
824 
518 
518 
805 
821 
510 

808 

518 
824 

828 

519 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



987 



A. D. 

1704 
1704 
1704 

1706 
1706 
1706 



1706 

1707 
1708 
1708 
1709 

1709 
1710 

1710 

1711 
1712 
1713 
1713 

1714 
1714 
1716 

1717 

1717 
1718 
1718 

1719 

1719 
1719 

1720 

1720 
1721 

1723 
1724 
1729 
1729 
1729 

1731 

1732 



English capture Gibraltar, 
Battle of Blenheim, Aug. 13, . 
First newspaper in America published 
in Boston, .... 

Battle of Ramillies, May 23, . 
Battle of Turin, Sept. 7, 
Peace of Altranstadt between Charles 
XII., of Swedeu and Augustus of Sax- 
ony, Sept. 24, 

French and Spanish fleet unsuccessfully 
attack Charleston, 
Devastation of Valencia, 
Battle of Oudenarde, July 11, 
Charles XII., of Sweden invades Russia, 
Charles XII., of Sweden defeated at 
Pultawa, July 8, ... 

Battle of Malplaquet, Sept. 11, 
Alexander Spotswood brings the writ 
of habeas corpus to Virginia, 
French invasion of Brazil under Du- 
clerc, ..... 

Russian war with Turkey, 
Lousiana sold to Antony Crozat, 
Treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 
Church of Eugland established in Car- 
olina, ..... 
Peace of Rastatt, 
Charles XII. returns to Sweden, 
Charles XII. of Sweden invades Nor- 
way, ..... 
John Law forms the Company of the 
West, ..... 
New Orleans founded, . 
Mississippi Bubble bursts, 
Iron works started along the Schuyl- 
kill River, .... 
Carolina colonists overthrow the pro- 
prietors, ..... 
Settlement of Londonderry, N. H. 
Second newspaper in United States es- 
tablished in Philadelphia, 
The Duke of Savoy acquires Sardinia 
with the title of King, 
Law's bubble bursts, in France, 
Iroquois hold a council with the whites 
at Conestoga, . . , 
Death of Isaac Newton, 
Massacre of Protestants at Thorn, 
Founding of Baltimore, 
The Caroliuas become royal provinces, 
Act restricting immigration passed in 
Pennsylvania, . . . . 
Louisiana reverts to the kingdom of 
France, . . . . . 
Trustees for colony of Georgia receive 
their charter, 



iGE 


A. D. 


511 


1733 


511 


1733 




1733 


898 


1734 


511 


1736 


511 






1738 


519 


1738 




1739 


808 




511 


1740 


512 




519 


1740 




1740 


519 


1741 


512 






1741 


806 






1711 


958 


1743 


520 


1744 


795 


1744 


512 






1745 


808 




513 


1745 


522 


1745 


522 


1746 




1746 


795 




795 


1748 


795 






1753 


826 






1753 


808 




821 


1754 




1754 


898 




371 


1754 


513 






1754 


826 




462 


1755 


524 


1755 


807 




809 


1755 


826 


1756 




1756 


795 






1756 


809 





PAGE 

War of the Polish succession begins, 524 

Richmond laid out, . . . 806 

Oglethorpe founds a colony at Savannah, 810 
Great awakening in New England . 821 
Oglethorpe brings a second colony to 
Georgia, . . . . .810 

France agrees to the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion, . . . . . 526 
New Jersey made a separate province, 828 
Peace of Belgrade between Austria and 
Turkey, . . . . .526 
Frederick the Great begins the first 
Silesian war, .... 526 
War of the Austrian succcession begins, 528 
Oglethorpe invades Florida, . . 811 
Battle of Mollwitz — the Prussians defeat 
the Austrians, April 10, . . 526 
Restrictions on the importation of rum 
and slaves to Georgia removed, . 811 
Negro plot in New York, . . 828 
England's alliance with Maria Theresa, 528 
Second Silesian war, . . ■ . 528 
Sailing of expedition from Boston to 
capture Louisbourg, . . • 821 
Edward, the Protender, invades En- 
gland, . . . . .514 
Battle of Hohenfriedberg, June 4, . 528 
Peace of Dresden betweeu Frederick II. 
and Maria Theresa, Dec 25, . . 528 
Battle of Cnlloden, . . .516 
College of New Jersey established at 
Princeton, . . . .828 
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the 
war of the Austrian succession, . 528 
Sir Danvers Osborn comes to New York 
as governor, and hangs himself, . 828 
Duquesne sends an expedition to occu- 
py the Ohio valley, . . .828 
Georgia becomes a royal province, . 811 
.Plan of union agreed upon by commis- 
sioners of all the colonies at Albany, 

July, 828 

Beginning of the French and Indian 
war, . • • . '. 828 

Washington sent by Dinwiddie to 
build a fort at the forks of the Ohio 831 

Great earthquake at Lisbon, Nov. . 547 
Defeat and death of General Braddock, 
July 9, • • • • -830 

Defeat and capture of Dieskau by 
Phineas Lyman, . . . 830 

Beginning of the Seven Years' war, . 530 
Frederick II. invades, Saxony, whose 
army surrenders, . . • 530 

Queens College, now Rutgers, estab- 
lished in NewBrunswick, . . 828 



988 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. D. 

1756 
1757 

1757 

1757 

1757 

1758 

1758 

1758 

1758 

1759 
1759 
1759 
1759 

1759 

1759 

1760 

1760 

1760 
1762 
1763 

1763 
1763 
1763 

1763 
1763 
1763 

1765 
1765 

1766 
1767 
1767 
1768 
1769 
1769 

1769 
1769 
1771 



Fort Oswego surrenders to Montcalm, 
Frederick II. victorious at the Battles 
of Prague, Rossbach and Leuthen, 
Frederick II. defeated at Kollin and 
Hasteubeck, .... 

Franklin -wins a diplomatic victory for 
Pennsylvania, .... 
Moutcalm destroys Fort William Henry 
on Lake George, 

Ferdinand of Brunswick drives the 
French from North Germany, . 
Frederick II. defeats the Russians at 
Zorndorf, Aug- 24, • . . 

Bradstreet captures and destroys Fort 
Frontenac, .... 

Fort Duquesne occupied by the English 
and called Pittsburg, 
French army defeated at Mmden, 
Jesuits expelled from Portugal, 
Johnson takes Fort Niagara, 
Wolfe's fleet sails from Louisbour 
take Quebec, Juue, 

Death of Wolf and Montcalm at Que- 
bec, Sept. 13, • 

Canada passes to the English crown, 
Sept. 18 . 

Frederick II- recovers Silesia by the 
victory at Liegnitz, Aug. 15, 
Frederick II- conquers Saxony in the 
Battle of Torgau, Nov. 3, 
Jesuits expelled from Brazil, 
Louisiana presented to King of Spain, 795, 834 
Peace of Hubertsburg ends the Seven 
Years' War, Feb. 15, . . 534 

England acquires Canada, 534, 834, 942 



Reign of Terror in France, 

Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday, 

July 13, 

Execution of the Girondists, Oct. 31, . 
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 
Uprising of Indian tribes under Pou- 
tiac, ..... 

Passage of the Stamp Act, 
Meetiug of the first Continental Con- 
gress in Oct., .... 
Repeal of the Stamp Act, March 6, 
Civil war in Poland, 
Jesuits expelled from Mexico, 
War between Russia and Turkey, 
James Watt invents the steam engine, 
Iuveutiou of the spinning-jenny by 
Arkwright, .... 

Discovery of San Francisco Bay, 
Kentucky settled by Daniel Boone, 
Gustavus III. breaks the power of the 
Swedish aristocracy, 



PAGE A. D. PAGE 

831 1772 Count Struensee beheaded, . . 548 

1772 Partition of Poland, - . .551 

1773 Society of Jesus abolished by Clem- 
ent XIV., . - • .546 

1773 Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, 
Nov. 25, ■ • • - - 836 

1774 Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche be- 
tween Russia and Turkey, • . 552 

1774 Parliament passes the Boston Port bill, 

June 1, . . . . .836 

1774 Four regiments of British troops sent 

to Boston, . 837 

1774 Meeting of a Congress in Carpenter's 

Hall, Philadelphia, Sept., 4, • . 837 

1774 Quebec Act enacted by the English 
Parliament, .... 942 

1775 Rebellion of the Cossacks in Russia sup- 
pressed, .. . . . . 551 

1775 Conflict between British troops and 
minute men at Lexington, Mass., 
April 19, .... 838 

1775 Ethan Allen captures Ticonderoga, 

May 10, 838 

1775 Seth Warner captures Crown Point, 

May 12, . . . . . 838 

1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, . 838 

1775 Washington takes charge of American 

Army, . - - . .840 

1775 Capture of Montreal by Montgomery, 

Nov. 13, .... 840 

1775 Defeat of Americans and death of Mont- 
gomery at Quebec, Dec. 31, . . 841 

1776 Examination of Dr. Franklin by a com- 
mittee of the House of Commons, . 835 

1776 Declaration of American independence, 

571 July 4, 841 

1776 Signing of the Declaration by the Con- 

571 tinental Congress, August 2, . - 841 

571 1776 Defeat of Washington on Long Island, 

788 August 27, ... . 842 

1776 Washington crosses the Delaware, 

834 Dec 25, .... 842 

835 1777 Repulse of Burgoyne at Fort Schuyler, 
Aug., . . . . .846 

835 1777 Victory of Stark at Bennington, Aug. 

835 16, ..... 846 

551 1777 Washington defeated at Philadelphia, 

789 and Howe enters the city, Sept., . 844 
551 1777 Defeat of Burgoyne at Beruis Heights, 
514 Sept. 19, .... 846 

1777 Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4, . 844 
514 1777 Defeat of Burgoyne at Stillwater, Oct. 7, 846 
789 1777 Surrender of Burgoyne's army at Sara- 
866 toga, Oct. 16, . . . . 846 

1778 War of the Bavarian Succession, . 537 
548 1778 Death of Voltaire, . . .544 



532 

532 

826 

S31 

532 

533 

831 

. 831 

. 533 

546, 547 

. 831 

;to 

• 831 

834 

834 

534 

534 
958 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



989 



A. D. PAGE 

1778 Death of Rousseau, . . .545 

1778 Independence of United States acknowl- 
edged by France, Feb. 6, 
1778 Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 
1778 France, Spain, and the Dutch contest 
British supremacy at sea, 

1778 British occupy Savannah, Dec. 29, 

1779 Capture of Stony Point by General 
Wayne, July 15, 

1779 Capture of the Serapis by the Bon- 
homme Richard, Sept. 23, 

1780 Charleston surrenders to the British 
May 12, . 

1780 Battle of Camden,' August 16, 

1780 Treason of Benedict Arnold, Sept. 22 

1780 Execution of Major AudrS, Oct. 2, 

1780 Defeat of the British at King's Mount 
ain, Oct. 7, 

1781 Death of Lessing, 
1781 Morgan defeats Tarleton at Cowpens 

Jan. 17, . 
1781 Battle between Greene and Coruwallis 
at Guilford Court House, March 15, 

1781 Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown 
Oct. 19, . 

1782 Lord North resigns as premier of Eu 
gland, March, 

1782 Naval victory of Admiral Rodney in 
the West Indies, April 12, 

1782 The populace make demands on Louis 
XVI., June 20, . 

1783 Conquest of Crimea by Russians under 
Potemkin, 

1783 Florida ceded back to Spain, 

1783 Congress driven from Philadelphia to 

Princeton, June 21, 
1783 Signing of Peace of Paris, Sept, 3, 

1786 Conference of the thirteen States meets 
at Annapolis, Sept. 11, . 

1787 Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands 
and Hungary, 

1787 War of Austria and Russia against 

Turkey, .... 
1787 Assembly of notables convened 1 

France, Feb., 
1787 Constitutional convention meets in 

Philadelphia, May, 
1787 Constitution >1 convention completes its 

labors, Sept. 17, . 

1787 Passage of the Northwest ordinance 
restricting slavery, . . 866, 900 

1788 Guetavus III., of Sweden, makes war 
on Russia, .... 

1788 Second assembly of notables in France, 
1788 The Union becomes an established fact, 

Juue, ..... 858 



847 
847 

847 
848 

848 

848 

848 
849 
848 
848 

849 
538 

849 

849 

850 

852 

852 

565 

552 

788 

853 
853 

856 

549 
552 
557 
856 
856 



548 
560 



A. D. 

1789 The States General, of France, declares 
itself a National Assembly, June 17, . 

1789 The French Revolution begun by the 
storming of the Bastile, July 14, 

1789 The Paris mob forces Louis XVI. to re- 
move to Paris, Oct. 5, 

1789 Revolution in Brazil under Silva Xav- 
ier, ..... 

1790 Confederation of the Champ de Mars, 

1790 Defeat of General Harmer by Indians 
on the Ohio, Nov. 4, 

1791 New .monarchical constitution adopted 
in Poland, 

1791 Death of Mirabeau, April 2, 

1791 Louis XVI. sanctions the national con 

stitutiou, 
1791 Unsuccessful attempt of Louis XVI. to 

escape from France, June 21, 
1791 The French Legislative Assembly con 

venes in Paris, Oct. 1, . 
1791 General St. Clair defeated by Indians in 

Ohio, Nov. 4, . 
1791 First amendments to American constitu 

tion adopted, 

1791 Division of Canada, 

1792 Peace of Jassy between Russia and 
Turkey, Jan., 

1792 France declares War against Austria 

and Prussia, April 20, . . ■ 

1792 Poland invaded by Prussian troops 

May, .... 

1792 Passage of act transferring the seat of 

American government to the, Potomac, 

July 8, 

1792 Insurrection and massacre in Paris, 

Aug. 10, .... 

1792 Massacre of the prisons in Paris, Sepl. 

2-5, 

1792 The National Convention of France 

opens Sept. 17, ... 

1792 Duke of Brunswick defeated atValmy, 

• Sept. 20, .... 

1792 The National Convention proclaims 

France a republic, Sept. 22, 
1792 Revolutionary tribunal set up in 

Paris, ..... 
1792 Flight and imprisonment of General 

Lafayette, .... 

1792 Battle of Jemappes, Nov. 1, 
1792 Flanders conquered by the Freuch, 
1792 First coalition against France, . 568, 5 7 6 
1792 Establishment of United States bank 

in Philadelphia, 
1792 Kentucky admitted to the Union, 

1792 First Parliament convened in Canada 

1793 Execution of Louis XVI. Jan. 21, 



560 

561 

563 

958 
563 

860 

552 
564 

564 

564 

564 

860 

879 
942 

552 

565 
552 



858 

565 

566 

566 

568 

566 

566 

566 

568' 

568 



858 
866 
943 
568 



990 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. D. PAGE 

1793 Duinouriez defeated at Neerwinden, 

March 18, ... 568, 569 

1793 War in La Vendee, March, . . 573 

1793 Second partition of Poland, April, 
1793 Insarrection of the Jacobins in Paris, 
May 31, ..... 
1793 Committee of Public Safety established 
in France, .... 

1793 Execution of Marie Antoinette, Oct. 16, 
1793 Insurrection in Lyons, Marseilles and 
Toulon, .... 

1793 The French National Convention alters 
the calendar and establishes the wor- 
ship of reason, Nov. 10, 

1793 Invention of cotton gin by Eli Whitney, 

1794 Rise of the Poles under Kosciuszko 
against the Russians, 

1794 Execution of Dauton and Desmoulins, 

April 5, - 
1794 Robespierre makes an end to the wor 

ship of reason, 
1794 Robespierre guillotined, July 28, 
1794 General Wayne thoroughly defeats the 

Ohio Indians, Aug. 20, 
1794 Defeat of Kosciuszko by the Russians 

Oct. 10, . 

1794 Abolition of the revolutionary tribu 
nal, Dec. 15, 

1795 Third partition of Poland, 
1795 Holland erected into the Bataviau Re 

public by General Pichegru, Jan. 
1795 Bread riots in Paris, Mar. 31, 
1795 Peace of Basle between France and 

Prussia, April 5, 
1795 Dangerous insurrection in Paris, May 

20, .... 

1795 The Austrians take Heidelberg and 

Mannheim. Sept. . 
1795 Insurrection of the sections in Paris put 

down by Napoleon Bonaparte, Oct. 5, 
1795 French Directory choseu, Oct. 26, 
1795 Ratification of treaty between England 

and America, .... 

1795 Washington makes a treaty with Spain, 
gaining free navigation of the Missis- 
sippi. 

1796 Moreau's masterly retreat through the 
Black Forest, Sept. 19, . 

1796 Napoleon Bonaparte's successful cam- 
paigns in Italy, .... 

1796 Bonaparte defeats the Austriaus at Ar- 
eola, Nov. 15, . 

1796 Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed in 
France, ..... 

1796 Tennessee admitted to the Union 

1797 Cis-alpiue Republic formed in Italy, 



A. D. 

1797 The Venetian Republic destroyed by 

Bonaparte, .... 

1797 Treaty of Leoben between France and 

Austria, April 18, 
1797 The Royalist deputies banished from 

France, Sept. .... 
1797 Peace of CampioFormio betweeu France 

and Austria, Oct. 17, 

1797 Congress of Rastadt, Baden, Dec 

1798 Switzerland converted into the Helvetic 
Republic, .... 

1798 The French proclaim a Roman Repub- 
lic, Feb. ..... 

1798 Rebellion in Ireland against British au- 
thority, ..... 

1798 European coalition against France 
1798 Bonaparte invades Egypt, July 1, 
1798 Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 
1798 Passage of Kentucky resolutions, 

1798 Passage of the Alien and Sedition laws 
578 by United States Congress, 
578 1798 War threatened between France and 

America, .... 

1799 Death of Kant, ... 
1799 The Parthenopian Republic established 

in Naples, Jan. .... 
1799 Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, Feb. 
1799 Siege of St. John d' Acre, Syria, by 

Bonaparte. March, 
1799 Freuch defeated at Cassano, Trebia 

and Novi, Italy, June, . 
1799 The Parthenopiau Republic overthrown 

June 13, . 
1799 Russians defeated by the French at 

Zurich, Switzerland, Sep. 25, 

1799 Bonaparte overthrows the Directory in 
France, Nov. 10, . 

1800 Napoleou Bonaparte created first con- 
sul of the French Republic, Jan. 

1800 Napoleon crosses the Alps, May, 

1800 Austrians defeated by Napoleon at 

Monte-bello and Marengo, Italy, June, 
1800 Battle of Hohenlinden, Bavaria, Dec. 3, 
1800 Attempted assassination of Bonaparte, 

Dec. 24, ..... 

1800 Death of Benedict Arnold, 

1801 Peace of Luneville between France 
and Austria, Feb. 9, . 

1801 Death of General Abercombie at the 
battle of Canopus, March 21, . 

1801 Observance of Sunday restored in 
France, ..... 

1801 Louisiana retransferred by Spain to 

France, .... 834, 864 

1801 War between United States and Trip- 
oli, . . . . .866 



553 

571 

571 
572 

573 

574 
886 

553 

576 



860 

554 

578 
554 

576 
580 

576 

580 

578 

580 
580 

860 



578 

580 

582 

583 
866 
582 



582 

582 

583 

582 
583 

584 

584 



. 585 
. 585 
■ 588 
. 588 
860, 899 



862 

862 
540 

584 
588 

589 

585 

585 

586 

590 

591 
592 

592 
592 

595 
848 

592 

593 

595 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



991 



A. D. 

1802 Peace of Amiens, Mar. 27, 
1802 The Concordat in France, April 18, 
1802 Legion of honor instituted, May 19, . 
1802 Bonaparte made Consul for life, Aug. 2, 
1802 Ohio admitted to the Union, Nov. 
29, 

1802 Church of England deprived of its 
glebe lands iu Virginia, 

1803 West Point military academy founded, 
1803 French invasion and conquest of Han- 
over, ..... 

1803 Purchase of Louisiana by the United 
States, .... 86. 

1804 Napoleon I. proclaimed Emperor of the 
French, May 18, ... 

1804 Conspiracy against Bonaparte and exe- 
cution of Duke d' Enghien, May 21, . 
1804 Napoleou crowned by the pope, Dec. 2, 

1804 Duel between Burr and Hamilton, 

1805 Death of Schiller, 

1805 Coalition of Eugland, Russia, Austria 

and Sweden against France, 
1805 Napoleon crowned King of Italy, May 

26, . t . 

1805 The Austrian general, Mack, surrenders 

Ulm to Napoleon, Oct. 20, 
1805 Naval victory of English at Trafalgar. 

Death of Lord Nelson, Oct. 21, 
1805 Murat enters Vienna, Nov. 1? 
1805 Battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 
1805 Peace of Pressburg between France 

and Austria, Dec. 26, 

1805 Tripoli agrees not to further molest the 
United States, ". 

1806 End of the German Empire and forma- 
tion of the Confederation of the Rhine, 

1806 Joseph Bonaparte made King of Naples, 
and Louis, King of Holland, 

1806 War breaks out between France and 
Prussia, Aug. .... 

1806 Napoleon defeats the Prussians at Jena, 
Oct. 14, . . 

1806 Napoleon enters Berlin Oct. 25, and is- 
sues the Berlin decree, Nov. 21, , . 

1806 Jefferson rejects a treaty with Eugland, 

1806 Passage of the Embargo act, 

1807 Battle of Eylau, Prussia, Feb. 8, 

1807 Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia 

and Prussia, July 7, 
1807 Jerome Bonaparte, becomes King of 

Westphalia, . .- . 6i 

1807 War of Prussia, France and Denmark 

against Swedeu, 
1807 Bombardment of Copenhagen by the 

British navy, Sept. 2-5, . . 

1807 Trial of Aaron Burr for treason, Nov. . 



PAGE 


A. D. 


593 


1807 


595 




595 


1807 


596 






1808 


866 






1808 


890 




893 


1808 




1808 


503 






1808 


, 879 






1808 


597 






1808 


597 


1808 


597 




880 


1808 


539 


1809 


598 


1809 


598 


1809 


600 


1809 




1809 


600 




600 


1809 


600 






1809 


600 






1810 


866 






1810 


601 






1810 


601 






1810 


602 






1811 


602 






1811 


602 


1811 


866 


1811 



602 1811 



603 


1811 




1812 


605 






1812 


604 


1812 




1812 


604 


1812 


879 





Napoleon issues the Milan decree, Dee. 

17, 

Invention of steamboat by Robert Ful- 
ton, . . 

John VI. of Portugal takes refuge in 
Brazil, Jan. 21, . 

Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain, 
June 6, . . 

Commencement of the Peninsular War, 
Surrender of Dupont to the Spanish in 
Andalusia, July 22, 
Capitulation of Cintra and French evac- 
uation of Portugal, Aug. 30, 
Napoleon and Alexander meet at Erfurt 
Sept. 27, ... 

Napoleon enters Madrid, Dec. 4, 
First Roman Catholic see established 
in Baltimore, 

End of slave trade in the North. 
Sweden cedes Finland to Russia by the 
peace of Frederickshamn, 
Surrender of Saragossa to the French 
Feb. 20, • 
War breaks out between France and 
Austria,April, . . • 608, 609 

Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13, . 609 

Pope Pius VII. imprisoned in France, 
July, ..... 
Revolt of the Tyrolese against the Ba- 
varian government, 

Napoleon divorced from Josephine, Dec. 
16, ..... 

Napoleon marries Maria Louisa of Aus- 
tria, April 2, . 
Rebellion in Chili headed by de Kosas, 

July, 

North Germany and Holland annexed 
to France, July 9, . . . 

Hidalgo defeated and shot by Calleja in 
Mexico, ..... 
Massena's unsuccessful campaign in Por- 
tugal, ..... 
Preparations for war begun in America, 
Indian insurrection under Tecumseh, 
Utter defeat of Tecumseh at Tippeca- 
noe, Nov. 7, 

Henry Clay defeats an attempt to re- 
cbarter the United States bank, 
Venezuela declares her independence, 
Earthquake in Caraccas kills 20,000 
people, March, .... 
Constitution of the Cortes, May 8, 
Napoleon declares war against Russia, 
Napoleon invades Russia, June, 608, 614 

Congress declares war against England, 
Juuel9, . . . . .868 



685 

886 

959 

601 
604 

606 

608 

604 
608 

891 
899 

604 

-608 



609 

609 

612 

612 

953 

612 

949 

608 
866 
866 



884 
956 

956 
608 
614 



992 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. D. 
1814 

1814 
1814 
1814 



1815 
1815 



A. D. PAGE 

1812 Peace of Bucharest between Russia and 

Turkey, . . . . .614 

1812 General Hull surrenders at Detroit, 

Aug. 16, .... 868 

1812 Battle of Smolensk, Aug. 17, . . 616 

1812 Destruction of the Guerriere by the 

Constitution, Aug. 19, . . 868 1815 

1812 French victory at Borodino, Sept. 7, 616 

1812 French enter Moscow, which is burned 

by the Russians, Sept. 15, . . 616 

1812 Retreat of the French from Russia be- 
gins, Oct. . . . .616 1815 

1812 Battle of Queenstown, Canada, Oct. 
13, ... . 868 

1812 Capture of the Frolic by the Wasp, 
Nov. 18, .... 

1812 Terrible passage of tho Beresina, Nov. 
26-29, ..... 

1812 Princeton Seminary established, 

1813 Wellington drives the French from 
Spain, .->... 

1813 Prussia joins Russia and Sweden against 
Napoleon, Feb. 3, . . . 

1813 Order of the Iron Cross founded, 
March 10, .... 

1813 Austria joins the All ies against Napo- 
leon, August 10, ... 

1813 Napoleon victorious at the battle of 
Dresden, August 26-27, 

1813 Perry's victory ou Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 

1813 Battle of Leipzig and retreat of Napo- 
leon, Oct. 16-18, 

1813 Burning of Niagara by Commodore 
Perry, ..... 

1814 Invasion of France by the allied armies, 
Jan. 1, • 

1814 Genoa united to the Kingdom of 

Sardinia, .... 

1814 Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden by 

the peace of Kiel, Jan. 14, 
1814 Pope Pius VII. restored to his authority 

in Rome, Jan., .... 
1814 Abolition of the Confederation of the 

Rhine ..... 
1814 First capitulation of Paris to the allies, 

March 31, .... 

1814 Abdication of Napoleon, April 11, 
1814 Napoleon arrives at Elba, May 4, 
1814 First treaty of Paris, May 30, . 
1814 Constitution overthrown in Spain, 
1814 Battle of Chippewa and defeat of the 

British, July 5, ... 

1814 British enter the Penobscot, July, 
1814 Meeting of the Hartford convention, . 
1814 British enter Washington and burn 

the Capitol, August 24, . ■ 874 1820 



943 


1815 




1815 


868 






1815 


618 


1815 


891 


1815 




1815 


608 


1815 




1815 


619 






1815 


620 






1815 


620 






1816 


620 


1816 


870 






1817 


622 


1817 


943 


1817 




1818 


623 


1818 




1818 


374 






1819 


622 






1819 


622 






1819 


622 


1819 


624 


1820 


625 


1820 


625 




625 


1820 


638 






1820 


872 




874 


1820 


874 


1820 



A congress of European powers meets 
at Vienna, Sept. 25, . . 625 

Canadians lose Fort Erie, . . 943 

Rebellion in Venezuela, . . 953 

Treaty of peace signed at Ghent, 
Dec. 24, . . . . . 874 

General Jackson wins the battle of 
New Orleans, Jan. 8, . . . 874 

Napoleon arrives in France, March ], . 628 
England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia 
combine against Napoleon, March, . 630 
Battles of Liguy and Quatrebras, 
June 16, . . . . .630 

Battle of Waterloo, June 18, . . 630 

Abdication and flight of Napoleon, 
June 22, .... 632 

Second capitulation of Paris, July 8, . 632 
The Holy Alliance formed, Sept. 26, . 635 
Napoleon arrives at St. Helena, Oct. 18, 632 
Second peace of Paris, Nov. 20, . 632 

Execution of Marshal Ney, Dec. 7, . 632 
Establishment of North American Re- 
view. . 898 
Morelos defeated and executed in 
Mexico, . . . . 949 
Ferdinand VII., of Spain, sends Gen- 
eral Morillo to South America, . 955 
Indiana admitted to the Union, . 866 
Republics of La Plata, Uraguay, and 
Bolivia established in South America, 956 
Death of Kosciuszko, . . . 554 
Demonstration at the Festival of the 
Wartburg, Oct, 18, . . . 645 
Erie canal begun, . . . 888 
Conquest of Florida byGeneral Jackson, 864 
Illiuois admitted to the Union, . 866 
Jackson brings the Seminoles to bay in 
Florida, Nov. 18, ... 878 
Popular uprising at Manchester, En- 
gland, ..... 642 
Murder of the Poet Kotzebue by Carl 
Sand, March 23, ... 645 
Purchase of Florida from Spain, . 864 
Venezuela and New Granada united to 
form Colombia, Dec. 17, . . 957 
Murder of the Duke de Berri, Feb. 13, 637 
Spanish revolution and re-establish- 
ment of the Cortes constitution, . 638 
Revolution in Naples and establishment 
of a liberal constitution, July 13, . 639 
Revolution in Portugal and establish- 
ment of a liberal constitution, . 639 
Maine separated from Massachusetts, 823 
Lutherans of the United States form a 
General Synod, . . . .891 
Missouri Compromise agreed to, . 901 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



993 



A. D. PAGE A. D. 

1820 Formation of the " Family Compact," 943 1830 

1821 Tbe Holy Alliance restores absolute 1830 
monarchy in Naples, Jan., . . 639 1830 

1821 Rise of the Greeks against Turkey, 

March, . . . . .646 1830 

1821 Revolution in Piedmont crushed by 1831 

Austrian power, April, . . . 639 1831 

1821 Death of Napoleon Bonaparte, at St. 1831 

Helena, May 5, - . • .632 

1821 Destruction of Ypsilanti's baud in 1831 

Greece, June 19, . ■ - 647 

1821 Treaty ratified, by which Florida is 1831 

ceded to Uuited States, . . .788 

1821 Iturbide conquers Mexico, . . 949 1832 

1821 Revolt of Portuguese troops in Brazil, 959 1832 

1822 Lighting by gas begun in America, . 888 

1823 A French army restores absolutism iu 1832 
Spain, .... 637,639 1832 

1823 President Monroe warns Europe against 

extentiou of its territory in America, 1832 

Dec. 2, . . . .874 

1823 Independence of Brazil acknowledged, 959 1832 

1824 Rebellion of Dorn Miguel in Portugal, 

April, . . . . .640 1833 

1824 Death of Lord Byron in Greece, April 1833 

19, ...... 647 1833 

1824 Mexico becomes a Republic, . . 950 

1824 Bolivar named "Protector for Life " by 1833 
the congress in Lima, . . . 957 

1825 Erie canal finished, . . .888 1833 

1825 Mercersburg seminary established, . 891 

182G Fall of Missolonghi and end of Greek 1833 

insurrection. April 22, . . . 647 

1826 Abolition of janissaries in Turkey, 1833 
June, . . . • . 648 

1827 Naval battle of Navarino, Oct. 20, . 648 1834 
1827 Division of the Quakers, . . ' 891 

1827 Organization of Free Will Baptists and 1835 
Campbellites, .... 891 

1828 Dom Miguel overthrows the Portuguese 1836 
constitution, June, . . . 641 1836 

1828 War declared between Russia and 1837 

Turkey, . . . . .648 1837 

1828 First locomotive in America, . . 888 1839 

1829 Emancipation Actio England admitting 1840 
Catholics to Parliament, . 644 

1829 Peace of Adrianople — Greek independ- 1840 

euce acknowledged, Sept. 14, . . 648 1840 

1829 First Catholic provincial council in 1941 
Baltimore, . . . .892 

1829 Spain fails in an attempt to reconquer 1842 
Mexico, . . . . .950 

1830 Salic law abolished in Spain, March 29, 664 1842 
1S30 Capture of Algiers, July 5, . . 660 

1830 Revolution in Paris and dethronement 1843 

of Charles X., July 23-30, . . 659 

m 



PAGE 

Revolution in Belgium, Aug. 25, . 661 

Revolution in Warsaw, Poland, Nov. 29, 662 
Joseph Smith says he finds the book of 
Mormon, ..... 892 
Death of Simon Bolivar, . . 957 

Reform of English Parliament, . 642 

Death of Duke de Berri, February, . 665 
Formation of the kingdom of Belgium, 
June, . . . . .661 

Fall of Warsaw and Prague and end of 
Polish insurrection, Sept. 6-7, . . 663 

Conclusion of a treaty providing for in- 
demnity for French spoliations, . 876 
Death of Goethe, . . . 539 
French take possession of Ancona, Feb. 

23, 664 

Kingdom of Greece established, May, . 648 
Black Hawk war in Illinois and Wis- 
consin, ..... 878 
First national convention for nominat- 
ing a president, .... 883 
South Carolina nullifies the tariff act 
of 1828 by ordinance, Nov. 19, . . 901 

Abolition of slavery in English colonies, 642 
Passage of Irish coercion bill, . . 644 

Founding of the German customs union 
(Zollverein), . . . 664 

Civil war begun iu Spain between 
Christinos and Carlists, . . . 664 

Beginning of Oxford movement in En- 
gland, . . . . .772 
Removal of deposits from United States 
bank, . . . . .885 
National anti-slavery convention held at 
Philadelphia, . . . .902 
Dom Pedro restores the Cortes constitu- 
tion in Portugal, . . . 741 
Attempt of Fieschi on the life of Louis 
Philippe, July 28, 666 
Texas becomes iudependentof Mexico, 876, 950 
Union seminary founded, . . 891 
McKenzie's rebellion in Canada, . 945 
Papineau's rebellion in Canada, . 945 
End of civil war in Spain, . . 665 
Marriage of Queen Victoria of England 
to Prince Albert of Coburg, Feb. 10, . 643 
Establishment of the sub-treasury, . . 886 
Union of the provinces of Canada, . 946 
Santa Anna enters the City of Mexico 
at the head of an army, . . 950 
Maine boundary question settled by 
treaty, Aug. .... 876 
General Taylor finally conquers the 
Seminoles, . . . . 878 
Revelation to Joseph Smith sanctions 
plural marriage, . . . 892 



994 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. n. PAGE A. n. 

1844 First use of electro magnetic telegraph, 888 1849 

1844 Opening of the Michigan copper mines, 888 

1844 Methodists divide on the slavery ques- 1849 
tion, . . . . . ' 891 

1844 Furious Catholic riots in Philadelphia, 892 1849 

1845 Annexation of Texas by the United 

States, July 4, . . . 864,876 1849 

1845 Annapolis naval academy founded . 893 

1846 Conflict between Radicals and Jesuits 1849 
in Switzerland, .... 670 

1846 Title of Oregon confirmed to the United 1849 
States, . . . . .864 1849 

1846 Settlement of Oregon boundary dispute, 876 

1846 Battle of Palo Alto, May 8, . . 876 1849 

1846 Battle of Eesaca de la Palma, May 9, 876 

1846 United States declares war against 1850 

Mexico, May 13, ... 876 

1846 Rebellion in Schleswig-Holstein, July, 677 1850 
1846 General Taylor captures Monterey, 

Sept. 24, .... 876 1850 

1846 Elias Howe patents thesewing machine, 890 

1847 Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 23, . 876 1850 
1847 Capture of Vera Cruz by General Scott, 1851 

March, . . . . .876 1851 

1847 General Scott takes Molino del Rey, 

Sept. 8, 878 1851 

1847 Scott takes Chapul tepee, Sept. 13, . 878 1852 
1847 General Scott enters the city of Mexico, 

Sept. 14, .... 878 1852 

1847 Hoe printing press patented, . . 890 

1848 Revolution in Sicily, January, . 666 1853 
1848 California and New Mexico ceded to 

the United States, Feb. 2, . . 864 1853 
1848 Insurrection of students in Bavaria, 

February, . . . .670 1853 

1848 Revolution in Paris, and overthrow of 

Louis Philippe, February 24, . . 670 1853 
1848 Insurrection in Vienna and overthrow 

of Prince Metternich, March, . . 673 1853 

1848 Insurrection in Berlin, March 18, . 674 

1848 Revolution in Paris, June 22, . . 672 1854 

1848 Financial panic in Germany, . . 670 1854 
1848 Truce of Malmo, between Prussia and 

Denmark, negotiated, August, . . 677 1854 

1848 Hungarian struggle for independence, 1854 

Sept., . . . • .677 

1848 Insurrection in Vienna, Oct., . . 677 1854 

1848 Vienna besieged and taken from insur- 1854 

gents by General Windiscbgratz, Oct., 677 1854 

1848 Emperor Francis Joseph proclaims a 1854 

new constitution for Austria, Dec, . 678 

1848 Gold discovered in California, . . 890 1855 
1848 Mormons driven from Nauvoo HI., and 

settle in Utah, . . . .892 1855 

1848 Free soil convention in Buffalo, . 903 1856 

1849 Revolution in Rome, February, . 676 



PAGE 
End of National Assembly at Frank- 
fort, March, . . . .679 
Independence of Hungary proclaimed, 
April 14, .... 678 
Frederick William IV., of Prussia de- 
clines the imperial dignity, April, . 679 
Charles Albert of Sardinia defeated by 
Radetzky at Verona, May 6, . . 676 
Mutiny among the soldiers at Baden, 
May, . . . . .679 
Rome taken by French army, July 3, 676 
Surrender of Gorgey and fall of Hun- 
gary, August 13, ... 678 
Venice taken by an Austrian Army, 
August 25, . . . 677 
Prussia becomes a constitutional mon- 
archy, Feb. 6, . . . .702 
Schleswig-Holstein surrendered to the 
Danes, July, .... 680 
Humiliation of the Prussian ministry 
at Olmiitz, Nov., . . . 679 
Passage of the Losses bill, in Canada, 947 
■World's Fair held in London, . . 686 
Coup d'Etat of Louis Napoleon, De- 
cember, 2, .... 680 
Death of James,Fenimore Cooper, . 896 
Second French Empire proclaimed, 
Dec. 2, . . . . .680 
First Catholic plenary council in Balti- 
more, ..... 892 
Marriage of Napoleon III., to Eugenie 
Montijo, Jan. 30, ... 684 
War declared between Russia and Tur- 
key, Oct. 4, . . . .690 
Defeat of Turkish squadron at Sinope, 
Nov. 30, . . . . . 690 
Attempt to assassinate the Emperor of 
Austria, ..... 701 
Reorganization of the customs union, 
(Zollverein), .... 702 
Opening of Paris Exposition, May, . 685 
Euglish fleet under Admiral Charles 
Napier enters the Baltic, August, . 690 
Battle of the Alma, Sept. 20, . . 691 
Charge of the six hundred at Balak- 
tava, Oct. . . . .691 
Battle of Iukermaun, Nov. 5, . 691 
Press law estabished in Germany, . 700 
War in Schleswig-Holstein, . . 704 
Passage of Kansas and Nebraska bill 
repealing the Missouri compromise, . 904 
Storming of the Malakoff tower by the 
French, Sept. 8, ... 692 
Fall of Sebastopol, Sept. 9, . . 694 
Peace of Paris and end of the Crimean 
war, March 30, . . . . 694 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



995 



906 

687 
702 

,707 
940 

708 



711 



907 



A. D. PAGE 

1857 Dred-Scott decision of the United 

States Supreme Court, March 6, 
1857 Massacre of the English by Sepoys in 

Delhi, April, .... 

1857 Uprising in Neuenburg 

1858 Attempt of the Italian, Orsini, upon 
the life of Napoleon III, June 14, 685 

1858 First Marshharvester built, 

1859 War between Austria and Sardinia 
begun, April, .... 

1859 Defeat of the Austrians at the battle of 
Magenta, June 4, 

1859 Battle of Solferino. Defeat of the Aus- 
trians, June 24, ... 

1859 Peace of Villa Franca, July, . 

1859 Schamyl taken a prisoner, Aug., 

1859 War between Spain and Morocco, Oct., 

1859 John Brown's insurrection in Virginia, 
Oct. 19, . 

1859 Death of Washington Irving, . 

1859 Discovery of petroleum in Pennsylva- 
nia, ..... 

1860 Garibaldi overthrows the kingdom of 
Naples, Sept. 7, ... 

1860 South Carolina, passes an ordinance ot 
secession, Dec. 20, 

1860 General Ortega enters the city of Mex- 
. ico in triumph, .... 

1861 Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia 
and Louisiana secede from the Union, 
Jan., ..... 

1861 United States steamer, Star of the West, 
fired upon in Charleston harbor, Jan. 9, 

1861 Insurrection in Warsaw, Feb., . 

1861 Austria becomes a constitutional state, 
Feb., 

1861 Texas secedes, Feb., 

1861 Constitution of Confederate States of 
America adopted, Feb. 4, 

1861 Victor Emmanuel proclaimed King of 
Italy, Feb. 18, . 

1861 Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, March 
3, .... 

1861 Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand 
volunteers, April 15, . 

1861 Virginia secedes from the Union, April 
17, ....'. 

1861 Massachusetts regiment assaulted by a 
mob in Baltimore, April 19, 

1861 Death of Count Cavour, June 6, 

1861 Attempt of Oscar Becker to assassinate 
King William I. of Prussia in Baden- 
Baden, July 14, ... 

1861 General McClellan drives the Confeder- 
ates from West Virginia, July, 

1861 Battle at Bull Run, July 21, 



A. D. 

1861 

1861 
1861 

1861 
J 861 

1861 



708 


1861 


708 


1861 


709 




696 


1861 


723 






1862 


906 




894 


1862 


933 


1862 




1862 



1862 





1862 


950 


1862 




1862 


907 


1862 




1862 


907 




696 


1862 


701 


1862 


701 




907 


1862 


907 


1862 




1862 


711 


1862 


695 


1862 




1862 


907 


1862 


908 


1862 




1862 


907 




712 


1863 




1863 


703 


1863 


908 


1863 


908 





McClellan organizes the Army of the 
Potomac, Aug. 20, . . 908 

Capture of Hatteras Inlet, Aug. 29, . 914 
Coronation of William I. of Prussia in 
Kbnigsberg, Oct. 18, . . . 703 

Battle of Ball's Bluff, Oct. 21, . 908 

Capture of Port Royal by Admiral Du- 
pont, Nov. 7, . . . . 914 

Captain Wilkes takes two Confederate 
commissioners from a British steamer, 
Nov. 19, . - . . . 921 

Death of Albert, Prince Consort, Dec. 

14, 688 

Union of Moldavia and Wallachia to 

form Roumania, Dec. 23, . . 694 

Allies take possession of Vera Cruz, 

Dec. . . . . .951 

Great Britain recognizes the Confed- 
erate States as belligerents, Jan. 1, . 921 
Battle of Mill Spring, Kentucky, Jan. 
19, ..... 909 

Capture of Fort Henry, Feb. 6, . 909 

Surrender of General Buckner at Fort 
Donelson, Feb. 16, 909 

Victory of Monitor over Merrimac in 
Hampton Roads, March 8, . . 915 

Battle of Shiloh, April 6-7, . . 909 

Union forces take Island No. 10, April 7, 910 
English and Spanish withdraw from 
Mexico, April 9, 951 

Surrender of New Orleans, April 25, . 910 
Yorktown surrenders to General Mc- 
Clellan, May 3, . . . .910 

Battle of Fair Oaks, June 1, . . 910 

Beginning of seven days' fighting be- 
fore Richmond, June 25, . . 911 
Conflict of Garibaldi with Italian troops 
at Aspromonte, Aug. 28, . . 713 
Second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 30, . 911 
Bismarck called to the ministry, Sept. 704 
Capture of Harper's Ferry by General 
Jackson, Sept. 15, . ■ .911 
Battle of Antietam, Sept. 17, . . 911 
Revolution in Greece, Oct., . . 695 
Two steam rams destined for the Con- 
federacy detained at Liverpool, Nov. 13, 921 
Battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, . 912 
Sioux Indians of western Minnesota at- 
tack the settlements, . . . 938 
Emancipation proclamation issued by 
President Lincoln, Jan. 1, . . 911 
Russian conscription in Poland, Jan. 14, 698 
Attempt of Emperor Francis Joseph to 
reform the German Union, . . 701 
National bank system established, 
Feb. 25 921 



996 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. D. ' 

1863 Battle of Chancellorsville and death of 

Stonewall Jackson, May 2-5, 
1863 Completion of French conquest of 

Mexico, May 18, 
1863 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 
1863 Surrender of Vicksburg to General 

Grant, July 4, 
1863 Draft riots in New York city, July 

13-15, ..... 
1863 Battle of Chickamauga, Sept. 19-20, . 
1863 Siege of Charleston, Sept., 
1863 Napoleon III. sends troops to Mexico, 

Oct. 31, . 
1863 Battle of Chattanooga, Nov. 23-25, 

1863 Troops of Saxony and Hanover occupy 
Holstein and Lauenberg, Dec. 7, 

1864 Troops of Prussia and Austria enter 
Holstein, Jan., .... 

1864 Prussians take Diippel, April 18, 

1864 Death of Hawthorne, 

1864 Battle of the Wilderness, May 5-13, . 

1864 Battle of Cold Harbor, June 1-3, 

1864 Sinking of the Alabama by the Kear- 

sarge, June 15, . 
1864 Grant begins the siege of Petersburg 

and Richmond, June 15, 
1864 Danes driven from Jutland, June 29, . 
1864 Resignation of Secretary Chase, July, 
1864 Farragut enters Mobile Bay, August 5, 
1864 Sherman enters Atlanta, Sept., 2, 
1864 Sheridan wins the battle of Winchester, 

Sept. 19, ..... 
1864 Peace of Vienna between Austria and 

Prussia, and Denmark, Oct., . . ' 

1864 General Thomas annihilates Hood's 

army at Nashville. Dec. 16, 
1864 Sherman captures Savannah, Dec 21, . 

1864 Maximilian enters Mexico, 

1865 Overthrow of the Polish revolution, 
1865 Capital of Italy transferred to Florence, 
1865 Lee's surrender at Appomatox Court 

House, April 9, 
1865 Assassination of President Lincoln, 
April 14, .... 

1865 Surrender of Johnston's army, April 26, 
.1865 Amendment abolishing slavery becomes 

a part of the constitution, Dec, 

1866 Republican uprisings in Catalonia and 
Valencia, Jan., .... 

1865 Rebellion in Bucharest, Feb., . 

1866 Insurrection in island of Candia, 

1866 Seven -weeks war of Prussia and Italy 

with Austria begun, June 14, 
1866 Battle of Custozza, June 24, 
1866 Battle of Sadowa, July 3, 
1866 Naval battle of Lissa, July 20, . 



\GE 


A. D. 




1866 


912 






1866 


951 




912 


1866 




1866 


912 






1867 


922 




913 


1867 


915 


1867 


921 


1867 


914 






1867 


705 






1867 


705 


1867 


705 




896 


1868 


918 




918 


18C8 


916 


1868 


918 


1868 


705 


1868 


922 


1869 


915 




919 


1869 


918 


1869 


706 


1869 




1870 


919 




919 




951 


1870 


700 




713 


1870 




1870 


919 


1870 




1870 


923 


1870 


920 






1870 


925 


1870 




1870 


723 




694 


1870 


695 






1870 


716 


1870 


717 


1870 


716 


1871 


720 





PAGE 



Peace of Prague between Austria and 

Prussia, August 23, 

Kingdom of Italy acknowledged by 

Austria, Oct. 3, . 

French troops leave Rome, Dec, 

Formation of North German Union, 

Dec. 15, . 

Creation of the Dominion of Canada, 

Feb., 

Purchase of Alaska from Russia, March, 

Attempt to assassinate Alexander II., 

of Russia, June 6, 

Hungary given a separate constitution 

from Austria, .... 

Coronation of Francis Joseph as king 

of Hungary, June 8, 

Jefferson Davis released from prison, 

Execution of Maximilian, of Mexico, 

June 19, ... . 

Impeachment of President Johnson 

Feb., .... 

End of English War with Abyssinia 

April, .... 

Revolution in Spain and flight of Isa 

bella II., Sept., . 

Serrano enters Madrid, Oct. 4, . 

Insurrection in Cuba, Nov., 

Final repeal of the Corn laws in En 

gland, .... 

Completion of the first trans-continental 

railroad, May, , . 

Adoption of new constitution in Spain 

June 1, • 

Opening of Suez canal, Nov. 15, 

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmar- 

ingen nominated as King of Spain, July 

6, 

War declared between France and Prus- 
sia, July 19, . 
Battle of Worth, Aug. 4-6, 
Battle of Gravelotte, Aug. 18, . 
Battle of Sedan,, Sept. 1-2, 
Overthrow of French Empire, Sept. 4, ■ 
Italians occupy Rome, ending temporal 
power of the Pope, Sept. 20, 
Surrender of Strasburg, Sept. 28, ^B^ 
Capitulation of Metz, Oct. 27, - 728, 730 
Amadeus, second son of Victor Emman- 
uel, chosen king of Spain, Nov., 
Mont Cenis tunnel completed connect- 
ing Italy and France, Dec. 25, . 
Assassination of General Prim, Dec 27, 
Riel's first rebellion in Manitoba, 
Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, 
William I. proclaimed Emperor of Ger- 
many at Versailles, Jan. 18, . . 732 



718 

720 
720 

721 

947 
931 

700 

722 

722 
926 

952 

926 

688 

724 
724 
763 

643 

933 

724 
695 



725 

726 

727 
728 
729 
730 

720 
730 



725 

760 
725 
947 
959 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



997 



A. D. PAGE A. D. 

1871 Truce of Paris agreed upon, Jan. 23, . 734 1874 
1871 National Assembly convened at Bor- 1874 

deaux, Feb. 14, . . . . 737 

1871 Austriau ministry hostile to new Ger- 1874 

man Empire appointed, Feb. . . 752 

1871 Peace of Paris between France and 1874 

Germany, Marcb 2, 737 

1871 Insurrection of Red Republicans in 1874 

Paris, March 17, ... 738 

1871 Representatives from all German States 1875 

convened at Berlin, March 21, . . 738 1875 

1871 Treaty of Washington between Great 

Britain and United States, May, . 927 1875 

1871 Triumphal entry of William I. into 

Berlin, June 16, . . . .744 1876 

1871 Meeting of Emperor Francis Joseph of 

Austria with Emperor William of Ger- 1876 

many, Sept. 6-8, . . . .752 

1871 Count Beust removed from the office of 

chancellor of Austria, Nov. 6, . . 752 1876 

1871 Manitoba and British Columbia enter 

the Dominion of Canada, . . 947 1876 

1871 First steps taken toward abolition of 

slavery in Brazil, . . .959 1876 

1872 Beginning of conflict between church 

and state in Germany, Jan., . . 741 1876 
1872 Visit of Crown Prince and Princess of 

Italy to Germany, May, . . 734 1877 

1872 Meeting of the Emperors of Russia, 1877 

Austria and Germany at Berlin, Sept., 744 1877 

1872 Settlement of the Alabama question in 

favor of United States, . . .927 1877 

1873 Death of Emperor Napoleon III., Jan. 1877 
9. 756 

1873 Spain becomes a republic, Feb. 11, . 761 1878 
1873 Passage of the Reform Bill in Austria, 1878 

March 10, .... 753 

1873 Civil war in Spain commences, April, . 761 1878 
1873 Financial crisis in Austria, May, .. 753 

1873 World's Fair in Austria, . . 753 

1873 Russian war with the Khan of Khiva, 754 1878 
1873 War between Holland and the Sultan 

of Atchin at Sumatra, . . . 754 

1873 Don Carlos of Spain proclaims himself 1878 

King Charles VII., July, . . 761 1878 

1873 Last installment of war indemnity paid 

by France, Sept. 5, . . . 755 1878 

1873 Trial of Marshal Bazaine for treason be- 
gins, Sept. 6, . . . . 756 1878 
1873 Count de Chambord declines the king- 1878 

dom of France, Oct., . . .757 1878 

1873 England establishes her power on west 

' coast of Africa, . . . . 772' 1879 

1873 Rising of the Modocs of Oregon, . 938 

1873 Resiguation of Sir John McDonald as 1879 

prime minister of Cauada, . . 948 



PAGE 

Ferghanistan annexed by Russia, . 754 

Marshal Bazaine escapes from the isle 
of St. Marguerite, Aug. 9, . . 757 

Alfonso XII., proclaimed king of Spain, 
Dec. 30, . . . . . 762 

Return of Tories to power under Dis- 
raeli, in England, . . . 772 
Prince Edwards Island enters the Do- 
minion of Canada, . . . 947 
Emperor William journeys to Milan, . 747 
Insurrections in Herzegovina and 
Bosnia, July, .... 763 
Passage of the act for the resumption of 
specie payment in the United States, . 929 
Don Carlos defeated and compelled to 
abandon Spain, Feb. 27, . . 762 
Bismarck, Gortschakoff, and Andrassy 
unite in a memorandum to the Sub- 
lime Porte, Feb., . . . 764 
Sultan Abdul Aziz consents to the re- 
moval of his grand visier, May, . 764 
Presidential election decided by an 
electoral commission, . . . 929 
Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia, 
May 10-Nov. 10, ... 935 
Murder of General Custer by Indians, 
June 25, . . . . . 938 
Russian Army invades Turkey, April, 764 
Ronmania declared independent, May, 764 
Great railroad strikes in Pittsburgh 
and elsewhere, July, . . . 934 
Rebellion of Nez Perce Indians, Sep., 938 
Fall of Plevna and end of Russo-Turk- 
ish war, Dec. 10, ... 767 
Russians take Adrianople, Jan. 20, . 767 
Peace of San Stefano between Russia 
and Turkey, Mar. 3, . . 767 
Robert Hodel makes an attempt upon 
the life of Emperor William of Ger- 
many, May, .... 747 
Dr. Nobling makes an attempt upon the 
life of Emperor William of Germany, 
June, . • ■ • -747 
Congress of Berlin meets, June 13, . 767 
Austria occupies Bosnia and Herzego- 
vina, July, • • ■ .768 
Passage of the anti-socialist laws in 
Germany, Oct. 19, . . .747 
Rebellion in Afghanistan, . . 775 
Passage of the Bland silver bill, . 929 
Sir John McDonald returns to power 
in Canada, .... 948 
Parliamentary constitution framed for 
Bulgaria, Feb. 22, 770 
General Wolseley puts down the Zulus 
under Cetewayo in South Africa. . 773 



998 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



A. D. PAGE A. D. 

1879 Ismail Pasha succeeded by Tewfikk 1887 
Pasha in Egypt, June 26, . . 774 

1880 Return of the Liberals to power under 1887 
Gladstone, April, . . .776 

1881 Rebellion under El Mahdi in Nubia, 1887 
July, 775 

1881 Assassination of President Garfield, 1887 
Sept. 19, .... 930 1888 

1882 Hamburg and Bremen become members 

of the Customs-Union. . . .748 1888 

1882 Murder of Lord Cavendish and Bourke 

in Phoenix Park, Dublin, May 6, • 776 1888 

1882 Completion of St. Gothard railroad and 

tunnel uniting Germany and Italy, June, 760 1888 
1882 Death of Garibaldi at Caprera, June, 2, 761 
1882 Alexandria bombarded by English war 1888 

vessels, July 11, ... 774 

1882 Egyptian Army under Arabi Pasha de- 1888 

feated at Tel-el-Kebir by General 

Wolseley, Aug. 31, 775 1888 

1882 Death of Leon Gambetta, Dec. 31 . 759 
1882 Death of Longfellow and Emerson, . 896 1888 
1882 Formation of the Standard Oil trust, . 934 

1882 Organization of the educational divis- 1889 
ion of the Indian Bureau, . • 938 

1883 Sagasta called to the Spanish ministry, 1889 
Jan. 8, . . • • .763 1889 

1883 Death of Prince Gortschakoff of Russia, 

March 11, . . . • 771 1889 

1883 French war with Tonquin, Aug.-Sept. 759 
1883 French war with Madagascar, . 759 1889 

1883 Passage of the civil service reform act 

in United States, . . • 930 1889 

1884 Riot in Cincinnati, . . . 935 

1885 Death of General Gordon in Khartoum, 1889 
Jan. 26, . . . . . 775 

1885 Riel's Rebellion in the northwest, March, 948 1890 
1885 Return of the Tories to power under 

Lord Salisbury, June, . . 776 1890 

1885 German legation in Madrid attacked by 

a mob, Sept. 4, • ■ • • 765 1890 

1885 Pope Leo XIII. decides the affair of the J890 

Caroline Islands in favor of Spain, Sept., 763 1890 

1885 Insurrection in Bulgaria, Sept., . 770 

1885 War between Servia and Bulgaria, Nov. 770 1890 

1885 Conquest of Burmah by England, . 775 

1885 Passage of the inter-state commerce bill, 931 1891 

1885 Mormons disfranchised, . . 931 J891 

1886 Death of Victor Hugo, . . 656 

1886 Ludwig II. of Bavaria, becomes insane, 749 J891 

1886 Expulsion of princes from France, • 760 

1886 Riot in Brooklyn, . . .936 1891 

1886 Completion of Canadian Pacific Rail- 
way, . . • • .948 1891 

1887 War between Italy and Abyssinia be- 1891 
gun, Jan., .... 761 



PAGE 



New military law adopted in Germany, 
March 11, .... 

Scandal on account of shameful traffic in 
decorations in France, 
Crispi becomes prime minister of Italy, 
Aug., ..... 
Riots in Brooklyn and Chicago, 
Trial by jury introduced into Spain, 

Feb. 27, 

Death of Emperor William of Germany, 
March 8, . 

Trial of General Bonlanger in France, 
for insubordination, March 26, 
Overthrow of Tirard's ministry in 
France, March 30, 

Overthrow of Floquet's ministry in 
France, April 19, ... 

Death of Emperor Frederick of Ger- 
many, June 15, ... 
Duel between Boulanger and Floquet, 
July 13, .... 
Local Government Act passed in En- 
gland, Aug. 13, ... 
Suicide of Crown Prince Rudolph of 
Austria, Feb. 5, 7, 

Opening of the Paris Exposition, May 6, 
General Boulanger found guilty of plot- 
ting against the state, Aug. 14, 
Expulsion of Nihilists from Switzer- 
land, ..... 
Treaty between Germany, England and 
United States regarding Samoa 
Pan-American Congress meets in Wash- 
ington ..... 
Revolution in Brazil and overthrow of 
imperial government, 
Resignation of Prince Bismarck as chan- 
cellorof theGerman Empire, March 18, 752, 777 
Heligoland becomes part of Germany 
Aug., .... 
Anti-tithe war in Wales, Aug., 
Revolt at Ticino, Switzerland, Sept. 12. 
Passage of the McKiuley tariff bill 
Sept. 30, ... 
Queen Emma appointed regent of Hoi 
land, Nov. 13, . 
Death of George Bancroft, 
Defeat of Crispi's Ministry in Italy 
Jan. 31, . 

Release of the sequestrated funds of the 
Roman Catholic churches, Feb. 
Murder of eleven Sicillians in New Or- 
leans, March 14, 

Death of Count von Moltke, April 24, 
Beginning of the Trans Siberian rail- 
way, May, .... 



749 

760 

761 
936 

779 

749 

778 

778 

778 

750 

778 

782 

753 

778 

778 
781 
931 
932 
959 



777 
783 
781 

732 

781 
897 

779 

777 

779 

777 

780 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



999 



A. D. 

1891 Renewal of the Triple Alliance for six 

years, June 28, . . 

1891 Settlement of the difficulties between 

England aud Portugal, June, 
1891 Suicide of Boulanger near Brussels, Sep 

30, .... 

1891 Passage of the Sherman silver bill 
1891 United States cruiser Baltimore at 

tacked by a mob in Valparaiso, Oct 

16, .... 

1831 Death of Sir John McDonald, . 

1891 Civil war in Chili, 

1892 Rebellion of Yemen tribes of Arabia 
under Hamid Eddin, Jan., 

1892 Defeat of the Liberals in Denmark 
April 20, ... 

1892 Collapse of the Panama canal project 
May, 

1892 Defeat of Rudini's ministry, May 5, 

1892 Frontier war between Russia and Af- 
ghanistan, 

1892 Openingof canal connecting Amsterdam 
with Rhine provinces of Germany, 

1892 Murder of Italians by a mob in New 
Orleans, . . - . 



PAGE A. T>. PAGE 

1893 Death of Alfred Tennyson, . . 654 

777 1893 Return of liberals to power under 

Gladstone, .... 

779 1893 Adoption of new army bill in Germany, 
1893 Failure of the Barings in London 

778 1893 Behriug Sea disputes settled by arbitra- 

93e tion, .... 783, 948 

1893 Passage of the Home Rule bill by Eng- 
lish House of Commons, 

932 1893 Revolution in Hawaii, 

948 1893 Repeal of the Sherman silver bill, 

958 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, May 1 to Oct. 

30, 

782 1893 Archbishop Satolli sent to America as 

papal legate, . . 
781 1893 Brazilian revolution headed by Ad- 
miral Mello, .... 

778 1894 Prince Bismarck accepts an invitation 

779 to the imperial court 

1894 Gladstone succeeded by Lord Roseberry 

780 as prime minister of England, . 776, 783 
1894 Commercial treaty concluded between 

781 Russia and Germany, . . 777, 780 
1894 Reconciliation between Bismarck and 

932 Emperor William II. . . . 778 



776 

777 
783 



783 
932 
933 

935 

937 

959 

752 



ALPHABETICAL 

AND 

PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Aachen. See Aix la Chapelle. 

-4ar'gau (-gow), 670. 

Aa'rim, 54. 56. 

Ab-bas'i-des, 271. 

Abd'el Ka'der, 660. 

Ab-de'ra, 88. 

Abd'er ra/i'inan, 271. 

Ab'dul A-z'iz', 694, 764. 

Ab'dul Ha'mld II., 764. 

Ab'dul Ke'riin, 764, 765. 

Ab'dul Med-schid', 689, 694. 

Ab'e-lard, 321. 

Ab'er-crom-bie (-krum), General, 593. 

Ab'er-crom-bie (-krum-), General 

James, 831. 
Aberdeen', Lord, 903. 
AboM-kir', Battle at, 589. 
A'bra-Min, 52, 54. 
A'bra-ham, Heights of, 832. 
A-bran'tes, Duke of. See Junot, 604. 
Ab'sa-lom, 60, 62. 
A'bii Bek'r, 267, 268. 
Ab'y-dos, 104. 
Ab'ys-sin'i-a, 688, 761, 772. 
Academy, 110. 

A-ca'di-a, 791, 792, 793, 830, 834. 
Ac'ar-na'ni-a, 76. 
Ac-ca'di-an Races, 37. 
Ac-can', 794. 
Ac-co-mac', 805. 
Ac/i'ae-men'i-des, 73. 
A-cM'ian (-y«n), League, 77, 143, 182. 
A-cAa'ians (-yans), 77, 84, ^6, 87, 179, 

182. 
Ac/iil'les, 83, 131. 
A'cre, 312, 316. 318. 
Ac'ti-iim (slii-). Sea-fight at, 207. 
A-dal'gis, 279. 
Ad'ain, 23. 

Ad'ams, Charles F„ 921. 
Ad'ams, John, 839, 840, 841, 852, 860, 852, 

866, 879. 
Ad'ams, JOftn Quin'cy (-zi), 874, 876, 

880, 882. 
Ad'ams, Sam'u-el, 856. 
Ad'-el-bert, Archbishop of Brem'en, 

296. 
Ad'el-heid, 292. 
Ad'i-ge, 592. 

A-dolf, Fred'er-ick of Swe'den, 548. 
X-dolph' of Nas'sau (saw), 338, 339. 
A-dolph', the Goth, 254. 
A-drarn'me-lec/t, 39. 
A'dria, 709. 

Ale. care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, e 
by; (jell; K=ng; italic letters silent or 



Ad-ri-iin-o'ple, 249, 388, 765. 767. 

Ad-ri-an-o'ple, Peace of, 648. 

Ad'ri-at'ic Sea, 370, 372. 

jEd'u-i (ed'), 200. 

M'g&, 127, 130. 

JE-ge'an Sea, 52, 78, 80, 102, 111, 170, 369. 

jE-gi'na, 76, 96, 101, 106, 111. 

jE'gos-pot'a-nios, 114. 

jE-mll-I-aVi'a, 171. 

jE-ne'as, 83, 147, 150. 

jE'ne-us SH'vi-us, see Silvius Aliens. 

jE-o'li-ans, 82. 

.E'qui, 117, 160, 165. 

iEs'eM-nes, 126, 128. 

jEs'cfty-lus, 123, 124. 

jjysop, 100. 

A-e'ti-us (-Shi), 254, C55. 

jJEt'na, 88. 

jE-tG'H-a, 76, 179, 180. 

Af'fre, Archbishop, 672. 

Af-ghan-Is-tan', 775, 780. 

Af'ri-ca, 23, 48, 184, 244, 252, 254, 270, 641 

742, 759, 772, 773, 777, 779, 941. 
Af-ri-ca'nus, Scip'i-6, 179, 180. 
At-rl-ca'Dus,' the Younger. See Scipio. 

tlie Younger, 184. 
Ag'a-mem'non, 77, 83, 123. 
Ag'as-s'iz, Lou'is, 911. 
A-gath'o-cles, 167. 
A-ges-i-la'us, 119, 120, 121. 125. 
A-gin-courf' (-zhaN), Battle of, 356. 
A'gis II., 142. 
A'gis IV., 142. 

Ag'nesof Augs'biirg (Owgs'), 350. 
A gric'6-la, 226. 
Ag-ri-gen'tum, 168. 
A grip'pa, 207, 210. 
A grip-pi'na, 214, 219, 220. 
A-grip-pi'na, the Younger, 221. 
A'hab, 64, 65. 

A/j'med Fe/i'zy Pasha', 7S2. 
Ah-ii-man', 68. 
Aix-la-"Cha-pelle', 282. 
Aix-la-fha-pelle', Treaty of, 528. 
A-jac'cio (yat'clio), 594. 
A'jax. 83. 

Al-a-ba'ma, 788, 873, 907, 909, 937. 
Al-a-ba'ma River, 878. 
Al-a-ba'ma (vessel), 916, 927. 
A-la'ni, 249. 
Al'a-1'ic, 251, 252, 254. 
AlSs'ka,780, 931, 948. 
Al'bii, Duke of, 424. 441, 442, 444. 
Al'ba Lon'ga, 148, 100, 154. 

nd. her. recent ; ice, ill, pique ; Old, orb, 
obscure. 



Al'bSn-ese, 768. 

Al-ba'ni-a, 390. 

Al-ba'ni-an Mountain, 150. 

Al'ba-ny (awl'), 796, 828, 890. 

Al-be-niarle', 808. 

Al-be-ro'ni, 514. 

Al'bert, Arch-bishop of May-ence' 

(-ons') 405, 406, 409. 
Al'bert, Archduke of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 

713, 717. 
Al'bert, Crown Prince of Sax'o-ny, 728. 
Al'bert of Bran'den-burg, 385, 426. 
Al'bert of Co'burg (-bdorg), 643. 
Al'bert, Prince Consort, 688. 
Al'bert, Prince of Prus'sia (-slia), 749. 
Al'ber-tus Mag'nus, 335. 
Al'brec/it I. of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 339. 
Al'brecftt II. of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 350. 
Al-bi-gen'ses, 319, 332. 351. 
Al'bi-on, Duke of Sax'o-ny, 280. 
Al'boin, 264. 

Al'bO-querque (-kerk), 398. 
Al-cas'sar, 441. 
Al-ca-va'la, 367. 
Al-caz'ar, 272. 
Al-c.es'tis, 123. 
Al'ci-bi'a-des, 113, 114, 116. 
Alc'mae-on'i-dse, 99. 
Al'cuin (-kwin), 282. 
Al'drich (awl'), Thom'Ss Bai'ley, 939. 
Al-e-man'ni, 247, 248, 25S. 
A-lem-berC (-Ion), d', 545. 
A-lep'po, 386. 
A-le'si-a (-shi-), 200. 
Al-es-san'dri-a, 322, 639. 708. 
Al-ex-an'der I. Czar. 594, COO, 602, 604, 

612, 614, 616, 620, 630, 635, 646, 647, 660. 
Al-ex-an'der II., Czar, 691, 695, 696, 700, 

753, 754, 770, 780. 
Al-ex-an'der III., Czar, 747, 764, 771, 780. 
Al-ex-an'der de Med'i-ei (e-clie), 376. 
Al-ex-an'der of Par'nia, 456. 
Al-ex-an'der, Papal Ambassador, 408. 
Al-ex-an'der III., Pope, 321, 322, 359, 368, 
Al-ex-an'der VI., Bor'gia (ja). Pope, 

377, 787. 
Al-ex-an'der Preacher, 246. 
Al-ex-an'der, Prince of Hesse, 716. 
Al-ex-an'der, Prince of Rou-me'li-a, 770. 
Al-ex-an'der Sev-e'rus, 235, 236. 
Al-ex-an'der, the Great, 42, 52, 126, 131, 

132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 115. 
Al-ex-an'dri-a, E'gypt, 52; 132, 136, 141, 

143, 144. 203. 207. 208, 268, 588, 589, 774. 
odd, move; use, urn, up, rude; food, foot; 



(1001) 



100: 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Al-ex-an'dri-a, Vfr-gin'i-a, 830, 874. 

Al-ex-an'dri-ad, 335. 

Al-ex-an'dri-an Age, 145. 

Al-ex'is Com-nS'uus, 304. 

Al-ex-is of Rus'sia (-sha), 524. 

Al-ex-is, R6-iiia'nofJ, 516. 

Al-fi-e'ri, 650. 

Al -foil 'so of Ar'a-gon, 377. 

Al-fon'so X., of Cas-tile', 337, 338, 307. 

Al-fon'so XI., of Cas-tile', 367. 

Al-fon'so I., of Por'tu-gal, 368. 

Al-fon'so XII., of Spain, 762. 763. 

Al-fon'so XIII., of Spain, 763. 

Al-fon'so, Prince of -As-tiir'i-a, 724. 

Al'fred. the Great, 286. 

Al-gi'dus Mountain, 147, 160. 

Al-gzers', 390, 420.660. 

Al'gon'quin, Indians, 792. 

Al-ham'bra. 272. 

A71I, Son-in-law of Mo-ham 'nied, 268. 

it'll, Uncle of Mo-ham'med, 267. 

Al'lan, E'thau, 838. 

Al'lan. Sir Kugh, 947. 

Al'ie-g/ia-ny Mountains, 794, 828. 

Al-lende', Ig-na'ti-o (-the) d', 949. 

Al'li-a, 164, 174. 

Alliance, Holy, 635, 637, 639. 643, 647, 660, 

686. 
All'ston (awl'), Wasli'Ing-ton (wosh'), 

898. 
Al'ma. Battle of the, 691. 
Al-ma'gro, 403. 
AU-nie'i-da, 398. 
Alps', 147, 171, 176, 391, 279, 374, 586. 592, 

698. 
Al-saee'. 378. 412, 426. 477, 512, 576. 730, 

736, 738. 743, 746, 748. 
Al'sen, 705. 
Al'va. 181. 

ATva-rez. General. 950. 
Am-a-de'iis, 725. 761. 
A-ma-dor' of Brazil'. 958. 
A-ma-la-suii'ta, 262. 
Am'a-lek-ites, 56. 
A-nial'fi. 288. 395. 
A-ma'sis, 48, 49. 98. 
Am'ii-zon River, 403, 958. 
Am'brose, 251. 
A-mer'i-ca, 26, 285, 395, 396, 404, 429, 562, 

591. 645. 742, 761. 772. 
A-mer'i-ca. Central. 400, 638, 874, 900. 
A-mer'i-ca, North, 787, 790, 791. 
A-mer'i-can Race, 24. 
A-mer'i-ca, South, 400. 63S, 783, 787, 874, 

953. 
Am'fterst, Colonel, 831, 832, 834. 
A'mi-ens, (-as), Peace of, 592, 593, 

594. 
A in 'mon, 46. 
Am'mon-ites. 56, 58. 
Aui-mo'ni-um. 73. 
A'mor. See Eros. 
Am '6-rite, 56. 
A'mos, 65. 

Ain-phic'ty-on'ic Council. 90, 127, 128. 
Am-phip'O-lis, 88, 112, 125, 128. 
Am'ru, 26S. 
Am'ster-dam, 500, 781, 812. 

A-incrii-us, 150. 



A'mu-ratfr I., 388. 

A'mu-ratA 11., 389. 

Anabaptists, 409, 421, 422. 

A-nac're-on,99, 100, 

A-nam' 759. 

Ancients, Council of, 93. 

An-cG'na, 664, 711, 722. 

Au'cus Miir'cius (-shus), 134, 154, 

156. 
An-da-lii-si'a (-the'), 606. 608. 
An'der-sen, Hans C/ais'tian (-Chan), 

657. 
An'do-ver Seminary, 937. 
An'dras-sy lOn'dra-she), Count 722, 747, 

753, 764. 767, 768. 
An'dre-as II., of Hfra'ga-ry, 314, 382. 
Au'dre-as III., of HiiN'ga-ry, 382. 
An'dre, Jofcu.848. 
An'dros, Sir Ed'mund, 820, 822. 
An'ge-lo. Mi'cftael. See Buonarotti. 
An'ge-lus, Al-ex'i-us, 314. 
An'ge-lus, I'saac, 314. 
AN'gle-land. See England. 
AN'gles, 218, 261. 
AN'gli-can Church. See English 

Church. 
Au'glo Sax'ons, 261, 286- 
An-go'ra. 389. 

An-gos-tii'ra, Congress of, 957. 
An-gc«(-lenie'. d 1 , (don-) Due, 624, (j37, 

Duchess 572, 626, 637. 
A'ni-ti. 147. 

An-jou' (On-z1ioo'), House of, 377. 382. 
An'na, of Rus'sia (-sha), 524. 
An-nap'o-lis, 854, 856. 
Anne AVun-del, 805, 807. 
Anne of Aus'tri-a laws'), 498. 
Anne of Cleves, 432. 
Anne, of En'gland (-ing'), 494. 510. 

.512. 
Ans'gar, Bishop, 286, 379. 
An-t;il'ci-das, 120. 
An'ta-ra, 274. 
An-the'nii-us. 256. 
An'ti Cos'ti, 790. 
An-tfe'tam Creek, 911. 
An-tig'd-nus, 131, 141, 142. 
An-til'les, 762. 
An'ti-oc/i. 143, 268, 306, 318. 
An-ti'o-cftus E-piph'a-nes, 144. 
An-tl'6-cftus III., The Great, 143, 144, 

179, 180. 
An-tip'a-ter, 142. 
An-tis'the-ncs, 145. 
An-tO-nel'li, Cardinal, 748. 
An'to-niue Baths, 235. 
An'to-nines, 223. 
An'to-ni'mis Column. 231. 
An'to-ni'nus. Mar'cus Au-re'li-us (Aw-), 

230, 232, 243. 
An'to-ni'mis, Pi'us, 230. 
An-to'ni-o, 441. 
An-to'ni-us, 202. 

An'to-ny, Marc, 204, 206, 207, 208. 
Au'tO-ny, E gyp'tian (-shan) Hermit, 

331. 
Ant'werp, 378, 442, 444. 661. 795. 
A-pel'les. 127. 
Ap'en-nines, 147, 165, 172. 



Aph'ro-di'te, 77, 79. 

A'pis. 46. 73.- 

A-pol'lo, 76, 78, 79, 90, 92, 127. 

Apostles, 247. 

Apostolic Fathers, 247. 

Ap'pi-an Way. 202. 

Ap'pi-us, Clau'di-us (claw'), 162. 166, 

168. 
Ap'ple-by, J07m F., 933, 941. 
Ap-po-mat'ox Court House, 919. 
A-pu'Ii-a, 173. 288, 324. 
A'quae-Au-re'li-se (aw-), 227. 
A'qua? Sex'ti-a3, 191. 
A-qui-le'ja (-ya). 249, 255. 
A-qui'nas, Thom'as, 334. 
A-rab'i-a, 47, 50, 141, 266, 267, 782. 
A-ra'bi Pa-sha', 774, 775. 
Ar'abs, 52, 104. 266. 267, 268, 271, 272. 284, 

288, 302. 368, 395. 
Ar'a-go, 672. 740. 
Ar'a-gon, 272, 367. 377, 511. 
A-ran'da, Count, 852. 
A-ran'da, Don, 547. 
A-ra'tus. 142. 
Ar-be'la, 134. 
Ar-bO-gast', 249. 
Ar-ca'di-a, 76. 86, 121. 
Ar-ca'di-us, 251. 
Ar-eAi-da'mus, 112. 
Ar-c/iil'6-chus, 100. 
Ar-c/ii-me'des, 145, 174. 
Ar'c/ii-pel'a-go, Gre-cian (shan), 77, 101, 

370, 648. 
Ar'ehons, 96, 97, 114. 
Ar'cis, 624. 
Ar-da-c/ian', 764. 
Ar'de-a, 157. 
A-re-op'a-gfis, 97. 99. 
AVgall. Sam'u-el, 781, 802. 
Ar'gen-tlne Republic, 957, 959. 
Ar'go-lis, 77, 86. 
Ar'go-nauts (-nawts), 82. 
Ai''gos, 70, 77, 82, S3, 87, 96,104, 113. 127, 

167. 
A'ri-ad'ne, 82. 
A'ri'an-Ism, 246, 251, 264. 
A'ri-ans, 246, 262. 
A-ri'on. of Les'bos, 98. 
A-ri-os'to, 377, 462. 
A'ri-o-vis'tus. 200. 
Ar-is-ti'des, 102, 103, 107, 110. 121. 
Ar-is-tip'pus, 146. 
A-ris'to-crats, 113, 114, 120, 142, 566, 

572. 
A-ris'to-de'mus, 95. 
Ar'is-tag'6-ras, 101. 
Ar'is-tom'e-nes, 95. 
Ar-is-toph'a-nes. 124. 
Ar'is-tot-le. 138, 145, 274. 
A'ri-us, 246. 
Ar-i-zo'na, 789, 950. 
Arlian-sas' (-saw'), 864, 90S. 925. 
Ar'Uan-sas' (-saw'). 910. 
Ar'l;an-sas' (-saw'), River, 793, 794. 
Ar-ko'na. 266. 

Ark'!«'is/it. Rich'ard. 514, 741. 
Ar'ling-ton,804. 

Ar-nia'da, Span'ish' 447, 448. 459. 
Ar-magrn-ac' (yak'), Count d', 356. 



Ale, care, am. arm. final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, Odd, move; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING iNDEX. 



1003 



Xr-me'ni-a, 38, 65, 197, 227. 
Ar-ini'das, 800. 

Ar-mour' (-moor') Institute, 938. 
Ar-naud' (-no'). Marshal Saint, 680, 690, 

691. 
Anitft, 601. 646, 650. 
Ar'nim, Bet-ti'na von, 739. 
Ar'nim, Count Har'ry von, 746. 
Ar'nold, Ben'e-dict, 840, 841, 846, 848, 850, 

942. 
Ar'nold, Mat'thew, (Math'yti), 124, 655. 
Ar'nold of Bres'ci-a, (Bresh'e-a), 321. 
Ar'nold, von Wink'el-ried (-ret), 344. 
Ar'nulf of Ba-va'ri-a, 284. 
Ar'pad, House of, 382. 
Ar'ta-pher'nes, 101, 102. 
Ar'tax-erx'es, 66, 118, 235. 
Ar'te-mis, 78, 79, 83, 87. 
Ar'te-mis'i-um, 106. 
Ar'thur, Ches'ter A., 929. 
Ar'thur, King, 261. 
Articles, Six, 430. 
Ar-tois' (-twa), Count d', 562, 596, 624, 

626, 628, 637. 
Ar'yans, 32, 33. 
As'ca-I6n, 308. 
A'sen,218. 

Ash-all-tees', 772, 773. 
Asli'dod, 38. 
Ash'ley River, 852. 
A'si-a (-shi-), 23. 29, 38, 39, 68, 180, 390. 
A'si-a (Shi-) Mi'nor, 52, 120, 131, 143, 194, 

268, 388, 768. 
AS-pa'si-a (-shi-), 111. 
As'pern and Ess'ling, Battle of, 609. 
As-prO-monte', 713. 
Assassins, 318. 
As'sur, 37. 

As'sur-ban'i-pal, ''9,41, 48. 
As'sur-ha'don I., 39, 
As'sur-ha'don II., (Sar-da-ua-pa'lus), 41. 
As-syr'i-a, 37, 41, 65. 
As-tar'te, 51. 
As'tor, John Ja'cob, 894. 
As-tra-kftan', 385. 
As-tii'ri-a, Prince of, 724. 
As-tii'ri-as, 272. 
AS-ty'a-ges, 68, 70. 
A'sy'ine-tes, 97. 
A-ta-lmal'pa (-liwal'), 403. 
At-chin', Sultan of, 754. 
Ath'a-li'a/i, 64, 65. 
Ath'a-na'si-us, 246, 247. 
Ath'aulf (-owlf). See Adolph. 
A-the'ne, Pal'las, 99, 110, 111. 
Ath'ens, 76, 81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 96, 99, 

101, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 

119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 130. 131, 142. 

145, 150, 161, 183, 192, 194, 198, 314, 375, 

695. 
Ath'os, 101, 104. 
At'lan-ta, 919. 
At'lan-ta, (vessel), 915. 
At-lan'tic Magazine, 939. 
At'ti-ca, 76, 81, 82, 86, 102, 105, 107, 112. 
At'ti-cus, P6m-po'ni-us, 212. 
At'ffl-a. 255, 336. 
Attys, 70. 
Au'er-bach (0\V), Ber'tftold, 739. 



Au'er-sperg (On"), Prince, 600, 722, 753. 

Augereau (Ozh-ro'), 583, 622. 

Augs'biirg (Owgs'), 406, 407, 424, 425, 
472, 716; Confession, 413; Diet, 413, 
414, 420, 421; Interim, 425; Peace, 
466, 477. 

Au'gust (aw') II. See Augustus III., 
Frederick. 

Au-gus'ten-berg (aw-), Duke of, 677. 

Au'gus-tine (a\V) Benedicitine Monk, 
261. 

Au'gus-tine (aw'), Bishop of Hippo, 
246, 247, 427. 

Au'gus-tine (aw'), Saint, 788, 789, 808. 

Au-gus'tus (aw-), Cae'sar, 181, 206, 207, 
208, 210, 211, 212, 214, 216, 219, 222. 

Au-gus'tus (aw-) II., Fred'er-ick, 518, 
519, 520, 524, 526. 

Au-gus'tus (aw-) III., Fred'er-ick, 524, 
528, 551. 

Au-gus'tus (aw-) IV., Fred'er-ick, 602. 

Au'lis (aw'), 83. 

Au-niale' (do-), Due d'. 756. 

Au-re'li-fin (aw-) 236, 238. 

Au-re'Ii-fis (aw-), Marcus. See Anto- 
ninus. 

Au-so'ni-us (aw-), 249. 

Aus'ter-litz (aws-), 598, 600, 601, 603. 

Aus'tin (aws'-), Ann, 819. 

Aus'tin(aws'-),Ste'phen, (-v'n),864,876. 

Aus-tra'li-a (aws'), 644, 742, 783. 

Aus-tra'si-a (aws-) (-shi-), 260, 261. 

Aus'tri-a, (aws'-), 321, 426, 44S, 503, 534, 
537, 552, 565, 582, 583, 585, 592, 598, 6"0, 
603, 609, 614, 620, 622, 628, 630, 636, 645, 
668, 676, 678, 679, 680, 6S6, 688, 691, 700, 
701, 702, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708. 709, 713, 
714, 716, 717, 718, 720, 721, 722, 744, 747, 
748, 752, 753, 763, 764, 768, 776, 777, 779. 

Aus'tri-a (aws'-) Hun'gar-y, 722, 753. 

Aus'tri-an (aws'-), Warof Succesion,526. 

Au'try (do'tri) d\ 794. 

Au'to (aw') da fe, 368. 

Au-tun' (5-), 199. 

Au-tun (0-), Bishop of, 563. 

A-vars', 280, 284. 

A-ver'ro-es, 274. 

Av-i-cen'na, 274. 

A-vig-non' (-ven-yoN'), 340, 314, 376, 565, 
637. 

Av'ron, Mt., 732. 

Ax'el, Arch-bishop, 380. 

Ay'e-sha, 267. 

A-zof , Sea of, 692. 

A-zores', 396. 

Ba'al, 42, 51, 64, 234. 

Ba'bel, 23. 

Ba-beiif, Grac'cftus, 583. 

Bab'ing-ton, 458. 

Bflb'y-lOll, 37, 42, 65, 66, 70, 74, 134, 140, 

141, 227. 
BSb-y-lon'i-a, 37, 38, 39, 42, 70, 141. 
BSb-y-lun'i-an Captivity, 340. 
Bac'cftae, 80. 
Bac'cfta-na'li-a, 80. 
Bac'cAus, 80, 81, 190. 
Bac-cio'c/ii (bat-cho') fi-1'i'sa, 594, 597, 



Bac/t, Se-bas'tian (-chan), 538. 

Ba'cou, Lord, 479. 

Ba'con, Na-than'i-el, 804, 805, 807, 808. 

Bac'tri-a, 136. 

Ba'den, 412, 599, 600, 622, 665, 673, 676, 679, 

718, 726, 730, 732. 
Ba'den-Ba'den. 227, 702. 
Bag-dad', 268, 271, 386, 389. 
Ba-gis'tan, 74. 

Ba-gra'tion (-shun), General, 600,614. 
Ba-ha'mas, 808. 
Baft-i'a, 916. 958, 959. 
Ba«'ly, 560, 561, 572. 
Biiin'bridge. Captain, 868. 
Baj-a-zet', 388, 389. 
BiL'ker, Sir Sam'u-el, 742. 
Ba-ku'nin, 741. 
Bal'a-kla-va, 691. 
Bal-bo'a, 402. 
Bal'ca, 386. 
Bal'der (bawl'), 218. 
Bald'win (bawld'), of Flan'ders, 306. 

308, 314. 
Bald'win (bawld'), Rob'ert, 944, 946. 
Bal-e-ar'ic Islands, 254, 723. 
Bal'fofir, 783. 
Ba'li-ol, Joftn, 362. 
Ball's (bawls) Bluff, Battle of, 908. 
Bal'ma-ce-da, 932, 958. 
Bal'tic (bawl'), 50, 380, 426, 518, 520, 593, 

604, 619, 677. 
Bal'ti-morel (bawl'), City, 807, 842, 874, 

890, 891, 907, 911, 939. 
Bal'ti-more (bawl), Lord, 803, 805. 806, 807. 
Bam' biirg, 294, 634. 
BaN'croft, George, 893, 894,897. 
BfiN'croft, Hu'bert Howe, 940. 
Ba-nar', 477. 

Banks, General, 910, 911, 912. 
Bap'tlsts, 818, 823, 891. 
Bap'tists, Free Will, 891. 
Bar-ba'does, 808, 819. 
Barbarians, 89. 
Bar-ba-rora', 564, 571. 
Bar'ba-ry, 854. 
Bar-ce-10'na, 254, 279, 511, 512, 639. 761, 

779. 
Bar'clai/ de Tol-ly' (-le), General, 614, 

616, 622. 
Bar, Confederation of, 551. 
Bard, Fort, 592. 
BSi'e'bOnes, Praise God, 490. 
Ba-rere, 578. 
Ba'ring, 783. 
Bar'loju, 800. 
Bar'nard, Hen'ry, 892. 
Bar-nave' 572. 
Bar-ne'veld, Ol'den, 448. 
Bai'-riis', 580. 

Bar-re', Colonel I'saae, 835. 
Bar-ror. O'dil-dN, 659. * 

BartA, of Ham'burg, 742. 
Bar-thol'o-mew (-rau), Massacre of 

Saint, 438, 452. 
Ba-san-tel'lo, 292. 
Ba'se-dflto, 540. 
Ba'sel. 349. 414, 576, 760. 
Bas-a-lis'cus, 256. 
Ba-sil'i-us, 265. 



use, urn, up, riide; food, foot; by; cell; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1004 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Bisques (basks), 865, 761, 790. 

Bas'ra, 268. 

Bas-ti-aC, 141. 

Bas-tile', 561, 562. 

Ba-ta'vi-a, 418, 576. 

Ba-ta'vi-ans, 224. 

Bath'Mrst, Lord, 944. 

Bat'on Kouge (roozli), 910. 

Ba-toiim', 767. 

Bat'ten-berg, Prince of, 770. 

Baut'zen (bowt'sen), 620. 

Ba-va'ri-a, 276, 284, 296, 319, 321, 323, 348, 

426, 472, 474, 477, 511, 528, 535, 537, 546, 

599, 600, 609, 622, 675, 679, 716, 71S, 726, 

732, 744, 749, 752. 
Ba-va'ri-a, Elector of, 510, 511, 513. 
Bay'ard, Chevalier, 418. 
Bay'ard, TAom'as F., 929. 
Baj/le, 507. 
Ba-zaine', Marshal, 727, 72S, 730, 756, 757i 

766. 951. 
Beac'ons-field, Lord, 767, 775. 
Bja'ton, Cardinal, 428. 
Beau-/!ar-na/s' (bo-), Vicomte de, 576, 5S0 # * 
Beau-Mr-mus' (bo-), .Eu'gene, 594, 598, 

622. 
Beau-ftar-nfus' (bo-), JJor-teuse' (-taNs') 

594. 
Beau-Heu' (bo-), 582. 
Beau'rg-gard (bo'), General, 908, 909. 
Bea'ver Dams, 870. 
Beck'er, Os'car, 703. 
Beek'et, Tftom'as a, 359, 360. 
" Bed of Justice," 556, 558. 
Bed'-ou-In Tribes, 270. 
Beech'er, Hen'ry Ward (wawrd), 921, 

940. 
Bee'tftO-ven, 658. 
BeA'iing Sea, 931. 
Bel-forr', 730, 734, 736, 737. 
Bel'gi-an Revolution, 661, 662. 
Bel'gi-um. 200, 448, 537, 549, 568, 576, 582, 

628, 658, 660. 661, 662, 725, 754, 780. 
Bel-'grade', 304, 383, 390, 503, 526, 770 
Bel-i-sa'rl-us, 262. 
Bel'&nap, Wil'liam (yam) W., 928. 
Bell. Al-ex-an'der Gra'ftam, 741, 941. 
Bell'a-mont, RIeli'ard Coote, 826. 
Belle-Isle', 528. 
Belle Isle', Straits of, 790. 
Bel-ler'o-phon, 632. 
Bell, Joftn, 906. 
Bell, Pat'rick, 888. 
Bel-shaz'zar, 70. 
Be'mis Heights, 846. 
Ben'der, 520. 522. 551. 
Be'ne-dek, 713, 714, 716. 
Be-ue-det't'i, 725. 
Ben-e-dic'tiue Monks, 379. 
Ben'e-dict of Nur'sl-a, 331. 
Ben'e-dict, Order of Saint, 332. 
Ben'e-dict VIII., Pope, 294. 
Ben'e-dict XII., Pope, 342. 
Ben-e-ven'tum, 166, 328. 
Ben'ftam, Admiral, 959. 
Ben'ja-mln, 58, 64. 
Ben'nett, James Gor'don, 898. 
Beu-nig'sen, 6"2, 622, 746. 
Ben'ning-ton, 846. 



Ben'tou TAom'as H., 880. 

Be-ran-ger' (roN-zha'), 638, 656, 685. 

BercA't/iold, Count, 288. 

Ber-en-gar',292. 

Ber'es-ford, Lord, 639. 

Ber-e-si'na (-ze') River, 618. 

Berg, Castle, 749. 

Berg, Dukedom, 466. 

Berg, General, 698. 

Berke'Iey, Sir Wil'liam (-yam), 803, 804 

805, 828. 
Ber'lin, 525, 534, 602, 620, 658, 668, 670, 678, 

679, 721, 738, 743, 744, 750, 752, 768, 770, 

777, 778. 
Ber'lin, Congress of, 767, 768. 
Ber'lin Decree, 685, 866. 
Ber'lin, University of, 612. 
Ber-na-dotte', Marshall, 583,599, 604, 614, 

622. 
Ber'nard of An'halt, 323. 
Ber'nard of Clah'vaux (vo), 308, 310, 

334. 
Bern, Due de, 624, 637. 
Berne, 339, 378, 414, 584, 671, 760, 781. 
Bern'hard (hart) of Wei'mer, 474, 476, 

477. 
Bern'storff. Count, 548. 
Bern'ward, Bishop, 294. 
Ber'ri, Due de, 665. 
Ber'ri, Duchess de, 665. 
Ber'thaof Sa-voy', 296. 
Ber-tfti-ec', 584, 625, 634. 
Ber-tftold', Archbishop. 350. 
Bes-sa-ra'bi-a, 767. 
Bes si-eres', 606. 
Bes'sus, 136. 
Beth'le-hera, 316. 

Beust (boist). Count, 718, 722, 752, 753. 
Beuve, Saint, 655. 
Bex-tu-scheff', 532. 
Bi-an'cW, 375. 
Big Horn, 938. 
Bi-lox'i Bay. 795. 
Bis'marck, Prince Ot'to von, 704, 713, 

714, 716, 730, 734, 736, 744. 746, 747, 748, 

749, 750, 752, 763, 764, 767, 768, 777, 783, 

784. 
Bith-yn'i-a, 227, 388. 
Bi'ton, 70. 

Bjorn'son, (B'yorn-), 657, 781. 
Black Death, 335, 343. 
Black Forest, 600. 
Black Hawk, 878. 
Black, Jer-e-ini'aA S., 907. 
Black Sea, 82, 192, 211. 
Blaine, James G. 929, 931. 
Blarr, Francis, P.. 898, 
BlSi'i', of Vir-gin'i-a (ver-), 805. 
Blake, Admiral. 490. 
Blanc, (BloK) Lou is', 672. 
Bland, Silver Bill. 829. 
Blen'fteim, Battle of. 511. 
Blois, (Bl\va),454, 624. 
Birm-del', 312. 

Blu'cfter, 602, 620, 622,623. 630, 632. 
"Blues," 261. 

Blum (Bloom). Rob'ert, 677. 
Bliintseh'lT, 740. 
Bo-ba-del'la, (-ya), 400. 



Boc-cac'cio, (bat'cho) 336. 

Boc'c/ius, 190. 

Bo'cAar, 386. 

Bo'den-stedt, Franz (frants), 739. 

Boe/zm-Ba-wertz' (vertz'),.741. 

Bo-e'mund, 288. 

Boe-o'ti-a, (-shi-), 76, 80, 81, 82, 86, 104 
119, 120, 192. 

Bo-e'thi-us, 258, 286. 

Bo-he'mi-a, 296, 341, 343, 348, 350, 424, 426, 
466, 467, 472, 474, 477, 702, 714, 716, 753. 

Boi-leau' (bwa-lo'K 507. 

Bois'sy, (bwa') d'AN'glas. 580. 

Bok'OId, 421. 

Bol'eyn, (bool'), Anne, 430, 432. 434. 

Bol'ing-broke, (brook), 512. 

BOl'i-var, Si'mon, 638, 953, 956, 957. 

Bo-liv'i-fl, 956. 

Bo-losrn'a (ya), 326, 377, 425, 664, 709. 

Bo-mar'sund, 690. 

Bom-bii?/', 36. 

Bo-na-parte', Car'lo, 594. 

Bo-na-parte', Jer'ome, 594, 601, 603, 729. 

Bo-na-parte', JO'seph, 594, 601, 605, 606, 
608, 638, 953. 

Bo-na-parte', Lofl-is', 594. 

B0-na-parte', Lu'cian (-shan), 5S9, 594. 

Bo-na-parte', Na-po'le-on I., 573, 580, 582, 
583, 585, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 
595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 
601, 606, 608, 609, 610, 612, 614, 616, 618, 
619, 620, 622, 623, 625, 626, 630, 632, 634, 
635, 750, 862, 1:64, 866, 868, 872, 894. 949, 
951, 953, 954, 958. 

Bo'na-par-tists, 637. 

Bo-na-ven-tii'ra, 334. 

Bon'I-face VIII., 339. 

Bon'i-face, Wm'fred, 275. 

Bon-i-fae'i-us, 254, 255. 

Boone, Dan'iel (-yel), 866. 

Booth, Jo/m Wilkes, 923. 

Bor'a, Cath'er-Ine von, 412. 

Bor-deaux (-do'), 573, 730. 734, 737. 

Bor-deaux (do'), Due de, 624. 

Bor-gAe'se, Pau-line' (paw-), 594. 

Bor'gi'a, Cae'sar. 377. 

Bor'gifi, Lu-cre'zi-a (166-krat'se-), 377. 

Bor'ue (ber'), Lud'wig (liit'veg), 738. 

Bor-O-dl-nO, Battle of, 616. 

B6s'nl-a, 265, 763, 767, 768. 

Bus-sue*', 507. 

Bos'ton, 805, 820, 821, 831, 836, 837, 838, 
840, 890, 892, 893, 904. 

Bos'worth (-wurth), 364. 

Both/well, Earl of, 458. 

Boii-ille' (-ya'). General, 564. 

Boii-lan ger', (-loN-zha'), General, 759, 

m. 

Boii-lot?ne', 599. 

Boiir-ba'k'i, 734 

Boiir'bon, Constable, 418. 

Boiir'bons, 450, 454, 546, 591, 601, 603, 624, 

626, 628, 632, 637, 659, 665, 757, 953. 
Boiir-geoi-sie' (-zhwa-ze'), 290. 
Boiir-get' (zha'), 657. 
Boiirke, 776. 
Bo-vines', 360. 
B"td'do('n, Governor, 854. 
Boyj'en, Frau'cis, 940. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1005 



Boyne, Battle of the, 494. 
Bra-bant', 378, 379, 661. 
Brad'dock, General, 830, 831. 
Brad'ford, Wil'liam (yam), Phil-a-del'- 

phi-a, 824. 
Brad'ford, Wil'liam (yam), Ply'moiith, 

812,814. 
Brad'street, General, 831. 
Bra-gan'za, House of, 441, 604, 723, 958. 
Bragg, General, 910, 913, 914. 
Bra/i'ma, 34. 
Bra/i'mans, 33, 34, 35. 
Bran'den-burg, 280, 342, 344, 348, 422, 427, 

477, 502, 532, 534, 536, 678. 
Brandt, Se-bas'tian (Chan), 462, 548. 
Bran'dy-wme Creek, 844. 
Bras'i-das. 112. 
Brat'tle, ThOm'&s, 821. 
Bra'vo, Gon-za'-lez (-tha'leth), 723. 
Bra-zH', 398, 604, 639, 640, 787, 958, 959. 
Bre'a, General, 672. 
Breck'in-ridge, Joftn C, 906. 
Brem'en, 294, 427, 477, 602, 612, 748. 
Bren'nus, 164. 
Bren-ta'no, 650. 
Bres'ci-a (bresh'), 372. 
Bres'lau (-low), 386, 619, 746. 
Bret'ons (brit'uns), 790. 
Breiix, Battle of, 450. 
Bri-bac'te, 199. 

Bridge' wa-ter (-waw-), Battle of, 872. 
Briel, 444. 

Bri-enne', Lf>-me-me' de, 558. 
Briggs, Charles A., 940. 
Bri^ftt, Jo/in, 921. 
Bris-soN', 759. 
Bris-sot', 564. 
Brit'am. Great, 200, 222,226, 239, 244, 261, 

783, 788. 
Bri-tan'i-cus, 221. 
Brit'ons, 220. 226, 234, 261. 
Brit'ta-ny. 261, 359, 571, 573, 791. 
Broc-te'ri. 212. 

Bro'glie (-ye), Due de, 756, 757, 758. 
Brooklyn, 935. 
Bron'te, Char'loHe, 655. 
Broiiff/i'am, 642. 
Brown, B. Gratz, 927. 
Browne, General, 872. 
Browne, Sam'u-el, 816. 
Brown, George, 947. 
Brown'ing, Rob'iirt. 654. 
Brown, Jo/in, 816, 906. 
Brown'son O-res'tes, 892. 
Bruce, Eob'iirt, 362. 
Bru'ges. 379. 
Bru'le, Ste'phen, 793. 
Brun-du'si-uin, 202. 
Brfine. Marshal, 584, 637. 
Bru-nftilde', 260. 
Brii'no, 292. 

Bruns'wick, 323. 532, 603, 665, 749. 
Bruns'wick, Duke of, 568, 602, 622. 
Brus'sels, 378, 426, 442, 444, 549, 661, 738, 

784. 
Brii'tus, Mar'cus Jun'i-us (-yus), 157, 

158, 159, 204, 206, 207. 
Bry'cmt, Wil'liam (yam) Cull'en, 896, 

897, 898. 



Bryn Mawr (brun-mowr'), 937. 

Bu-cen'to-ro, 372. 

Bu-ceph'a-la, 138. 

Buc/i-an'an, James, 906, 907, 923. 

Bu-cfta-rest', 694. 

Buck'ing-ftam, Duke of, 479, 480, 481. 

Bii'da, 383, 390. 

Bud'd/(a(b66d'), 34. 

Bu'ell, General, 909, 910. 

Bue'na Vis'ta, 876, 903. 

Bue'nos Ay'res (bo'nus A'riz), 953, 958. 

Buf'fa-lo, 903. 

Buffalo Seminary, 892. 

Bul-ga'ri-a (bool), 764, 765, 767,770,782, 

787. 
Bull (bool) Run, Battle of, 908, 911. 
Bu'loio, 623. 
Bunk'er Hill, 838. 
Bun'sen (boon), Baron yon, 740. 
Bun'sen (boon'), Chemist, 740. 
Bii-o'nar-rot'ti, Mi'cftael Au'ge-lo(-ja-), 

376, 464. 
Bur-goyne', General, 844, 846, 942. 
Bur'gun-dy, 216, 251, 252, 255, 258, 260, 

282, 292, 294, 356, 359, 378, 379, 418, 

419. 
Burke, Ed'mund, 508. 
Bur'leiff/j, Lord, 457, 459. 
Bflr'maft, 775. 
Burn'side, General, 911. 
Burns, Rob'ert, 652. 
Burr, Aar'on, 862, 878, 879, 880, 882, 900. 
Bii-sen'to River, 254. 
Bush'nell (boosh'), Hor'ace, 940. 
Bu-si'ris, 44. 
But'ler, General Ben'ja-min, 910, 912, 

914, 916, 918. 
But'ler, General W. F., 474. 
Bux'ton, 642. 

By'ron, Lord, 647, 652, 654. 
By-zan'ti-iim, 88, 107, 118, 243, 244. 
Ca-bal', 492, 512. 
Ca'ble, George W., 939. 
Cab'ot, John, 402, 788. 
Cab'ot, Se-bas'tian (-chan), 402, 788, 790, 

799. 
Ca-bral', 398, 958. 
C'a-bre'ra, 723. 
Cft-die', la, see Acadia. 
Ca'diz, 50, 367, 608, 638, 639, 724, 761, 954. 
Cad'mfis, 81. 

Ca-doii-dal', George, 596, 597. 
Ca'en, £m'e-ry de, 792. 
Cse're, 148. 
fae'sar, Ca'ius (yus) Ju'li-us, 198, 206, 

210. 
Cai'ro (Egypt), 268, 316, 588, 589, 593, 774. 
Cair'o (Illinois), 909. • 
Cai-vo'li. 761. 
Caj'e-tan, 406, 407. 
Ca-la'bri-a, 288, 630. 
Cii-lais', 352, 354, 356, 359. 
Cal-out'ta, 396. 
Cal-de-roN', 464. 
Calhoun', Joftn C., 880,884, 899, 900, 901, 

902, 903, 904. 

Cal-i-for'ni-a. 403, 787, 789, 864, 876, 890; 

903, 904, 937, 950. 
ca-lig'u-la, 220. 



Ca-lix'tus (-toos) II., Pope. 300. 
Cal-le'ja (-ya'ya), 949. 
Cal-lis'the-nes, 138.. 
Cal'mor, Union of, 380, 436. 
Ca-lonne', 557. 
Cal'vert, Ce-Qil'i-us, 806. 
Cal'vert, Sir George, 806. 
Cal'vin-ism, 426, 427, 428, 429, 444, 450, 

454, 456, 477, 496, 508, 549. 
Cal'vin-ists, Old, 890. 
Cal'vin, Joftu, 426, 428, 429, 435, 486. 
Co-ma-ril'la (-ya), 638, 723. 
Cam-ba-ce-res' (kou-), 591. 
Cam-braJ/' (kon-), 372, 419. 
Cam'bridge, Massachusetts, 817,818,821. 
Cam'bridge, University, 815, 818. 
Cam-bronne' (kon-), Gen., 632. 
Cam-by'ses, 49, 72, 73, 74. 
Cam'den, Battle of, 849. 
Cfnn'den, Lord, 835. 
Ca-inil'lus, 162, 164. 
Cam'o-ens, 464. 
Cam-pan'ia (-ya), 147, 174. 
Canip'oell, Al-ex-an'der, 891. 
Camp'6ell-Ites, 891. 
Camp'oell, Sir Co'lin, 946, 
Cititip'oell, TAom'as, 652. 
Cam 'pe, 540. 

Cam-pe-a-dor', (-thur')i see Cid. 
Cam'pi-0 For'mi-o, Peace of, 582. 
Cam'pOs, General, 762. 
Ca'naan, 52, 56, 65. 
Can'a-da, 534, 641, 644, 792, 794, 821, 826 

828, 834, 837, 844, 846, 852, 868, 872, 874^ 

931,941,942. 
Ca-na'di-an, Pa-cif'ic Railroad, 9)7, 948. 
Ca-na'ry, Islands, 398, 723. 
Can'di-a, 695. 
Can'nse, 174,648. 
Cannes, 757. 

Can'ning, George, 647,874, 
Ca-no'pus, 593. 
Ca-nos'sa, 298. 
Ca-no'va, 658. 
Can-o'vas del Cas-til'lo (-yo), 762, 763, 

779. 
Can-ro-bert' (koN-ro-bar'), General, 691, 

692, 708. 
Can'ter bur-y (-ber-), 261, 360. 
Canute' II., of Den'mark, 286, 294, 379. 
Ca-nute VI., of Den'mark, 380. 
Cape Cod, 796, 814. 
Cape de Verde Islands, 787. 
Cape Town, 773. 
Ca-pis-tra'nd. 390. 
Cap'I-to-IIne Hill, 150. 
Cap-i-to-Ii'nus, 164. 
Cap-i-to-li'na. Al'i-a, 224. 
Ca-pit'u-la-ries, 282. 
Cap-pel', Battle of, 414. 
Ca-pre'ra, 707. 
Ca'pr'i, 220. 

Ca-pri'vi, General, 711, 752, 757. 
Cap'u-a, 165, 174, 176, 196, 711. 
Car-a-cal'la, 234. 
Ca-rii'cas, 956. 

Ca-rac'cio-li (rat'cho), Prince, 586. 
Car'a-van, 29. 
Car-bo-na'ri, 638, 639. 



use, urn, up, riide ; t'OOd, foot ; by; cell ; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



looe 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Car e-ma'ni-a, 633. 

Ca'rey, Hen'ry Charles, 940. 

Ca-rifl'ii-a'no (-ya'), Prince of, 639. 

Car-in'thi-a, 190, 466. 

Carl. Archduke, 609. 

Carl, Duke of Bruns'wick, 663. 

Carl, Elector, 504 

Carle'ton, Sir Guy, 942. 

Car'lings, See Karlings. 

Car -lisle', 938. 

Carl'ists, 665, 722, 723, 724, 762. 

Carl VI., of Aus'tri-a (aws'),510, 512, 513. 

Carl, of Ba'den, 601. 

Carl X., of Svve'den. 478. 

Carl XIII., of Svve'den, 604. 

Carl XIV., of Svve'den, 604. 

Carl'o-man, See Kallmann. 

Car'los, Don, 441, 664, 665, 724, 761, 762. 

Car'lo-witz (-vitz), Treaty of, 504. 

Carl, Prince of Rou-ma'ni-a. 764. 

Carls'bad (-bat) Decrees, 646. 

Carl'staett, An'dre-as Rii'rtolph, 407, 409. 

Carl T/ie'o-dor, of Ba-va'ri-a, 537. 

Car-lyle', Tftom'as, 654, 894. 

Car-niasn-o'la (-y<V), General, 374. 

Car'mel, Mount, 64. 

Car'o-line, Fort, 788. 

Car'o-line, Islands, 763. 

Car'o-line Ma-tftil'da, of Den'mark, 547, 

548. 
Car'o-line, of Bruns'wick, 642. 
Car-nof, Sadi, 760, 778. 
Car-nut', the Elder, 576, 634, 730. 
Car-pa'thi-an Mountains, 265. 
Car-ras'co, 953. 
Car-ras-co'sa, 639. 
Car'stens, 657, 658. 
Car'ter-Browne Library, 938. 
Car'ter-et, Sir George, 828. 
Car'ter, James C, 892. 
Car'thage (-thij), 51, 52, 166, 167, 168, 171, 

174, 178, 179, 183, 194, 254. 
Car-tha ge'na, 761, 762. 
Car-thu'sian (zh«n) Monks, 332. 
Car-ci-er', Jacques (zhak), 790, 791. 
Ca'rus ( roos), 239. 
Car'ver, Jo/in, 814. 
Ca'sas, Las, 788. 
Cas'i-nur II., of PO'land, 38*. 
Casl-ro'ir III., of Poland, 384. 
Cas'I-mir-Pe-ri-er', 659. 
Cas'pi an Sea, 70. 
Cas-sa'no, 326, 585. 
Cas'sel, 603, 729. 
Ciis'si, 37. 

Cas'sia (kash'ya), 199- 
Cas-si'no, Mon'te (-ti), 331. 
Cas-si-o-do'rus, 258. 
Cass'i-us (kash'), Ca'ius (-yus). 206. 
Cass'I-us (kash'), Spu'ri-us, 161. 
Cass, Levv'is (loo'!, 907. 
Caste, 26, 30, 31, 33. 
Cas-te-lar', 761, 762. 
Cas-tij/l-io'ne (-y<V), Battle at, 582. 
Castile', 272, 367, 368, 511, 512. 
Cas-til'lo (-yo), See Canovas. 
Castle-reagh', 642. 
Cas'tor, 82. 
Cat'a-com&s, 244. 



Cat-a-10'ni-a, 511, 723. 

Ca-ta'ni-a, 713. 

Cath'a-rine of Ar'a-gon. 430, 432. 

Cath'a-rine, of Na'ples, 584. 

Cath'a-rine I., of Rus'sia (sha), 520, 524. 

Cath'a-rine II. of Rus'sia (sha), 534, 545, 

549, 550, 551, 552, 554, 688. 
Cath'er-ine de Me'di-ci (che), 450. 
Catholic Church, Ro'raan, 246, 247,276, 

282, 412, 421, 430, 437, 438. 
Catholic League, 447, 454, 456,466. 
Cath'o-lics, Ro'mmi, 255, 258, 426, 436, 

447, 450, 452, 467, 470, 480, 549, 644, 828, 

891, 892, 937, 944. 
Cat'i-line, 198. 
Cat'i-na, 88. 

Ca'to, Mar'cus P6r'ci-us (-shi-), 183, 185. 
Ca'to, Mar'cus Por'ci-us (-shi-), the 

Younger. 199, 204, 207. 
Ca-tul'Jus, 211. 

Ca'tu-lus Lfi-ta'ti-us (-shi-). 170, 191. 
Cau-ca'sians, (cavv-ca'shnns), 24. 
Cau'ca-sus (caw'), 104, 197, 385. 
Cau'd'ine (caw') Passes, 165, 166. 
Ca-vae'firn-ac' (-yak'), General, 672. 
Cav'en-dish, Lord, 776. 
Ca-voiir', Ca-mil'Io, 707, 712, 760, 779, 

784. 
Cawn-pore', 687. 
Ce'crops, 81. 
Qelts, 199, 218, 261, 265. 
fe-ni's', M0N«, 760. 
fen'taurs, (-tawrs), 80. 
Century Magazine, 939. 
Cer'o-sus, 88. 
fe'res, 52, 76, 81. 
ger'ro Gor'do, 876. 
tjer-van'tes, 462, 164, 648. 
Ce-tewa'yo (-cluva'), 773. 
pg-vennes' Mountains, 508. 
gey-Ion', 36, 398, 775. 
Chaer-o-ne'a (ker-), 76, 130, 142. 
C/ial'cis, 78. 

Cftal-dse'a,37, 41, 42, 65, 243. 
Chal-ONS', 255, 723, 727, 728. 
Cham'bers-burg, 972. 
Cham bord' (shoN-), Count de, 624, 665, 

685,757,761. 
Cham pagn'e (slioN-pau'ye), 568, 623- 
Cham-pi on neC (shoN-), 584. 
gham plain', Lake, 792, 831. 
gham-plain', Sfim'u-el, 791, 792, 793, 872. 
Champs (sIion) de Mai, Festival, 628. 
Chan'cel-lors-ville, Battle of, 912. 
Chand'ler, JO'seph R., 898. 
Chan'ning, 642. 

Chan-zy' (shou-ze') General. 736. 
Cha-pul'te-pec, 879. 
Cliar'le-mSffne, see Karl the Great. 
Charles, see Karl. 

Charles Al'bert, of Sar-din'i-a, 668, 676. 
Charles Ed'ward, 516. 
Charles fid'ward, the Pretender, 514. 
Charles Em-an'u-ellV., 580. 
Charles Fe'lix, 639. 
Charles of An-jou' (oN-zhii'), 326, 329, 

330, 377. 
Charles I., of En'gland, (ing'), 480, 481, 

484, 486, 488, 492, 792, 802, 803, 804. 



Charles II.. of En'gland (ing'), 488. 490, 

492, 493, 510, 516, 804, 805, 807, 820, 822. 
Charles VI., of France, 356. 
Charles VII., of France, 356, 358, 359. 
Charles VIII., of France, 359, 377. 
Charles IX., of France, 450, 452. 
Charles X., of France, 624, 637, 659, 660, 

757. 
Charles V., of Ger'ma-ny, 318, 374, 376, 

379, 403, 408, 415, 416, 419, 420, 423, 424, 

426, 429, 441. 
Charles VII., of Ger'ma-ny, 528. 
Charles of Lor-rat'ne', 285, 503. 
Charles of Na'ples and Sic'il-y, 318, 514. 
Charles III., of Spain, 545, 547. 
Charles IV., of Spain, 604, 605. 
Charles VII., of Spain, 724, 761. 
Charles XI., of Swe'den, 479, 516. 
Charles XII., of Svve'den, 516, 518, 519, 

520, 522. 
Charles, Prince of Ba-va'ri-a, 716. 
Charles River, 814. 
Charles, the Bold, of Bur'gun-dy, 350, 

359, 378, 379. 
Charles, the Simple, of France, 284, 285. 
Charles V., the Wise, of France, 352, 

a54. 
Charles'ton, 807, 808, 809, 810, 848, 852, 

890, 906, 907, 914, 915. 916. 
Charles'town, 838. 
Char-le-voke', 795. 
f liar -ldf ten-burg (-boorg), 525. 
Char'lOUe, Princess, of En'gland (ing'), 

642. 
Chart'ists, 642. 

Chase, Sal'mon P., 904, 920, 921, 922. 
Chas-se', 661. 

f has'tes, Ay-mar' de, 791. 
Clia-teau-bri-and' (-to-bre-oN'), 595, 655, 

665. 
Cha-teau' (to') Cam-bre'sis, Peace of 

421. 
Chat'ftam, Earl, See William Pitt. 
Chiit-ta-noo'ga, 913, 918. 
Chat'ti, 214. 
Chau-meMe' (sho), 574. 
Cha!<n'(;ey, I'saac, S70. 
Chau've-iici (sho'), Wil'liam (-yam), 893. 
C/iei-ros'o-phus, 118. 
Che-ni-er, Asj-dre', 572, 655. 
C/ie'ops, 47. 
Cher'bourg, 916. 
Cher-fis'ki, 212, 213. 
Clies'a-peake Bay, 844, 850, 874. 
Chi-ca'go (-caw'), 794, 890, 922, 935, 936, 

938, 939. 
Chi-ca'go (-caw') River, 794. 
Chick-a-hom'i-ny Creek, 910. 
Chick-a-mau'ga (maw'), 918. 
Chil'i, 403, 930, 932, 953, 957, 958. 
C/ii'16, 100. 

Chi'na, 31, 32, 395, 759, 931. 
Chinese' Wall, 386, 389. 
C/ii-og'gia (-od') War, 372. 
C/ii'os, 78, 87. 

Chip'pe-wa, Battle of, 872, 943. 
Chivalry, 330. 

Cftlo'dovvig (-vig), 257, 258, 260. 
C/ilO-pic'kl (-pits'), 662, 663. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1007 



CAlo'tar I., 260. 

C/tlo'tar II., 260. 

Cftio-til'da, 258. 

Choi-seul' (shwa-zfil'), 547. 

C/mst Church, Phil-a-del'phi-a, 890. 

CAris'ti-an'a, 781. 

Christian Church, 246. 

Christianity, 29, 235,240, 243, 244, 248, 251, 

261, 271, 277, 280, 286, 292, 574, 635. 
CAnst'ian (-ycm), of Brfms'wick, 468. 
CArist'ian (-ycm) I., of Den'mark, 380. 
CA.ist'ian (-yan) II., of Den'mark, 381. 
CArist'ian (-yan) IV., of Den'mark, 468, 

470. 
CArist'ian (yan) VII., of Den'mark, 547, 

548. 
CArist'ian (yan) IX., of Den'mark, 704, 

705, 754. 
CArist'ian (-yan) II., of Swe'den, 436. 
CArist'ian (yan) III., of Swe'den, 436. 
Christians, 221, 236, 239, 248, 272, 306, 308, 

312, 316. 
CAris-ti'na, Fort, 799. 
CAris-ti'na, of Swe'den, 478. 
CAris'ti-nos, 665. 
CAris'to-pher, of G r I m'mels-hau'sen 

(-how'), 478. 
CArys'os-toui, JoAn, 247. 
Church Fathers, 246, 247. 
Church of the West, 346. 
Cial-dl'ni (dial), General, 711,720. 
Cic/e-ro, Tul'li-us, 195, 198, 199, 202, 206. 
Q\A Cam-pe-a-dor' (-thor'), 272, 506. 
gim'bri-ans, 190, 191. 
gi'mon, 103, 110, 111. 
fiu-cin-na'ti, 893, 935. 
pin-cin-na'ti, Order of the, 853. 
(Tm-cin-na'tus, 160. 
giri'na, 194. 

Cinq (sank) Mars, Marquis de 498. 
Cin'tra, Capitulation of, 608. 
Circas'si-ii (ser-kash'),-696. 
Cir'cus (ser') Max'i-mus, 156, 195. 
Cis-al'pine Republic, 582, 585. 
(Tis-ter'cian (-slian) Monks, 319, 332. 
Ci'v'i-ta (che') Vec'eAi-a, 226, 720. 
Clar'a, of Spain, 448. 
Clar'ence, 364. 

Clar'en-don, Constitutions of, 359, 360. 
% Clar'en-don, Lord, 492, 807, 808. 
Clar'et, Father, 723, 724. 
Clarke, James Free'mau, 940. 
Clarke, Governor, 828. 
Clas-tid'i-fim, 171. 
Clau'di-iis (claw") II., 236. 
Clau'di-us (claw') Ap'pi-us, 162, 166, 

168. 
Clau'tli-us (claw') Ne'ro, Consul, 176. 
Clau'di-us, (claw'), Ti-be'ri-us Dru'sus, 

220, 221. 
Clay'borne, Wil'liam (-yam), 806, 807. 
Clay, Hen'ry, 866, 878, 880, 882, 884, 886, 

898 899, 901, 902, 904, 940. 
Cie-ar'cAiis, 118. 
Cle-Is'the-nes, 99. 
Clem'ent of Al-ex-an'dri-a, 247. 
Clem'ent III., Pope, 298. 
Clem'ent IV., Pope, 326. 
Clem'ent V., Pope, 340. 
Clem'ent VII.. Pope, 418, 420, 430. 



Clem'ent XIV., Pope, 546. 

Cle'6-bis, 70. 

Cle-oni'brd-tus, 120. 

Cle'on, 124. 

Cle-o'nas, 92. 

Cle-o-pa'tra, 203, 204, 207, 208. 

Cler-ia.it', 578.- 

Cler-mont', Council at, 302. 

Cleve, 466. 

Cleveland, Gro'ver, 930. 931, 932, 933. 

Clin-chant' (-shoN'), General, 734. 

Clin'ton, George, 856. 

Clin'ton, Sir Hen'ry, 844, 846, 850. 

Cli'tus, 131, 136. 

Clo-a'ca Max'i-ma, 156. 

Clo'di-us, 199. 

Cloots, 574. 

ClO-tAilde', Princess, 707. 

Clujni-y' (-ye'), 332. 

Clu-si'um, 148, 162. 

Clyt-em-nes'tra, 83. 

Cni'dus, 120. 

Coalition, First, 568, 576. 

Coalition, Second War of the, 585. 

Cob'den, Rich'ard, 643, 921 

Co'blentz, 248, 564, 623, 710. 

Co'blentz, Diet of, 319. 

Co'chin, Chi'na, 759. 

Coc/i'rane, 957. 

Cod'ding-ton, Wil'liam (-yam), 823. 

Code, Na-pO'le-on, 591. 

Co'drus, 87, 96. 

Coe'lKan Hill, 152. 

Col-bert', 499, 506, 508, 794. 

COl'borne. Sir Jo/in, 943, 944, 945. 

Col'cftis, 82. 

ColdHar'bor (-ber),918. 

Cole'ridge, 652. 

Col'et, 405. 

Co-liffn'y (-ye), Admiral, 450, 450. 

College of Physicians and Surgeons, 

893. 
Co-loane', 214, 280, 408, 493. 
CMugne', Elector of, 500, 510, 511, 513. 
Co-16in'bi-a, 957. 
Co-lon'na, 376. 
Col'6-phon, 87. 
Col-o-ra'do, 937, 
Col-os-se'iini, 224. 
Co-luni'bi-a, District of, 902. 
CO-lum'bus, Bar-thol'o-niew (-mil), 398. 
Co-lum'bus, CAris'to-pher, 398, 400, 402, 

894. 
Co-lum'bus, Di-S'go, 402. 
Col've, An'tAO-ny, 798. 
Co-mines', Phil'ip, 335. 
Com'mo-dus, 232. 
Conc'ord, 838. 

Con'de, Prince de, 450, 498, 499. 562, 596. 
Oon-dor'cei, 564, 571. 
Con-es-to'ga, 826. 
Confederacy, 907, 908, 909, 910, 912, 914, 

918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 925, 927. 
Con-fu'ci-iis (-she-), 32. 
Con 'go, 396, 742. 

Congregational Church, 890, 891. 
Con-nect'i-cut, 817, 821, 822, 823, 854, 892. 
Co'non, 120. 
Con'rad II., 286, 294. 
Con'rad III., 310, 319, 320, 321. 



Con'rad IV., 325, 326. 

Con-rad'in, 329. 

Con'rad, of Fran-co'ni-a, 284, 288, 290. 

Con'stance, Lake, 248, 410. 

Con'stance, ofNa'ples and Sic-i-ly, 323. 

324. 
Con'stance, Peace of, 227, 322, 347, 349, 
Con'stan-tine, 239, 240, 244, 246, 247. 
Con'stan-tine, Co-pron'y-mus, 265, 
Con'stan-tine, Grand Duke, 698. 
Con'stan-tine, Pal-se-ol'o-gus, 390. 
Con-stan-ti-no'ple, 88, 107, 244, 248, 261, 

262, 264, 268, 275, 304, 314, 350, 385, 389, 

390, 404, 646, 689, 763, 764, 765, 770. 
Con-stan'ti-us, (-Shi-), 247, 248. 
Con-stan'ti-us (-shl-), C/ilor'us. 239. 
Constellation, (frigate), 862, 868. 
Con'way Ca-bal', 847. 
Cook, Captain, 641, 742. 
Cooke, Jo-si'aft P., 941. 
Coop'er, James Fen'i-more, 896. 
Cflop'er River, 852. 
Co-os', 78. 

Cope'land, Pat'rick, 802. 
Co-pen-ha'gen, 478, 479, 518, 604, 658. 
C6-per'ni-cus, 460. 
C6r-{jy'ra, 77, 112, 171. 
Cor-day', Char'loWe, 571. 
Cor-de-liers', 563. 
C6r-dil'ler-as, 403. 
Cor'do-va, 271, 272, 367, 724, 951. 
Cor-fin'i-uin, 192. 
Cor-flY, 77. 
Cor'inth, 77, 86, 87, 112, 113, 119, 120, 130. 

179, 182, 695. 
Co-rin'thi-an Order, 126. 
Cor'inth, Isthmus of, 106. 
Cor'inth, Mis-sis-sip'pi, 909. 
C6r-i-o-Ia'nus, 58, 160. 
Corn'bur-y (-ber-), Governor, 826. 
Cor-neiHe', Pe'ter, 506. 
Cor-ne'li-a, 188. 
Cor-nel'ian (-yan) Laws, 195. 
C6r-ne'li-us, Pet'er, 657. 
Cor-neir University, 937. 
Corn-walTis (-wol'),Lord, 842,848,849, 

850, 853. 
Cor-6-man'del, 398. 
Cor-o-ne'ii, 111, 120. 
Cor-reg'gi'o (-ed'), 464. 
Cor'si-ca, 171, 594, 630. 
C6r-te-nu'6-va, 325. 
Cor'tez,402, 403, 788. 
Cor'ti, 767. 
Cort'lana't, 796. 

Cor-vi'nus, Mat-thi'as (math-), 382. 
Cos'saeks, 385, 516. 
Coii-ri-er', 638, 656. 
Coiir'land, 385, 426. 
Coii-tA6N', 568, 571, 578. 
Cow'pens, Battle of, 849. 
Cra'coio, 384, 386, 551, 553, 55 L. 663. 
Cran'acA, Lu'cas, 466. 
Crad'dock, Charles Eg'bert, 939. 
Cran'mer, TAom'as, 430, 432, 434. 
Cras'sus, Mar'cus, 196, 197, 199. 
Craw'ford, Wil'liam (yam) H., 880,882. 
Crec'y, 352. 

Cre-diC Mo-bil-ier (-ya), 928. 
Creek Indians, 860, 878. 



use, urn, up, riide; food, foot; by; <;ell ; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1U08 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Cre'feld (-felt), 824. 

Crell, Oliancellor, 427. 

Cre'oles, 789, 953. 

Cres'py, Peace of, 420. 

Crete, 50, 52, 77, 82, 92, 95, 695. 

Cri-me-a, 552, 690, 691. 

Cri-me'an War, 690. 

Cri-me'sfis, 167. 

Cris'pi, 761, 779. 

Cris'pus. 240. 

Crit'i-as, 114, 116. 

Cri'tG, 116. 

CrO-a'ti-a, (-shi-) 265, 722. 

Crce'sus, 70. 

Crom'well, Ol'i-ver, 120,432, 482, 486, 488, 

490, 492, 793, 802, 804. 
Crom'well, Rich'ard, 491. 
Crou'stad't, 519, 690. 
Cro-to'ua, 88, 100, 176. 
Crown Point, 638, 880, 831. 
Cro'zat, Sieur (soor) An'tO-ny, 795. 
Crusade, First, 302. 
Crusade, Second, 308, 352. 
Crusade, Third, 312. 
Crusade, Fourth, 314. 
Crusade, Fifth, 316. 
Crusade of Children, 314. 
Cryp'to Cal'vin-ists, 427. 
Cu'ba, 400, 402, 725, 762, 787, 874, 900, 906, 

953. 
Cu'fa, 268. 

Cul-10-den. Battle of, 516. 
Cul'pep-per, Lord, 804, 805. 
Cu'mae. 88, 147, 159, 165. 
Cum'ber-land, Duke of, 749. 
Cuin'ber-laud, Fort, 830. 
Cum'ber-land Ma'ry-land, 888. 
Cum'ber-land. Presbytery, 891. 
Cum'ber-land, (vessel), 914. 
Cu-nax'a, US. 
Cu-ne'i-forni Writing, 37. 
Cu'pid, 79. 
Cu-ral'i-i, 154. 
Cu'ri-0, 202. 

Cur'tis, George Wil'liam (yam), 930, 939 
Cur'ti-us (-tse-66s),740. 
Cu'sa, Al-ex-an'der, 694. 
Cush'ing (koosh'), Ca'leb, 922. 
Cus'ter, George A. 938. 
Cus-tine, General, 568, 576. 
Cus-toz'za, Battle of, 717. ' 
Cutler, Ma-nas'se/i, 893. 
Cy-ax'a-res, 41. 
fyc'la-des. 78, 101. 
fyd'nus, 131. 
fyn ics, 145. 

Cy'prus,50, 77, 111, 141, 268, 768. 
Cy-rene', 88. 
fy'rus ofPer'si-a(-shi-), 66,68, 70, 72,10ft 

125, 134. 
Cy'rfis, the Younger, 114, 118, 119. 
Cy-the'ra, 77. 
fyz'i-cus,88, 197. 

Czar-to-rys'lu (char-), Prince, 663, 696. 
Czechs (cheks), 265. 
Czer'na-bog, 266. 

Da'ci-a (-shi-) 227; 238. 
Dfe'mou, 80. 



DaAn, Fe'lix, 739. 

Dal'berg, 601, 622. 

Dale, Sir Tftom'as, 802. 

Dal-hoii'sie (-zi), Lord, 944. 

Dal'ios, George M., 884. 

Dal-ma'ti-a (-shi-), 222. 239, 265, 370, 583, 

628. 
Da-mas'cus, 3S, 60, 132, 268, 386, 389. 
Dam-i-et'ta, 316. 
Da'na, Rich'ard Hen'ry, 896. 
Dan'dG-lo, 314. 
Danes, 279, 285, 286, 29.', 379, 380, 436, 458, 

478, 479, 773. 
Dan'ne-berg, 380. 
Dan'neck-er, 658. 

Dan'te A-li-gfti-e'rl, 326. 336,341.648.658 
Dan'ton, 563, 566, 567, 572, 573, 574, 576, 

578. v 
Dan'ube, 74, 101, 238, 247, 249, 284, 350, 

382, 388. 609, 688, 690, 694. 753, 767. 
Dan'zig (dant'sig), 553, 603, 630, 748. 
Dar-boy' (-bwa',) Archbishop, 738. 
Dar-da-nelles', 378, 552, 641, 689. 764, 780. 
Da-ri'us Cod-o-man'us, 132, 134, 140. 
Da-ri'us Hys-tas'pes, 66, 73, 74, 101, 103. 
Dam'ley, 457, 458. 
Dar'win, Charles, 740. 
Da'tis, 101, 102. 
Dau-deC (d0-), 657. 

Daun (down), Field Marshal, 532, 534. 
Dav-en-port, Rev. Jo/in. 822. 
Da'vid, King of Is'ra-el, 58, 60, 62, 66. 
Da'vid, Jacques (zhak) Loii-is', 657, 658. 
Da'-vid-son, 458. 

Da'vis, Jefferson, 878, 908, 919, 926. 
Da-voiis(, 626. 

De'iik. Franz (frants), 722, 753. 
Dear'born, Hen'ry, 870. 
Deb'o-raft, 56, 58. 
De-ca'tur, Ste'phen (-v'n), 868. 
De-cazes', 637. 

De-cein'virs (-vers), 160,161. 
Dec'i-us, 236, 243. 
Dec'i-us Mus, 165, 166. 
De-cle'a, 113. 

Deer'ing, Wil'liam (yam), 941. 
De-freg'gei-, 657. 
De-la-croix' (-krwa'), 658. 
De-la-rociie', 658. 
De-lau'naj/'(lo'), 561. 
Del'a-ware, 824. 856. 
Del'a-ware Bay, 796. 
Del'a-ware, Lord, 802. 
Del'a-ware River, 795, 796. 798, 799, 823, 

828, 842. 
Delft. 447. 
Del'hi, 687. 
De'los, 78, 110. 

Del'phi, 76, 80, 1 90,92, 106, 127, 128, 194. 
Del'ta, 44, 47. 
Deluge, 23. 
Del-yan'nis, 782. 
Dem-bin'ski, 663, 678. 
De-me'ter, 81. 
De-me-tri-us, 141, 142, 181. 
De'mos, 96, 97. 

De-mos'the-nes, General, 112, 113. 
De-mos'the-nes, Orator, 125, 126, 130, 142, 

198. 



Den'mark, 379, 380, 381, 436, 437, 478, 547, 
593, 604, 622, 645, 677, 680, 704, 754, 772, 
781. 

Den-ta'tus Cu'ri-us, 166. 

Den-ta'tus, Sic'ci-us, 161. 

De-saix', General, 592. 

Des-i-de'ri-us, 276, 279, 

Des-moii-lins' (-laN'), Ca-inilie', 561, 563, 
573, 574, 576. 

De So'to, Fer'di-nand. 787, 788. 

Des'saw (-saw), 468, 540. 

Des'saa (saw), Le'o-pold von, 526. 

Det'mold, 214. 

De-troit', 834, 868, 942. 

Det'ting-en, Battle of, 528. 

Deu-ter-on'o-my, 65. 

".Deutsche" (doi' che), 282. 

" Devil's Wall," 258. 

De Wette (vet'), 739. 

Dew'ey (du'i), Or'viUe, 910. 

De Witt, Joftn and Cur-ue'li-us, 500. 

Dex'ter, Hen'ry M., 940 

Di-an'a, 78, 79, 83, 87. 

Di'az (-ath), Bar'thol'o-mew (-mu), 

396. 

Di'az (-as), P6r-fir'i-o, 952. 

Dick'ens, Charles, 655. 

Dick'In-son, Dan'iel (-yel) S., 922. 

Dick'in-son, Jo/in, 856. 

Di-deroC, 545, 549. 

Di'dO, 51. 

Dze'bitsch, 619, 663. 

Dieppe', 790, 791,792. 

Dies'kau (-kow), General, 830, 831. 

Dze'tricft, of Berne, 336. 

Diug'el-stedt, 739. 

Din-wid'die, Rob'ert, 806, 830. 

Di-O-cle'tian (-Shan), 239, 243. 

Di-og'e-nes, 145. 

Di-o-me'des, 83. 

Di-o-nys'i-us (Bac'chus), 80, 81, 123. 141. 

Di-o-nys'I-fis of Hal-i-cas-nas'sus, 212. 

Di-O-nys'i-us of Syr'a-cuse, 167. 

Di-o-nys'i-us, the Younger, 168. 

Directory, 580, 583, 584, 585, 589. 

Disciples, 891. 

Dis-rae'li, Ben'ja-min, 772, 775, 776. 

Dit'mar-sen, 380. 

Dix, JoAn Ad'ams. 922. 

Dm'e'per, 74, 385, 552, 618. a 

Do-de-kar'cfty, 39. 

Do-do'na, 81. 

Dol'ling-er (Del'), 743. 

Doin-brow'ski", General, 554, 602. 

D6-miu'i-cans, 332, 405, 789. 

Dom'I-nic, of Spain, 332. 

DO-mit'i-a, 226. 

Do-init'i-an (-mish'), 226. 

Don, River, 385. 

Don-au'worth (-ow'werth), 466. 

Dou'el-son, Fort, 908, 909. 

Do'nop, Count, 844. 

Do'ra Biil-te'a, 592. 

Dor'ches-ter, 821. 

Dor'ches-ter, Lord, see Sir Guy Carlton, 

Do'ri-a, An'dre-as, 372. 

Do'ri-ans, 81, 86, 87, 88, 92, 93. 

Dor'ic, Order, 126. 

Do'ris, 76. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1009 



Dorr, TAom'as, 892. 

Dor-y-lse'um, 306. 

Doug'las, Ste'phen (-v'n) A., 904, 906, 

922. 
DO'ver, 822. 

Dow'nie, Commander, 872. 
Dra'cO, 96. 
Dra-gat-schan', 647. 
Drake, Sir Fran'cis, 459, 788, 799. 
Dra'per, Cliief Justice, 946. 
Dra'per. Hen'ry, 941. 
Drep'a-num, 170. 
Dres'deu, 424, 519, 524, 528, 530, 533, 614, 

679, 716. 
Dres'deu, Battle of, 620. 
Dres'deu, Peace of, 528. 
Drex'el Institute, 938. 
Drii'ids, 199, 200, 226. 
Driim'mond, Sir Gor'don, 872. 
Dru'sus, Liv'i-us, 189, 192, 212, 214, 

220. 
.Dsche'lum, 137. 
Du-bar-tas', 464. 
Dub'lin, 366, 776. 
Dfi Bois (bra), Cardinal, 513. 
Du-chesne, Pere, 571. 
Dii-clere', General, 958. 
Du-eiW, General, 734. 
Dud'ley, TAom'as, 433, 816. 
Du-faure' (-for'), 758. 750 
Duf'/er-in, Lord, 948. 
Dul'ce (-si),. General, 725. 
Du-mas', Al-ex-an'der, 636. 
Du-mou-ri-ez', 564, 56S, 570. 
Dun-bar', Battle of, 488, 490, 491. 
Dun'kers, 826, 891. 
Du-pont', 606. 

Du-poN<' de l'Eure (lur), 672. 
Du-pont', Sam'u-el F., 914. 
Dfip'pel, 705. 

Du-quesne' (-kan'), Fort, 830. 831. 
Du-quesne' (-lean'), Governor, 828. 
Dii'rer, Al'brecht, 466. 
Dur'ham (-fun), Earl of, 945. 
Du-roc', 620. 
Dus'sel-dorf, 601. 
Dfitcli, 448. 576, 661, 742, 754, 773, 795, 798, 

799, 817, 821, 824, 847, 958. 
Dvvcr-nick'i, 663. 
Dwi'na, 552. 

Earl'-y, Ju'bal A., 918. 
Eastern Church, 314. 
Eastern Empire, 392. 
East In'di-a Company, 448. 573, 836. 
East In'dles, 374, 395, 396, 402, 687. 
E'bro, 171, 203, 279. 
Ec-bat'a-na, 74, 134, 136, 141. 
Eck, J6/ra, 407, 408. 
Ed'da, 285. 
E'den, 29. 
E'den-ton, 808. 
E des'sa, 306, 308. 

Ed'tn-burgh (-bur-ro), 458, 481, 488. 
Ed'I-son, TAom'as Al'va, 741, 941. 
E'clom-ites (-dum-), 144. 
Ed'ward, Fort, 844. 

Ed'ward I., of En'gland (ing'), 318, 339 ; 
362. 



Ed'vvard II., of En'gland (ing'), 362, 

Ed'vvard III., of En'gland (ing') 352, 
354, 362. 

Ed'vvard IV., of En'gland (ing'), 364. 

Ed'vvard VI., of En'gland (ing'), 432, 
433, 435. 

Ed'woi'ds, Jon'a-than, 821. 

Ed'ward, the Black Prince, 352. 

Ed'vvard, the Confessor, 286. 

Eg'bert, 261. 

E'ger, 474, 528. 

E-ge'ri-a, 154. 

£g£/'les-ton, Ed'vvard, 939. 

Eg'in-liard, 282. 

£g-moN(', Count, 442. 

E'gypt, 26, 38, 39, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 52, 
54, 65, 66, 72, 73, 81, 97, 98, 103, 132, 134, 
141, 142, 143, 144, 203, 204, 208, 243, 244, 
£68, 310, 316, 390, 585, 588, 592, 593, 647, 
773, 774. 

Ei'dei, River, 280, 294. 

Ei'f-fel', 778. 

.Ei'sen-ac/i, 645. 

Ms'le-ben, 423. 

E'lam, 37. 

El-a-te'a, 130. 

El'ba, 625, 630. 

Elbe, 212, 277, 280, 598, 622, 716. 

El'bing, 318. 

El-do-ra'do,'403. 

E-lec'tni, 123. 

El-8-plian'ta, 36. 

El-eu-sin'I-an Mysteries, 113. 

E-leu'sis, 76. 

El'gin, Lord, 946, 947. 

E'li, 58. 

E-li'as, 64. 

Eri-ot, George, 655. 

£l'i-6t, of Mass-a-ehu'setts, 820. 

E'lis, 77, 92, 113, 251. 

E-lI'sha, 65. 

E lis'sa, 51. 

E-liz'a-beth, of Bo-he'mia, 467. 

E-liz'a-beth, of En'gland (ing'), 434, 435, 
447, 457, 458, 460, 480, 800, 935. 

E-liz-a-beth, of Par'ma, 514. 

E-liz'a-beth, of Eus'sia (-sha), 524, 528, 
532, 534. 

E liz'a-beth, Sister of Loii'is XVI., 572. 

El-kafr', 42. 

£l-lor';i, 36. 

El'ster, 408. 

El'ster Bridge, 622. 

E-ly'sium (zhum), 80. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 911. 

£m-an'u-el, of POr-tu'gal, 398, 958. 

Em'er-son, Ralph WaI'do, 894, 896, 937. 

£m'e-sa, God of, 235. 

Em-mau'u-el the Great, of Spain, 368. 

Em'ma, Queen of the Neth'er-lands, 781. 

Ems, 725. 

En'di-cott, Joftn, 815, S17, 819, 820. 

En(-)gl)ien' (doN-gftN'), Duke d',596, 655. 

En'gland (ing'), 261, 275, 285, 286, 288, 356, 
360, 362, 363, 364, 366, 367, 398, 404, 405, 
429, 430, 432, 447, 448, 450, 457, 458, 459, 
464, 479, 481, 490, 499, 510, 534, 552, 568, 
576, 585, 591, 592, 593, 594, 598, 635, 636, 
641, 642, 644, 648, 652, 658, 677, 686, 687, 



688, 689, 690, 691, 698, 705. 708, 742, 764, 
767, 768, 771, 772, 773, 775, 779, 782, 783, 
784, 788, 791, 795, 798, 799, 808, 812, 817, 
828, 831, 832, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 
840, 844, 847, 852, 853, 858, 860, 864, 866, 
868, 872, 874, 876, 901, 908, 915. 921, 927, 
931, 942, 951, 959. 

En'gland (ing'), Church of, 429, 430, 432, 
435, 479, 492, 688, 806, 807, 808, 817, 890. 
944. 

En'glish (ing') Channel, 200. 

En'glisli (ing') Constitution, 362. 

£n'zi-0, 325, 326, 330. 

E-pam-i-non'das, 77, 119, 120, 121, 125, 127- 

Eph'e-sus, 87, 101, 113, 645. 

Eph'ors, 93. 

E'phra-im, 56. 

Ep-I-cu-re'ans, 145. 

£p-i-cu'rus, 146, 211. 

E-pi'rus, 75, 81, 202, 390. 

E-pis'co-pal Church. See Churcli of 
England. 

E-ras'mus, 404, 405. 

Br- -tos'the-nes, 145. 

Er-cftan'ger, Count, 288. 

E' res-burg, 279. 

E-re'tri-a, 78, 101. 

Er'fiirt, 406. R04. 

E'ric XIV, 437. 

Er'ic-sson, JO/m, 915. 

E'ric, the Saint, 379. 

E rid'a-uus, 82. 

E'rie Canal, 888. 

E'rie, Fort, 872, 943. 

E'rie, Lake, 870, 942. 

Er'nest, Duke of Mu'nieft, 350. 

Er'nest of Mans'feld (-feldt), 468. 

Ernst Au'gust (ow'goost), King of 
Han'Over, 664. 

Ernst of Sehvva'bi-a, 294. 

E'ros, 78, 79. 

E'ryx, 170. 

E'sau (saw), 52. 

£s-par-te'ro, General, 665. 

£s-pi-nasse' 685. 

£s-senes', 144. 

Es'sex, Earl of, 460, 484, 486. 

Ess'ling, see Aspern. 

Es'te, House of, 377. 

Es-tho'ni-a, 380, 522. 

E thi-o'pi-a, 24, 39, 48, 104. 

E-tru'ri-a, 147, 148, 162, 166, 171, 172, 192, 
198. 

Et7en-lieim, 597. 

Etseh, 191. 

Su-bce'a,, 78. 

Su'clid, 145. 

Bu-cli'des, 114. 

JSu-dox'I-a, 256. 

i?u-er'ge-tes, 143. 

iJfi'gCMie, of Ba-va'ri-a, 600. 

Eix'gene IV., Pope, 349. 

.Hu'gene, Prince of Sa-voy', 503, 510, 511 
512. 

.0u-ge-me' (-zl)a-), Empress, 694, 695,729- 

Su-ge'ni-us, 249. 

.Eii-len-spie'gel, Till, 462. 

Bii'me-nes, 141. 
Mi'pat-ri-dae, 96. 



64 



use, urn, up, riide; food, foot; by; <;ell; n= 



italic letters silent or obscure. 



1010 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



m-phra'tes, 37, 42, 65, 70, 134, 197, 199, 

248. 
.Eu-rip'i-des, 123, 124, 507. 
JSu-rS'tas, 77, 96, 113. 
•Ea-ry-M'a-des, 106. 
.ECi-se'bi-iis, 247, 940. 
Mix'iue, 88. 
Ev'aus, Mar'I-an, 655. 
Eve, 23. 
fix'e-ter, 822 

.Ey'lau (-16), Battle of, 602. 
.Ey'uard, 647. 
Ez'ra, 66. 
FJz-ze-li'nO, of Ve-ro'na, 325, 326. 

Fii'bi-ans, 160. 

Fa'bi-us, General, 166. 

Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus, 173, 176. 

Fa'bi-us Quin'tiis, 171.- 

Fa-bric'i-us, 166. 

Fair'fax, 486. 

Fan- Oaks, Battle of, 910. 

Fa-li-e'ri, Ma-ri'no, 372. 

Falk, Dr., 744, 746, 747, 748. 

Fal'ken-stein, 716. 

FaMers-leben, Von, 739. 

Far-a-day, 740. 

Far'a-dau, Mi'cftael, 941. 

FS-rel', 427. 

Far-nese', Al-ex-an'der, 446. 

Far-ra-gut, Da'vid, 910. 

Far-sis-tan', 68. 

Fa'ti-me, 268. 

Fauns (fawns), 80. 

Faust (fowst), 395. 

Faus'ta (tows'), 240. 

Faus-ti'na (fows-), 230. 

Favre, Jules, 734, 736. 

Fawkes, Guy, 480. 

Fear, Cape, 808. 

Federation, Festival of, 563. 

Feftm'ge-ricftt, 337. 

Feftr'bel-lin, Battle of, 502. 

Fe'lixV., Pope, 349. 

Fel'ien-berg Institute, 893. 

Fell'ner, 716. 

Fel'ton, Cor-neTius (-yus) C, 894. 

Fe-ne-loN', 507. 

Fe'ni-ans, 687. 

Fe'6-dor, of Kus'sia (-sha), 385, 516. 

Fer'di-nand, Arcbduke, 466. 

Fer'di-nand of Aus'tria (aws'), 678. 

Fer'di-nand of Bruns'wick, 532, 533, 565. 

Fer'di-nand of Bul-ga'ri-a (bool-), 782. 

Fer'di-nand of Cas-tile', 272. 

Fer'di-nand I., of Ger'ma-ny, 383, 410, 425, 

426, 466. 
Fer'di-nand II., of Ger'ma-ny, 467, 468, 

471, 477. 
Fer'di-nand III., of Ger'ma-ny, 477. 
Fer'di-nand I., of Na'ples and Sic'i-ly, 

(IV., of Naples), 584, 630, 639. 
Fer'di-nand II., of Na'ples and Sic'i-ly, 

707, 710. 
Fer'di-nand V., of Spain, 367, 368,372, 

377, 400, 415. 
Fer'di-nand VI., of Spain, 514. 
Fer'di-nand VII., of Spain. 604, 605, 608, 

63?, 640. 664, 949, 954, 955. 



Fer'di-nand III., of Tus'cany, 622. 

Fer'di-nand, Prince of Co'burg (boorg), 
770. 

Fere-Champe-no-ise' (shaN-pe-no-az')624. 

Fer-gftan-is-tan', 754. 

Fer'gu-son, Pat'rick, 849. 

Fer'mor,;532. 

Fer-ra'ra, 377. 

Fer'ry, 759. 

Feudalism, 330. 

Feu'er-bac/t (foi'), An'dre-as, 739. 

Feu'er-bach (foi'), An'selm, 657. 

Feu-Ulan ts' (yaN'), 563. 

Ficli'te, 540. 741. 

Fe-de'nse, 220. 

Fi-es'co, 372. 

Fi-es'chi (ke), Cardinal, .325. 

Fi-es'chi (ke), of Cor'si-ca, 325, 666. 

F'i-gue'ras, 761. 

Fin'land, 379, 604, 730. 

Fin 'laud, Gulf of, 384. 

Fir-dii'si, 274. 

Fiseh'art, J6/m, 462. 

Fiscb'er, Ku'no, 710. 

Fisb'er, Bishop, 430. 

Fish'er, Fort, 916. 

Fisb'er. George P., 940. 

Fish'er, Ma'ry, 819. 

Fiske, Joftn, 940. 

Five Forks, 919. 

Five Nations, 938. 

Flac'cus, Ful'vi-us, 189. 

Flag'el-lants, 335. 

Fla-min'i-a, Vi'a, 171. 

Fla-min'i-us, Quin'tus, 172, 179, 184. 

Flan'ders, 356, 363, 378, 576, 661. 

Flau-bert' (flo-bar'), 657. 

Fla'vi-ans, 223. 

Fla'vi-us Fim'bri-a, 194. 

Fleteh'er, Governor, 826. 

Flod'den Field, 366. 

Flo-quet' (-ka'), 760, 778. 

Flor'ence, 375, 376, 390, 404, 420, 708, 713. 

F16r'i-da, 787, 788, 808, 811, 864, 878, 900, 
907, 928, 953. 

F16r'i-da, (vessel), 916. 

Flo'rus, Ges'si-us, 224. 

Folk'ungs (-oongs), House of, 380. 

Fon-se'ca, da, 959. 

FON-taine-bleau' (-bio), 609, 625. 

Foote, An'drew (-drii) H., 909. 

Forbes, John, 831. 

FSr'um, KO'iuan, 150, 154, 156, 234. 

Fos'c0-lo, 650. 

Foii-che, 578, 591, 595, 626, 632, 634. ', 

Fou-que' (-ka'), 650. 

Foii-qui-Sj-' (-ke-), Tiu-vilie' (taN-), 571. 

Foii'ri-er, 741. 

Fox, River, 793. 

France, 199, 271, 282, 284, 285, 339, 356, 
363, 366, 372, 374, 378, 415, 416, 418, 419, 
420, 421, 427. 428, 450, 452, 454, 456, 464, 
481, 494, 502, 505, 510, 543, 544, 547, 551, 
555, 557, 560, 561, 563, 564, 568, 576, 573, 
580, 582, 585, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 598, 
599, 612, 619, 920, 622, 625, 626, 630, 632, 
636, 641, 648, 655, 657, 658, 660, 665, 671, 
680, 683, 684. 685, 686, 68*, 6S9, 690, 691, 
698, 709, 713, 717, 721, 722, 723, 725, 726, 



727, 729, 730, 736. 741, 743, 746, 747, 748, 

752, 754, 755, 756, 757, 760, 761, 762, 778, 

779, 780, 782, 788, 791, 792, 793, 794, 826, 

828, 830, 831, 832, 834, 847, 850, 852, 853, 

858, 860, 862, 864, £66, 874, 876, 915, 921, 

922, 930, 942, 951, 959. 
Fran'ci-a, Doctor, 956. 
Fran'cls, Duke of Guise, 450. 
Fran'cis Jo'seph, of Aus'tri-a (aws') 

678, 695, 700, 708, 717, 722, 752. 
Fran'cis of iLs-si'si, 332. 
Fran'cis I., of France, 374, 416, 418, 419, 

420, 790. 
Fran'cis II., of France, 448. 
Fran'cjis I., of Ger'ma-ny, 528. 
Fran'cis II., of Ger'ma-ny, 582, 600, 601, 

612, 614, 635. 
Fran'cis II., of Na'ple3 and Sic'i-ly, 710, 

711. 
Franche (froNsh) Com-te (koN-), 502. 
Fran-cis'caus, 332, 342, 789. 
FraN'co-Ger'mau War, 725. 
FraN-co'ni-a, 296, 410, 412, 426, 502, 716. 
Frank'fort, 424, 526, 528, 622, 645, 676, 677, 

680, 705, 716, 721, 732, 738. 
Frank'fort, Council at, 622. 
Frank'fort, Diet of, 664. 
Frank'fort-ou-the-Main, 282. 
Fran'ki-a, West, 282. 
Frank'liu, see Ten'nes-sevs. 
Frank'lin, Ben'ja-min, 826, 835, 841, 847, 

852, 856, 888, 894, 897. 
Frank'lin, Sir Jo/in, 743, 941. 
Franks. 248, 254, 255, 257, 258, 261, 264, 275, 

276, 279, 280, 282, 284, 314, 316. 
Franque'lin (frank'), 794. 
Fran'zos, 739. 
Fraternities, 645. 
Fred-er-I'ca, Geor'gi-a, 810. 
Fred-e-ric'i-a (risli') 478, 680. 
Fred-er-i'ca Cath'er-iue of Wur' ten-burg 

(woor), 600. 
Fred'er-ick, Au-gus'tus (aw-), of Sax'- 

0-ny. 620. 
Fred'er-ick I, Bar-ba-ros'sa,312,321, 322, 

323. 
Fred'er-ick Charles, Prince of Prus'sia 

(-sha), 705. 727, 728. 
Fred'er-ick of Au-giis'ten-biirg (ow-), 

704, 705, 706. 
Fred'er-ick I., of Aus'tri-a, (aws') 311, 342. 
Fred'er-ick of Bii'den, 329. 
Fred'er-ick I., of Bran'den-biirg, 344. 
Fred'er-ick IV., of Den'mark, 518, 520. 
Fred'er-ick VI., of Den'mark, 548. 
Fred'er-ick VII., of Den'mark, 704. 
Fred'er-ick II., of Ger'ma-ny, 316, 324, 

325, 326, 330, 337, 383. 
Fred'er-ick III., of Ger'ma-ny, 349, 350. 
Fred'er-ick III., "The Noble," of Ger'- 

ma-ny, 750. 
Fred'er-ick of HO'/ien-stau-fen (-stow-), 

289. 
Fred'er-ick of Hol'siein, 522. 
Fred'er-ick I., of Prus'sia (-sha), 510, 

525. 
Fred'er-ick II., of Prus'sia (-sha), 525, 

526, 528, S30, 532, 533, 534, 536, 537, 545, 

551. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final, eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; Old, orb, odd, move; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1011 



Fred'er-ick I., of Schles'wig-Hol'steiii, 

436. 
Fred'er-ick, of Swa'bi-a, 312, 318, 322. 
Fred'er-ick, of Swe'den, 522. 
Fred'er-ick, "of tlie Bitten Cheek.'' 330. 

339. 
Fred'er-ick III., of the Fa-lat'i-nate, 

408, 427. 
Fred'er-ick V., of the Pa-lat'i-nate, 467, 

472, 477, 480, 494. 
Fred'er-icks-tmrg, 910, 912. 
Fred'er-ick, the Great. 828. 
?red'er-ick, the Wise, 406, 407. 
Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-yam), of Bran'- 

den-burg, 478, 500, 502, 524. 
Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-yam) I., Prus'sia 

(-sha), 525, 526. 
Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-yam) II., of 

Prus'sia (-sha), 536, 537, 552, 565. 
Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-yam) III., of 

Prus'sia (-sha), 599, 603, 635. 
Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (yam) IV., of 

Prus'sia (-sha), 657, 668, 702, 744. 
Frei'a, 218. 

Frei'burg (-boorg), 502, 671. 
Frei'li-gratft, 739. 
Fre'roN, 578. 
Fret/-ci-neC, 759. 
Frey'tag 739. 

Fried'land (fret'lant), 468. 
Fried'land (fret'lant), Battle of, 603. 
Fried'richs-hall, Siege of, 522. 
Fri'sians (-zhans), 218,276, 323, 337. 
Frob'ish-er, 799. 
Froe'bel, 540. 
Frofts'dorf, 757. 
Frois'sart, 335. 
Frolic (vessel), 868. 
Fronde, War of the, 498. 
Fron-te-naC, Count 794. 
Frdn-te-nac', Fort, 794, 831. 
Fros-sard', General, 727, 
Frunds'berg, 418. 
Fii'ad Pasha', 694. 
Fu-en'en, 478. 

Ful'da (fool-), Abbey of, 276, 280, 332. 
Ful'ton (fool-) Rob'ert, 741, 886. 
Ful'vi-ii, 207. 
Fun'dy, Bay of, 791. 

Fflr'sten-berg, Wil'liam (-yam) of, 504. 
Fyl'ken, Kings, 379. 

Ga-bin'i-an Law, 197. 

Gab'lenz, General, 714. 

Ga-bro'na, 765. 

Gad, 56 

Ga'des, 50, 176. 

Ga-e'tii, 676, 711. 

Gage, T/iom'as, 837, 

Ga'gern, 678, 679. 

Ga'ius (-yus), 232. 

(ia-la'ti-a (-shi-),628. 

Gal'ba, 221. 

Ga-le'ri-us, 239, 243. 

Ga-lic'i-a C-lish'), 384, 552. 

Gal-i-le'o, of Pi-sa, 460, 462. 

GaWau-det' (aw-), Tftom'as H., 893. 

Gal'lic Wars, 199, 200, 202. 

Gal-li-e'nus, 236. 



Gal'ves-ton, 916. 

Ga'ma, Admiral da, 959. 

Ga'ma, Vas'co da, 396, 398. 

Gam-bet'ta, 730, 734, 736, 755, 758, 759. 

Gan'ges, 32, 34, 138, 687. 

Gar'da, Lake, 720. 

Gar'Keld, James A., 929, 930. 

Gar-I-bal'dl, 676, 707, 710, 711, 712, 713, 720' 
730,760,761. 

Ga-rGime', 351, 359. 

Gar'ri-son, Wil'liam (-yam) Lioyd, 902. 

Gas'eii, Pe'dro de la, 403. 

Gas'kell, Mrs., 655. 

Gas-tein', 706, 713. 

Giites, Ho-ra'ti-o (shi-), 838, 846, 847, 849. 

Gau'chos (gow'), 953, 957. 

Gaul (gawl), 88. 162, 164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 
191, 199, 206, 239. 244, 247, 248, 249, 251, 
252, 254, 255, 257. 

Gauss (gows), 740. 

Ga«/-Lus-sae', 740. 

Ga'za, 38. 132, 316. 

Geb'hard, Archbishop, 466. 

Gei'bel, Em-man'u-el, 739. 

Gei'sa I., of HuN'ga-ry, 3S1. 

Gei'sa II., of HuN'ga-ry, 381. 

Ge'la, 88. 

Gel'i-mer, 262. 

Gel'tert, 538. 

Gen'e-sis, 23. 

Ge-ne'va, 279, 374, 427, 428, 429, 585, 760. 

Ge-ne'va, Lake, 191, 199, 592. 

Gen'o-a, 370, 372, 374, 418, 503, 584, 592, 
630. 

Gcn'ser-ic, 254, 2S5, 256. 

George Fred'er-ick, of Ba'den, 468. 

George, Lake, 831. 

George I., of En'gland (ing'), 494, 514. 

GeOrge II., of En'gland (ing'), 528. 

George III., of En'gland (ing'), 514, 534, 
547, 834, 835, 836, 879, 882. 

George IV., of En'gland (ing'), 642. 

George I., of Greece, 695. 

George, of Han'0-ver, 716. 

George, of Sax'o-ny, 422. 

Geor'gi-a, 788, 809, 810, 811, 823, 837, 848, 
864, 878, 906, 907, 914, 925. 

Ge-net' (zhe-), Ed-moNd', 860. 

Gen'g/ns K/ian, 386, 389. 

Gep'i-dae, 264. 

Ge-rard' (zha-). Assassin, 447. 

Ge-rard (zha-), FraN-cois' (-swa'), 658. 

Ger'bert, 294. 

Ger'hard, Paul (pawl), 462. 

Ger-man'i-cus, 214, 219, 220. 

Ger'mon-town. 824, 844, 846. 

Ger'ma-ny, 44, 191, 199, 200, 212, 213, 214, 
216, 218, 219, 220, 236, 247, 251, 255, 265, 
266, 276, 280, 284, 285, 288, 292, 294, 296, 
321, 322, 324, 335, 337, 341, 350, 356, 379, 
381, 405, 406, 408, 410, 416, 418, 420, 421, 
425, 426, 442, 450, 452, 472, 502, 503, 505, 
535, 537, 546, 555, 576, 585, 592, 598, 599, 
601. 602, 620, 636, 645, 646, 648, 657, 660, 
663, 668, 670, 673, 675, 676, 677, 679, 700, 
701, 706, 708, 714, 721, 725, 726, 730, 732, 
734, 737, 738, 742, 743, 744, 748, 752, 753, 
760, 761, 763, 764, 771. 777, 778, 780, 781, 
784, 826, 927, 931, 937, 959. 



Ger'ma-ny, Literature of, 460. 

Ge-roii'si-a, 93. 

GerVy, El'bridge, 862. 

Ge'ta, 234. 

Get'fys-burg, Battle of, 912. 

Gftent, 378, 628. 

Gfteut, Treaty of, 874. 

G/ub'el-lines, 319, 324, 325, 326, 328, 329, 

341, 342, 343, 372, 375, 377. 
Gi-bral'tar (-brawl'), 270, 511, 512, 641, 

852. 
Gi-bral'tar (-brawl'), Strait of, 252. 
Gid-e-on, 56. 
GZe'se-breeftt, 740. 
Gil'bert, Sir Hfnn'phrey, 799. 
Gil-bo'a, 58. 

Gil'der, Rich'ard Wat'son (wot'), 939. 
Gil'der-sleeve, Bas'il L., 941. 
Gil'more, Har'ry, 915. 
Gto-ber'ti, 668. 
Gio'ja (jo'-e-a), Fla'v'i-0, 395. 
Gi-ronde' (zhe-), 565, 570, 571. 
Gi-ron'dists, 564, 567, 570, 571, 573. 
Glad'stone Wil'liam (yam), Ew'art 

(u'art) 771, 772, 776, 783, 784. 
Gla'rus (-roos), 414. 
Glau'^i-a (glaw'), 191. 
Glo'ri-a Dei Church, 799. 
Glo'ri-a, Ma-ri'a da, 640. 
Glouces'ter, 805. 
Gliick, 658. 

Giiei'se-nau (-ze-now), 623. 
Gnelst, 740. 
GO'a, 398. 

GOch, Governor, 806. 
God'frey de B6«il'-Ion (-yoN'), 304, 306, 

308. 
God'frey of Lor'raine, 296. 
Go-do'y (tho'e),604. 
GO-ersz', Baron von, 522. 
Goe'tfte, 539, 540. 
Golden Age, 210. 
Golden Bull, 343. 
Golden Fleece, Order of, 378. 
Golden Horde, 385, 388. 
G61ds'bor-o (-bur-), 920. 
Good Hope, Cape of, 396. 
Good'win, Wil'liam (-yam-) W., 941. 
G6r'di-um, 131. 
Gor'don, Charles George, 775. 
Gor'ge-y (ger'ge-e), 678. 
Gorm, the Old, 379. 
Gort-scha-koff, Prince, 689, 692, 696, 764, 

767, 771. 
Go'shen, 52, 54. 
Gos'lar, 296. 
Go'tfta, 532. 

GO-tftard', Sfu'Nt, 725. 760. 
Go-tftenburg, 781. 
Goths, 218, 236, 238, 246, 249, 251, 254, 255, 

257, 258, 262, 270. 
Goth'ic Architecture, 336. 
Got'ting-en, University of, 664. 
Gott'sehalk, 304. 
Gotz, of Ber'licA-eng-en, 412. 
Goiirgaes, D6m-in-ique' (-ek'), de, 788. 
Goiir'lai/, Rob'ert, 943. 
Grac'cftus, Ca'ius (yus), 186, 188, 189. 
Grac'cftus, Ti-be'ri-us, 188. 



use, urn, up, rmde; food, foot; by; <;elt ; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1012 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Grafton, Dulse of , 835. 

Gra-na'dii, 272, 36S, 398. 

Gran'i-cus, 131, 136. 

Gran-son', (graN-soN') Battle sf, 378. 

Grant, (African explorer), 742. 

Grant, U-lys'ses S., 878, 909, 912, 913, 918, 
919, 926, 927, 928, 929, 938. 

Gran'veUe, Cardinal, 142. 

Grape Mountain, 111. 

Grasse, Count de, 850. 

Gra'ti-an (-shi-), 249. 

Grav'e-loKe, Battle of, 728. 

Gra-ve', PoNi, 791. 

Gray, A'sa, 941. 

Gray, E-li'sha, 941. 

Greece, 27. 47, 48, 52, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 
83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 100, 101, 102, 
104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 112, 118, 119, 121, 
123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 131, 136, 140, 
141, 142, 144, 147, 166 167, 179, 182, 184, 
192, 202, 207, 212, 240, 243, 244, 251,265, 
292, 370, 3S8, 420, 551, 646, 647, 648, 695, 
782. 

Greek Catholic Church, 282, 549, 551,616. 

Greek (language), 404, 405. 

Gree'ley, Hor'ace, 898, 926, 927. 

Gree'Iy, A. W., 743, 941. 

Greenbackers, 929, 930. 

Greene, Na-than'a-el, 839, 849, 850. 

Greenland, 285. 

Green Mountains, 854. 

Greg'o-ry, Bishop, 260. 

Greg'o-ry VII., Pope, 275, 288, 276, 298, 
300. 

Greg'o-ry, IX., 325. 

Greg'o-ry XIII., 438. 

Gre-no'ble, 628. 

Gren'viUe, George, 834, 835. 944. 

Gre-vy' (-ve'), 736, 756, 759, 760. 

Grey, Lady Jane, 433. 

Giill'par-zer (-tzer), 739. 

Grimm Brothers, 650. 

Gris'wold (-wuld), Bishop, 890. 

Gro'nin-gen (hro'ning-hen), 500. 

Gru-sel'liers (-ya), 793. 

Gro'ti-us (-shi-), Hu'go, 448. 

Grou-ehy', 632. 

Grove, George, 741. 

Gua'chos (gwa'). see Gauchos. 

Gua-na-ha'ni (gwa-), 40u. 

Gua-te-ma'la (gavv-), 953. 

Gua-te-mo'zin (gwa-), 403. 

Guer'ri-ere, 868. 

Gud'den, Von, 749. 

Guelph (gwelf). House of, 319, 749. 

Guelphs (gwelfs), 320, 321, 324, 326, 341, 
343, 372, 375, 377. 

Guev-il'las, 605, 608, 639. 

Gue-rin (-raN'), Jean (zhan), 793. 

Gxxeux, 442. 

Gui'do (gwe')i of A-rez'zo (-ret'so), 272. 

Gui'do (gwe'), of Je-ru'sa-lem, 312. 

Guil'ford Court House, Battle of, 849. 

Gwin'e-a, 396. 

Gtris-ciird', Rob'grt. 283, 298. 

Guis-card', Rog'er, 288. 

Guise (gwez), Hen'ry of, 450, 452, 453, 
454. 

Gui-teau' (-to'), Charles J., 930. 



Glli-zoJ', 638, 671, 685. 

Gunpowder, 395. 

Gunpowder Plot, 179. 

Gfir'kO, General. 765. 

Gus-tav'son, Colonel. 694. 

Gus-ta'viis A-dol-phus, oi Swe'den, 437, 

471, 472, 477, 478, 798. 
Gus-ta'viis III., of Swe'den, 545, 548, 552. 
Gus-til'vus IV., of Swe'den, 603, 604. 
Gus-ta'vus Va'sa, of Swe'den, 436. 
Gut'en-berg, Joftn, 395, 658. 
Giitz'kojo, Karl, 738. 
Gy-lip'pus, 113. 
Gyu'lai (dyoo'), Field Marshal, 708. 

Haa'se, 280. 

Habeas Corpus Act, 493. 

Ha'des, 78, 80. 

Ha'dri-an, Emperor, 224, 226, 230. 

Ha'dri-an I., Pope, 279. 

Ha'dri-an VI., Pope, 438. 

Hae'mus, 388. 

Ha'fiz, 274. 

Ha'gar, 52. 

Ha'ge-dorn, 538. 

Ha'gel-berg, 622. 

Hiigwe, 494. 

Haftn-Ha/in, Countess, 739. 

Hal-ber-stadt', 323, 477. 

Hal'di-?nand, Governor, 942. 

Ha-li-ar'tus, 120. 

Hal-i-car-nas'sus, 88, 124, 131. 

Hall (hawl), Charles Francis, 941. 

Hal'le, 294. . 

Hal'ieck, Hen'ry W., 909. 

Hal'Zer, 538. 

Hal'le, University of, 525. 

Hall (hawl), Stan'ley, 91C. 

Ham, 23. 

Ha'math, 38. 

Ham' bach, 664. 

Ham'burg, 380, 602, 612, 622, 680, 748. 

Ha'mer ling, 739. 

Hiim'id Ed'dm, 782. 

Ha-mil'car Bar'cas, 170, 171. 

Ham'il-ton, Al'ex-an'der, 856, 858, 860 

862, 864, 878, 879, 8S0, 884. 
Ham'il-ton, An'drew (-drii), 826. 
Ham'tl-ton, Lady, 584. 
Hamp'den, Joftn, 481, 482, 486. 
Hamp'ton, 938. 

Hainp'ton Roads, 830, 910, 914, 922. 
Ha'nau (-now), Battle of, 622. 
Han'cock, Governor, 854. 
Han'del, George Fred'er-ick, 538. 
Han'mi-bal, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 

180. 
Han'no, Archbishop, of Co-logne', 296. 
Han'0-ver, 494, 510, 514, 520, 532, 533, 598, 

601, 602, 603, 663, G64, 675, 679, 700, 705, 

716, 721, 749. 
Han'sa, see Hanseatic League. 
Han-se-at'ic League, 337, 380, 385, 422. 
Haps'burg (boorg), House of, 338, 339, 

350, 383, 415, 426, 466, 467, 472, 496, 503, 

510, 512, 530, 701. 
Har'cowrt, Sir Wil'liam (-yam), 776. 
Har'den-berg, 612. 
Har'mar, Jo-si'aft, 860. 



Har-mo'di-us, 99. 
Har'nack, 710. 
Hlr'old, Blue-tooth, 379. 
Har'old, Fairhair, 379. 
Har'old, of En'gland, (ing') 286. 
Ha-roiin' al Rasch'id, 271, 282. 
Har'pa-gus, 68. 
Har'per's Ferry, 906, 911. 
Har'per's Magazine, 939. 
Har'ris, Jo'el Cliand'ler, 939. 
Har'n-son, Ben'ja-min, 931, 932. 
Har'ri-son, Wil'liam (-yam) Hen'ry, 864, 

870, 378. 
Har'ris, Wil'liam (-yam), Tor'rey, 910. 
Harte, F. Bret, 939. 
Hart'ford, 822. 
Hart'ford Convention, 874. 
Ha-rus'pi-ces, 148. 
Har'vard College, 937. 
Har'vard, Jo/in, 818. 
Har'vey, 804, 806. 
Harx (Harts), Mountains, 294, 412. 
Has'dru-bal, 171, 172, 176, 178, 184. 
Has'san,318. 
Has'sein Am'ri, 764. 
Has'ten-beck, Battle of, 532. 
Hast'ings, Battle of, 286. 
Hatch'er's Run, 918, 919. 
Hat'ter-as, Fort, 914. 
Hau'es-ser (how'), 740. 
Hau'gwitz (haw'), 600, 601. 
Hav'el-ock, Hen'ry. 687. 
Ha'vre, 791. 
Ha-wai'i, 932, 933. 
Haw'thome, Na-than'I-el, 896. 
Hayes, Riith'er-ford B., 928, 929. 
Hay, Joftn, 940. 
Hay'nau (-now), 678. 
Hay-rad'din, 420. 
Hay'ti, 400. 

Head, Sir Ed'mund, 947. 
Head, Sir Francis, 945. 
Heb'oel, 739. 
JK'-bert, 571, 574. 
He'brevv (-bra), (language), 405. 
He'brews (-briis), 52, 54. 
Heb'ri-des, 458. 
Hec'a-tomfts, 27. 
Heck'er, 676. 
Hec'tor,83. 

Hedge, Fred'er-ick Hen'ry, 896. 
He'gel, 540, 740. 
He-gein'o-ny, 89, 107, 121. 
He-gf'ra, 267. 

Hei'del-berg, 468, 504, 578, 673. 
Hei'del-berg Catechism, 427. 
Hei'del-berg, University of, 344. 
Heil-bronu', Treaty of, 174. 
Hel'ne, Hein'ricft, 738. 
Hein'sius, 512. 
He'la, 219. 
Hel'en of Troy, 82. 
Hel'e-na, Empress, 302. 
Hel'e-na, Mother of Con'stan-tine, 239. 
He'li-asts, 99. 
Hel'i-con, 76. 
Hel'i-go-land, 777. 
He-li-o-gab'a-lus, 235. 
He-li-6p'o-lis, 44. 52, 593. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1018 



Hel'las, 75, 76, 78. 

Hel'le, 82: 

Hel-le'nes, 81, 89, 118. 

Hel-les-pont, 82, 88, 104, 107, 114, 131, 143, 

388. 
Helm'hGltz, 741. 
He'lots, 87, 93, 94, 110, 112. 
Hel-ve'ti-a (-shi-), 199, 584. 
HeN'gist,261. 
Hen'ne-pin, Father, 794. 
Hen-ri-et'ta of France, 480. 
Hen-ri-ot' (aN-), 571, 57S. 
Hen'ry, Brother of Fred'er-ick II., of 

Prus'sia (-sha), 533. 
Hen'ry, Fort, 908, 909. 
Hen'ry, Duke of Ba-va'ri-a, 292. 
Hen'ry, JG'seph, 741, 941. L 
Heu'ry of An-jou' (on- zhOG'), 450. 
Hen'ry of Bruns'wick, 422. 
Hen'ry of Bur'gun-dy, 368. 
Hen'ry II., of Cas-t'ile', 367. 
Hen'ry II., of En'g.iind (ing'), 359, 366. 
Hen'ry III., of En'gland (ing'), 362. 
Hen'ry IV., of En'gland (ing'), 363. 
Hen'ry V., of En'gland (ing'), 356, 363. 
Hen'ry VI., of En'gland (ing'), 356, 

363. 
Hen'ry VII., of En'gland (ing'), 364,398, 

799. 
Hen'ry VIII., of En'gland (ing'), 366, 

430, 432, 433. 459. 
Hen'ry II., of France. 420. 425, 448. 
Hen'ry III., of France, 452, 454. 
Hen'ry IV., of France. 448, 466, 494, 791. 
Hen'ry V., of France, 624, 665, 757. 
Hen'ry III., of Ger'ma-ny, 296. 
Hen'ry IV., of Ger'ma-ny, 288, 296, 298, 

300. 
Hen'ry V.. of Ger'ma-ny, 300. 
Hen'ry VI., of Ger'ma-ny. 312, 323, 324. 
Hen'ry VII., of Ger'ma-ny, S41. 
Hen'ry of Na-van-e', 450, 452, 453, 454, 

456. 
Hen'ry of Plau'en (plow") 384. 
Hen'ry of Sax'G-ny, 422. 
Hen'ry of Schwe-rin', 380. 
Hen'ry of Si-le'si-a (shi-), 386. 
Hen'ry of Thu-rin'gi-a, 326. 
Hen'ry, Pat'rick, 804, 835, 839, 841, 856, 

897, 899, 940. 
Hen'ry, Prince of Prus'sia (-sha), 551. 
Hen'ry, Son of Fred'er-ick II., of Ger'- 

many, 325. 
Hen'ry, the Fowler, of Sax'6-ny, 290. 
Hen'ry, the Lion, of Ba-va'ri-a, 321, 322, 

'323, 324. 
Hen'ry, the Proud, of Ba-va'ri-a, 300, 

319, 320. 
HG-phaes'ti-Gn (fes'), 141. 
Heptarchy, 261. 
He'ra, 78. 
Her-a-cli'des, 127, 
Her'bart, 740. 

Her-bois' d' (der-bwa'), 578. 
Her-cu-la'ne-um, 226. 
Her'cu-les, 51, 82, 86. 
Her'cu-les, Pillars of, 50. 
Her'der, 537, 538, 648. 
Her'mann, 213, 214. 



Her'mann of Salni, 300. 

Her'mau'ric, 249. 

Her'mes, 80, 113. 

Her'ni-ci, 147, 165. 

He-rGd'G-tus, 88, 92, 124, 125. 

Her'Gd, the Great, 145. 

.Her-re'ra, Jo-se (yo-za), 950. 

Her'schel, 740. 

Her'wegh (-veg), 739. 

Her-ze-gG-v'i'na (hert-se), 763, 767, 768. 

Herz'Gg (herts'), General, 734. 

He'si-od, 86. 

Hesse, 214, 276, 280, 332, 422, 426, 427, 600, 

602, 603, 622, 716, 718, 721, 726, 732. 
Hesse Cas'sel, 532, 663, 700. 
Hesse-Darm'stadt, 622, 675, 718. 
Hes'sians (hesh'), 842, 844. 
Hes'ti-a,80. 
Hey'camp, Bishop, 745. 
Hey'se, Paul (pawl) 739. 
Hez-e-ki'aft, 65. 
Hi-dal'gO, Mi'g-uel',949. 
Hid'schra/i, 267. 
Hierarchy, 298, 331. 
Hi'e-ro, 167, 168. 
Hieroglyphics, 46. 
Hig'ffin-son, 815. 

Hil'de-brand, Archdeacon. 296, 298. 
Hil'dreth, Rich'ard, 897. 
Hill, Da'vid B., 931. 
Him-ii'la'ya, 29, 32, 
Hin'diis, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36. 
Hin'dii Mountains, 136. 
Hin-du-stan', 386. 
Hip-par'cftus, 99, 145. 
Hip'pi-us, 99, 101, 102. 
Hip'po, 246, 254. 
Hip-poc'rii-tes, 145. 
Hippodrome, 261, 262. 
His-pan-i-O-Ia, 400. 
His-ti-ae'us, 100, 101. 
HO'bart, Joftn Hen'ry, 890. 
Hoche, 573, 576. 
H6c/t-e-la'ga, 790, 791. 
Ho'del (hu'), Rob'ert, 747. 
Hoe, Kich'ard March, 890. 
HO'fer, An'dre-as, 609, 610. 
Ho'ften-fried'berg (-borg), Battle at, 

528. 
Ho'ftenjin'den, 591, 592. 
Ho'hen-lO'Ae, Cardinal, 744. 
H07ien-stau-fens (stow-), 288, 300, 320, 

329, 332, 377. 
Ho'/ten-zol'lern (tsol'), Carl An'ton 

von, 696. 
HO'ften-zol'lern (-tsol'), House of, 703. 
Ho'/ien-zoliern (-tsol'), Prince, 725. 
HG'ften-zol'lern (-tsol'), Sig-mar-ing'en, 

702. 
Hol'6ein,464. 

Hold'eu, Ed'ward SiN'gle-ton, 941. 
Hol'land, 378, 435, 448, 490, 499, 500, 505, 

510, 576, 594, 598, 601, 602, 612, 623,661. 

721,754,958. 
Hol7and, Jo-si'ah Gll'bert, 939. 
Hol'fis, 482. 

Holm, Cam-pa-ni'us, 799. 
Hoimes, Ol'i-ver Wen'dell, 896, 897, 937, 

939. 



Hol'stein, 380, 436, 470, 477, 518, 645, 677, 

680, 684, 704, 705, 713, 714, 717, 744. 
Holy Land, 302, 312. 
Holy Sepulchre, 316. 
Holy War, 348. 
Hom'burg (boorg), 700, 718. 
Ho'mer, 77, 83, 84, 86. 99, 131, 211. 
Ho-mer'i-des, 86. 
Home Rule, 776, 783. 
Hon-du'ras, 403. 
Ho-no'ri-us, 251, 254. 
Hood, General, 919. 
Hook'er, Jo'seph, 912, 913. 
Hook'er, Rev. Tftom'as, 816, 821. 822. 
Hop-kin'si-ans, 890. 
Hop'lites, 94, 112. 
Hor'ace, 211. 
H6-ra'ti-i (-shi-), 154. 
Ho-ra'ti-iis (-shi'), CO'cles, 158, 159. 
Horn, Count, 442. 
Horn, General, 474. 
Hor'sa, 261. 
Horse'shoe Bend, 878. 
Ho-se'a, 65. 

Hospital, Order of the, 318. 
Hot'ten-tots, 398. 
JTours, 79. 

Hou'ston, Sam, 864, 876. 950. 
How'ard, Cath'a-rine, 432. 
Howard, Lord, 805. 
Howe, E-li'as, 890. 
Howe, Jo'seph, 946. 
How'ell, Sam'u-el G., 893. 
How'ells, Wil'Iiam (-yarn) Dean, 939. 
Howe, Sir Wil'Iiam (-yam), 840, 842, 844. 
Huas'car (hwas'), 403. 
HQ'berts-burg, Peace of, 534, 535. 
Hud'son, Hen'ry, 795. 
Hud'son, Hen'ry Nor'man, 896. 
Hud'son River, 795, 796, 828, 844, 850, 886. 
Hnjf/i Ca'pet, 285. 
Huofies, Jo/in, 892. 
Hua/i of Par'is, 284. 285. 
Hu'go, Brother of Phil'ip I., of France, 

304. 
.Hii-go', Victor, 655, 656, 685, 737. 
HQ'gue-nots, 428, 447, 448, 450, 452, 454, 

496, 507, 508, 524, 792, 808. 
Huitz'il-o-poc/t'tli (l)Witz'), 403. 
Hull, Wil'Iiam (-yam), 868, 943. 
Humbert' (un-), General, 585. 
Hum'bert, of It'a-ly, 761. 
Hum'boldt, Al-ex-au'der v6n, 740. 
Hum'phrey, Joftn, 816. 
Hundred Days, 628. 
Hume, Jo'seph, 945. 
HUN'ga-ry, 239, 284, 288, 292, 296, 350, 381, 

382, 383, 386, 388, 390, 426, 466. 467, 503, 

526, 549, 673. 677, 678, 679, 688, 701, 702, 

722. 753, 776, 779, 780. 
Huns, 249, 255. 
Hun'ter, General, 918. 
Hiin'yad, 382,390. 
Hu'ron, Indians. 792. 
Hu'ron, Lake. 792, 793, 794. 
Hus'sey, O'bed, 888. 
Huss'ites, 348, 426, 467. 
Huss, Joftn, 346, 348, 408. 
Hutch'in-son, Anne, 817, 822, 823. 



use, urn, up, rude; foM, foot; by; cell; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1014 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Hutch'in-son, T/iom'as, 836. 
Hut'ten (hoof), Ul'ric von, 404, 410. 
Hy-das'pes, 138. 
Hyk'sos, 48. 
Hyph'a-sis, 1S8. 
Hys-tas'pes, 74. 

I-ber-ville', Pi-erre' 16 Moyne d', 795. 

Ib-ra-him', 647, 648. 

Ib'sen, 657. 

Ice'land, 285, 380. 

I-cH'i-us, Lu'<;i-us, 162. 

I-co'ni-um, 312. 

Iconoclasts, 265, 275. 

I'da-ho, 864. 

ih'ne, 740. 

I-ler'da, 203. 

Il'i-ad, 84, 211. 

Il'i-urn, 82, 83, 103, 194. 

Illinois', 866. 878, 937. 

Il-li-nois', River, 794. 

Il-lu-mi-na'ti, 546. 

Il-lyr'i-a, 171, 239, 251, 628. 

Il-lyr'i-eum, 244. 

Image Breakers, see Iconoclasts. 

Image Worshippers, 264. 

Im'bros, 78. 

In eas, 403. 

Independence, Declaration of, 841. 

In di-a, 26. 33, 35, 36, 37, 50, 138, 143, 268, 

372, 389, 398, 641, 754, 775, 783. 
In'di-a, 828, 852, 944. 
In-di-an'a, 666, 878, 888, 937, 939. 
In'di-au Ocean, 396. 
In'di-ans, 32, 401, 808, 817, 823, 828, 830, 831, 

832, 836, 844. 847, 853, 860, 864, 866, 878, 

888, 893, 924, 938. 
In-di'an Territory, 878. 
Indra (aNd'r). 34. 
In'dus, 32, 138. 
I'nez, of Spain, 368. 
Ing'el-lieim, 282. 
Ing'el-heim, Diet of, 300. 
Ing'el-strom, 553. 
In'gle (ing'), Kich'ard, 807. 
Ing'lings. 379. 

In'gol-staat, (ing'), 407, 426, 546. 
Ink-er-man, Battle of, 691. 
Innocent III., Pope, 319, 324, 325, 360. 
In'no-?ent IV., Pope, 325, 326. 
Inn, Kivev, 609. 
Iiins'briick, 425, 609, 610, 674. 
Inquisition, 36S, 370, 372, 437, 438, 441, 442, 

546, 547, 638, 788, 789. 
Insurgent, L' (laN-soor-ghoN'), 862. 
Interstate Commerce Bill, 931. 
In-va-1'ides' (an-), Ho'teides,506,561,632. 
I'odelte, 464. 
I-o'm-a, 82, 88, 101. 
I-o'ni-an Islands, 641. 
I-Q'ni-an Sea, 203. 
I-on'ie Order, 126. 
I'o-wa, 864, 937. 
Iph-i-ge-ni'a, 83, 123. 
Ip'sus, 142. 
I-ran', 38, 104. 
Ireland, 366, 367, 460, 481, 482, 488, 585, 

644, 645, 687, 688, 772, 776, 808, 826, 890. 
I-rene', 265. 



Ir-min-saul' (-sawl'), 279. 

Iron Cross, Order of the, 620. 

I'ron-sides (-urn-), 486. 

Ir-6-quois' Indians, 792, 793, 826, 828. 

Ir'ving (er'), Wash'ing-ton (vvosh'), 894. 

I'siac, 52. 

Is-a-bel'la, of Cas-tlle', 367, 368, 398, 400. 

Is-a-bel'la, of France, 356. 

Is-a-bel'la II., of Spain, 664, 665, 722, 723, 
724. 

I-sa'iah (-ya), 65, 66. 

Ish'ma-el, 52. 

Is'a-dore, of Spain, 331. 

I'sis, 46, 144. 

Is'lam, 267, 268, 593. 

Is-ma-11' Pa-sha', 773, 774. 

I-soe'ra-tes, 125. 

I-solde', 335. 

Is'ra-el, 41, 52, 64. 65. 

Is'ra-el-Ites, 27, 38, 54, 56. 

Is'sus, 132. 

Is'tri-a, Ca'po d', 648. 

I-tal'i-ca, 192. 

It'a-ly, 78, 80, 88, 98, 100, 113, 136, 140, 147, 
148, 161, 166, 167, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 
180, 188, 191, 194, 196, 197, 206, 239, 244, 
249, 251, 254, 255, 262. 264, 275, 279, 282, 
284, 288, 292, 321, 322, 326, 335, 339, 341, 
351, 370, 372, 374, 375, 377, 404, 416, 418, 
419, 420, 437, 444, 503, 505, 511, 580, 582, 
584, 585, 586, 592. 594, 598, 600, 601, 602, 
609, 622, 636, 638, 639. 646, 650, 660, 664, 
668, 673, 676, 684, 701, 706, 707, 708, 710, 
712, 713, 717, 720, 725, 744, 748, 752, 760, 
761, 777, 779, 780, 932, 950. 

It'a-ly, Art and Literature, 462. 

Ith'a-ca, 77, 83. 

Itho'me, 77, 95. 110. 

I-tiir-bi'de (-the), Au-gus-tin' (o-gus- 
taN') de, 949, 960. 

I-tur-ri-ga'ray, Jo'se (yo'za) de, 949. 

Ivan' I., of Kus'sia (-sua), the Great, 
385. 

I-van' II., of Rus'sia (-sha), 385. 

Ivan III., of Rus'sia (-sha ), 524. 

Iv'ry, Battle at, 456. 

Jack 'son, 912. 

Jack'son, An'drew (-drii), 864, 874, 876, 
880, 882, 883, 884, 886, 898, 900, 901, 902, 
906, 930. 

Jack'son, Hel'en Hunt, 939. 

Jack'son, Tftdm'as Jon'a-than, (" Stone- 
wall"), 878, 911, 912. 

Ja'cob, 52. 

Ja-co'W (ya-), 540. 

Jac'o-bins. 556,565. 566,567,568,570,571, 
572, 573, 578, 580, 583, 595, 637, 860. 

Jae'o-bites, 516. 

Ja'cob of Mo'lay, 341. 

Ja-gel'lo (ya-), of Po'land, 384. 

Ja-gel'lon (ya-), House of, 384. 

Ja/in (yan),646. 

Ja'mai'ca, 400, 788. 

James, Hen'ry, 939. 

James I., of En'gland (ing'), (VI., of 
Scot'land), 458, 460, 479, 481, SOS, 806. 

James II., of En'gland (ing'), 492, 493. 
494, 807, 820, 822, 826. 



James I., of Scot'land, 364. 

James II., of Scot'land, 364. 

James III., of Scot'land, 364. 

James IV., of Scot'land, 366. 

James V., of Scot'land, 366. 

James River, 803. 910, 911, 918. 

James III., the Pretender, 510, 514. 

James'town, 800, 805. 

Ja-nic'u-lum, 158. 

Jan'is-sa-ries, 388, 392, 522, 648. 

Jan'sen-ists, 507. 

Ja'nus, 124. 

Ja-pan', 941. 

Ja'phet, 23. 

Ja'son, 82. 

Jas'sy (ya'), Peace of, 552. 

Ja'va, 448. 

Jay, Joftn, 852, 856, 860. 

Jean (zhan) Paul (pawl), 650. 

Jeb'u-sites, 60. 

Jefferson, Tftom'as, 804, 841, 856, 858, 

860, 862, 864, 866, 878, 879, 880, 888, 899, 

900. 
Jeffries, Judge, 493. 
Je'hu, 65. 

Jel'la-chich (yel'),677, 678. 
Je'mappes (zha'), Battle of, 568. 
Jen'a, 539, 603, 620. 
Jen'a, Battle of, 602, 750. 
Jen'a, University of, 645. 
Jenk'9es, 930. 
Jeph'tha, 56, 58. 
Jei'-e-mi'aft, 65. 
Jer'i-cfto, 198. 
Jer-6-bo'am. 64. 
Jer-o-bo'am II., 65. 
Je'rome, 247. 

Je-rome', of Pragwe, 347, 348. 
Jer'sey, Isle of. 656. 
Je-ru-sa-lem, 60, 65, 144, 224, 268, 306, 310, 

312, 314, 316. 
Jes'u-its, 439, 447, 452. 466, 467. 507. 524, 

516, 547, 637, 638, 668,670, 671, 788, 789, 

791, 792, 794, 807. 
Je-sus, Company of, 546. 
Jew'ett (jii') Sa'raft Orne, 939. 
Jews (Jiiz), 29, 52, 54, 66, 144, 145, 224,226, 

267, 304, 306, 368, 384, 551, 695, 696, 738, 

767, 780. 
Jezde-gerd', 268. 
Jez'e-bei, 64. 
Jim'e-nes, 949. 

Jo'a-cftim (yo'), of Bran'den-biirg, 424. 
Jo-an' of Arc, 356, 358, 363. 
Joan' I., of Na'ples, 377. 
Jo-an' II., of Na'ples, 377. 
J6-an\ of Spain, 379. 
Jo'az, 65. 
Job, 66. 
Jo'el, 65. 

JG/m, Archduke of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 676. 
Joftn, Elector of Sax'6-ny, 412. 
Joftn Fred'er-ick, Elector of Sax'o-ny, 

423, 424, 425. 
Joftn, King of Sax'o-ny, 720. 
Joftn of Ab-ys-sin'i-a, 761. 
Jo/in of Bo-lie'mi-a, 342. 
Joftn of Bur'gun-dy, 356, 378, 388. 
Jo/in of En'gland (ing'), 324, 351, 360. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1015 



Joftn II., of Por'tu-gal, 368, 396, 398. 

Joftn VI., of Por'tu-gal, 639, 640, 958, 959. 

Joftn of Pi'6'ci-da (-die-), 330. 

John II., of Spain, 368. 

Joftn of Swa'bi-a, 339. 

Joftn III., of Swe'den, 437. 

John, Pa-lae-ol'o-gus, 389. 

John XXII., Pope, 341, 342. 

John XXIII., Pope, 347. 

Joftns Hop'kins University, 937. 

Joftn'son, An'drew (-drii), 909, 922, 924, 

925. 
Joftn'son, Governor, 808. 
Joftn'son, Rev'er-dy, 922. 
Joftn'son, Sir Wil'liam (-yam), 830, 831. 
Joftn'ston, Al'bijrt Sid'ney, 909. 
JO/in'ston, Jo'seph! Ec'cles-ton, 908, 910, 

912, 918, 919, 920. 
Joftn, the Evangelist, 78. 
Joftn, the Good, 352, 354, 378. 
Join-vilie', (zhwiui-) 335. 
Jo-U-Si, 794. 

Jo-li-K (zho-), Loii-i's', 793, 794. 
Jo-li-e« (zho), MoJrt, 794. 
Jo'naft, 51. 

Jones, Captain Paul (pawl), 848. 
Jop'pa, 312, 588. 
Jor'dau, 56, 58, 62, 302. 
Jo'seph, 52, 54, 624. 

Jo'seph, Em-man'u-el, of Pf>r'tu'gal,547. 
Jo'seph, Father, 498. 
Jo'se-phine, Empress, 580, 594, 612. 
Jo'seph I., of Ger'ma-ny, 511, 512. 
Jo'seph II., of Ger'ina-ny, 528, 536, 537, 

549, 551, 552. 
Jo-se'phus, 224. 
Josh'u-a, 56. 
Jo-si'aft, 65. 

Jour-dan' (zhoOr-doN'), 576, 578. 
Jo'vi-an, 248. 

Ju-an' (yii-), Don, 440, 446. 
Ju-a'rez (hu-), Be-ni'to Pat/Id, 950, 952. 
Ju'daft, 38, 42, 58, 64, 65. 
Ju-de'a, 144, 145, 224. 
Ju-gur'tha, 190. 
Ju-gur'thine War 189, 190. 
JQl'ia, (-ya). 219. 
Jul'ian (-yan), 244, 247, 248. 
Jul'ian (-yan) Alps, 249. 
Jul'ian (-yan) House, 219. 
Jul'i-an-a, of Den'mark, 548. 
Jiil'ius (-yus) II., Pope, 372, 377. 
Ju'no, 56, 78. 
Ju-nOC (zhu-), 604, 608. 
Jun'ta, 605, 608. 
Ju'pl-ter, 78, 156, 224. 
Ju'ra, 734. 

Jus-tiii'i-an, 262, 264. 
Jus-tin'i-an Code, 262, 362. 
Jut'land, 478. 
Ju've-nal, 232. 

Ka-a'ba, 266. 

Ka-biil', 775. 

Ka-di'jaft, 267. 

Kair -wan', 270. 

Kai'sers-lau'tern (-low'), Battle at, 576. 

Ka'lisch, Proclamation of, 620. 

Kal-li-krat'i-das, 114. 



Kal-no'ky, Count, 753. 

Kane, E-li'sha Kent. 743, 941. 

Kan'sas, 864, 904, 806. 

Kant, Im-man'u-el, 540, 740. 

Kapt'sehak, 385. 

Kar'is-nians, 386. 

Karl Al'bert, of Ba-va'ri-a, 526, 528. 

Karl, Archduke, 578, 582, 585. 

Kar'lings, 275, 276, 284, 8^5, 453. 

Karl'manii, 276, 279. 

Karl Mar-tel', 271, 275. 

Karl IV., of Ger'ina-ny, 343. 

Karl VI., of Ger'ma-ny, 526. 

Karl IX., of Swe'den, 437. 

Karl XV., of Swe'den, 754. 

Karl, the Bald, 282. 

Karl, the Great, 265,276,279, 280, 282, 284, 

294, 415, 604. 
Karl, the Fat, 281. 
Kars, 694. 
Ka-san', 385. 
Kas-san'der, 141. 

Katte (ket), Lieutenant von, 526. 
Katz'biicft, Battle of, 620. 
Kan-da-har', 775. 
Kaufman (kowf), General, 754. 
Kaul'bacft (kowl'), Wil'liam (-yam), 657. 
Kau'nitz (kow'), Prince vou, 528, 548. 
Kear'ney, Phil'ip. 877. 
Kear'sage, (vessel), 916. 
Ke'ble, Joftn, 890. 
Keith, Governor, 826. 
Kell'er-mann, 568, 592. 
Kem'pis, Tftom'as A., 334. 
Ken'ne-bec', Kiver, 814, 823. 
Ken'nS-dy, Joftn Pen'die-ton, 897. 
Kent, En'gland (ing'), 261. 
K5nt, Island, 806, 807. 
Ken-tuck'y, 866, 909, 910, 937. 
Ken-tiick'y Resolutions, 860, 864, 899, 

906. 
Kep'ler, Joftn, 460, 462. 
Ket'tel-er, Bishop, 743, 748. 
Kett'ler, Gott'hard (-hart),385. 
Kfta'lid, 268. 
Kftar-toum', 775. 
Kfti'va, 754, 772. 
Ki-eff', 385. 

Kieft, Wil'liam (-yam), 796, 797. 
Kiel, Treaty of. 622. 
Kiersey, Deed of, 275. 
Kings Mountain, Battle of, 849. 
Kink'el, Jo'hann (yO'-) Gott'fried (-fret), 

739. 
Kirc'hof/, Gus-tav' (goos-) Eob'ert, 740. 
Kirk (kerk),Da'vid, 792. 
Kiss'in-gen 746 
Kiu'burg, 294. 

Kle'ber, General, 573, 589, 593. 
Kle-om'e-nes, 142. 
Kle'6n,112. 

Klop'stock, Frie'dricft Gott'lieb, 538. 
.Knox, Hen'ry, 860. 
A'nox, Joftn, 429. 
-Khox'viUe, 914. 
Ka-lin', Battle of, 532. 
Ko'nig-ratz (ke'nig-retz). Battle of, 716. 
Ko'uigs-berg (ki5'-), 318, 385, 524,525,540, 

602, 603, 703, 740. 



Kopp, Bishop, 748. 

Ko'ran, 267, 268. 

Ko-rei-shi'tes, 266, 267. 

Ko'resli, 70. 

Ko'sas, Mar-ti'nez (-neth) de, 953. 

Kos-ci-usz'ko, Thad'de-us, 552, 55K, 554, 

602, 698. 
Kos'siitft (kosb/), Lou-is', 678. 
Kot'ze-biie, 645. 
Krain, 338. 
Kra-pot'kin, Prince. 
Krem'lin, 385, 616. 
Kriem'hilde, 336. 
Kru'de-ner, General, 765. 
Ku-klux', 926. 
Krii-ko-wick'i (-vick'), 663. 
A'schafri-ja, 33. 
Kues-trin' (kes-), Fort, 526. 
Kulm (koolm), 318. 
Kulm (koolm), Battle of, 620. 
Kii-ma'si, 773. 
Ku'ni-giinde, 294. 
Ku'ni-niuud, 264. 
Ku'rii, 35. 

Kii-tii'soff, 600, 616, 618. 
Ky'nos-keph'a-la, 179. 

La-be-do-yere' (dvva-), Colonel, 628, 632. 

Lab-ra-dor', 402. 

Lab'y-rinth, 43. 

La Car-6-li'na, Colony of, 54 

Lac'e-dse'mon, 77, 82, 87. 

La Chaise, 508. 

La'cftai, Bishop, 760. 

La-co'ni-a, 77, 121, 388. 

La-con'i-ca, 86, 87, 93. 

La'de, 101. 

La'den-bflrg, 227. 

Lad'is-laus (-laws), of HuN'ga-ry, 390. 

Lffi'li-us, 184. 

La-fa-yeKe', Marqnis de, 562, 563, 564, 

566, 660, 846, 850. 
Laf'fitte, Jacques (zhak), 659. 
La-fon-taine', Jean (zhaN), 507. 
La Fon-taiiie', of Cau'a-da, 946. 
Laftn, 248. 

Lai'bacft, Congress of, 639. 
Lam'a;cftus, 113. 
La Mar'mo-ia, General, 761. 
La-mar-tine', 655, 656, 672. 
Lam-balte' (Ion-), Princess. 566. 
Lam'bert, Joftn, 490, 491, 492. 
La-mo-ri-c'i-ere', General, 711. 
La Motie, 794. 
Lane'a-shire, 921. 
Lanc'as-ter, 826. 
Lanc'as-ter, House of, 363. 
Laii'^ey, de. 826, 828. 
Lan'dam-man, 584. 
Land'staftl (lanf), 410. 
Land'stiirm (lanf), 749. 
Land'wehr (lanf var), 622, 749. 
Lang'ley, Sam'u-el Pier'pont, 941. 
Lan-gue-doc' (16N-), 319. 
Lan-jui-nais' (16N-zhwe-), Count, 163. 
Lannes, Marshal, 599. 
Lan'za, General, 710. 
La-oc'o-6n, 127. 
La-oN', 285. 



use, firn , up, riide ; food, foot ; by ; cell ; N=ug ; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1016 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



La Pla'ta, 956. 

La' res, 80. 

Lar-is'sa, 75. 

Lii Ro-chelte', 450. 

LaRo-man'a, 601, '608. 

La Rfltft-I-ere', Battle of, 623. 

LiiSaUe, 794,795. 

Las Ca'sas, 404. 

Las-saUe', 741. 

Lass'6, 6r-lan'do, 466. 

Lat-i-huu'di-a, 188. 

Lat'in (language), 404. 

Lat'ins, 147, 148, 157, 165, 192, 247,314. 

Lat'i-mer, Hugh, 434. 

La'ti-um (-shi-), 147. 

Lau'be (low'). Hein'ricft, 738. 

Laud (lawd), Wil'liam (-yam), 481, 482, 

817. 
Lau'en-burg (low'en-boorg), 704, 705, 

706. 
LaN'gie-wicz (-viks), 698. 
La-va-lette', Count, 634. 
La-va-tei", 540. 
La-voi-s'i-ei" (-vwa-), its-tome' (twan') 

Lau-rent' (10-raN'), 572. 
Law, Joftn, 513, 795. 
Law'son, C e'eil, 809. 
Laj/'nez, 439. 
Leb'a-non, 41, 49. 
Le-brfiN', 591. 
Lecft'feld (-felt), 381. 
Lech, River, 472. 
Le-comte', General, 738. 
Le-dru'-RGHin' (Ian'), A-lex-aN'dre Au- 

guste' (G-), 672, 683. 
Lee, Charles, 839, 847. 
Lee, RGb'ert E., 878, 911, 912, 918, 919,920. 
Lee, Rich'ard Hen'ry, 804, 841. 
Legion of Honor, 595, 626. 
Lean-a'go (ya'), 708. 
Leon-a'no (ya'), Battle of, 322. 
Le'hioft River, 826. 
Le'hlgh University, 937. 
Leib'nitz (lip'-), Baron, 525. 
Lez'ces'ter, Earl of, 447. 
Lei-no'gen, E-nriT eG von, 304. 
Leip'zig (-sik), 424, 472, 477, 530, 534, 602, 

622, 747. 
Leip'zig (-sik). Battle of, 472. 
Leip'zig (-sik), Interim, 425. 
Leip'zig (-sik), University of, 317. 
Leis'ler, Ja'cob, 826. 
Lem'nos, 78. 
Len'ox Library, 93S. 
Le-C'beii, Truce of, 582. 
Le'on, 639. 
Le-6n'i-diis, 105. 
Le-0-par'di, Count, 650. 
Le'G-pOld II., of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 339, 341, 

342,344. 
Le'G-pOld V., of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 312. 
Le'G-pOld I., of Bel'gi-um, 688. 
Le'0-pold II., of Bel'gi-um, 754. 
Le'6-pGld I., of Ger'ma-ny, 500, 503, 510, 

525. 
Le'o-pold II., of Ger'ma-ny, 549, 565. 
Le'o-pold, of HO-Aen-zol'lern (-tsol')i 725. 
Le'o-pold, of Saxe-CG'biirg, 661, 662. 
Le'o-pold, of Tus'ca-ny, 668, 708. 



Le'O I., Pope, 255. 

Le'O III., Pope, 280. 

Le'O IV., Pope, 265. 

Le'o X., Pope, 377, 406. 

Le'O XIII., 718, 761, 763. 

Le'O, tlie Ar-me'ni-an, 265. 

Le'o, the I-sau'ri-an (-saw'), 261. 

Le-pau'tO, 440. 

Lep'i-dus, 206, 207. 

Ler'i-da, 511. 

Les'bos, 78, 87, 93, 112, 114. 

Less'eps, de, 695, 778. 

Les'sing, Gott'hold (-holt), E'phra-im' 

538, 539. 
Leuc'tru, 76, 120. 
Leu'tften (loi'), Battle of, 532. 
Le-viiut', 641. 
Le'vi, 56. 
Le'vi, Point, 832. 
Le'vites, 56, 64. 
Le'wald (-valt), Fan'ny, 739. 
Lex'ing-ton, 838. 
Ley'den, 812. 

Ley'den, University of, 44ll 
Lib'y-a, 73. 
Li-cin'i-an Laws, 188. 
Li-cin'i-us, 240. 
Lie'ber, Fran'cis, 940. 
Lieg'nitz, 386. 
Lieg'uitz, Battle at, 534. 
Li^n'y (-ye'), 630. 
Li-gu'ri-a, 172. 
L'i'ma, 957. 
Linc'oin, A'bra-ham, 784, 899, 906, 907, 

908, 911, 915, 918, 922, 923, 921, 925, 910. 
Linc'oin, Ben'ja-min, 816, 848. 
Linz (lints), 503, 526. 
Lip'pe-Det'mold, 700. 
Lis'bon, 368, 398, 411, 601, 639, 958, 959. 
Lis'bon, Earthquake at, 547. 
Lis'sa, Battle of, 720. 
List, Fried'iie/i, 741, 
Literature, 33, 66, 123, 145, 
Lith-u-a'ni-a, 384. 
Lit-tau' (-taw'), 663. 
Liv-a-di'a, 646, 647. 
Liv'er-pool, 921. 
Liv'i-ft, 219, 403. 

Liv'ing-stone, Da'vid, 712, 796, 941. 
Liv'i-us, Sal-i-na'tor, 176. 
Liv'i-us, Ti'tus, 212. 
Liv'land, 426, 137. 
Li-vo'ni-a, 518, 522. 
Lla-ne'ros (lya-),957. 
Loeft Lev'in, 458. 
Locke, Joftn, 808. 
LO-cris, 76, 128, 130. 
Lo'di, 582. 

LO'di, Bridge of, 582. 
Lo'gan, Jo/m A., 922. 
Loire (hvar), 351, 359, 730. 
Lol'lards (-lerds), 363. 
Lom'bard League, 322. 
Lom'bar-dy, 216. 246, 264,275, 279,292, 

294, 322, 325, 350, 374, 420, 510, 511,582, 

592, 628, 676, 706, 707, 708, 709. 
Lon'don (lun'dun), En'gland (ing'),362, 

492, 558, 591. 753, 782, 783. 820. 
Lon'don (lun'dun), On-ta'ri-o, 943. 



Lon'don-derr-y (lun'dun-), 822. 
Long'fell-6z», Hen'ry Wads'wovth, 

(wodz'wui'th), 834, 894, 896, 897, 904, 

939. 
Lon-gi'nus, 238. 
Long Island, 812. 
Lon'go-bards, 255. 
Loug'street, James, 914. 
Look'out (-owt) Mountain, 911. 
Lo'pez, Colonel, 952, 959. 
Lo-reu'zo, the Magnificent, 376, 377. 
LOr-ranie', 282, 290, 292, 356, 378, 126, 502, 

521, 561, 565, 658, 736, 733, 713, 716, 718. 
Lot, 52. 

LG-t/iar', of France, 285, 292. 
Lo-tftar', of It'a-ly, 282. 
Lo'tAar', the Sax'ou, 300, 319. 
Lot'ze, Rii'dolph Her' man n, 910. 
Lou'don (low'), Gid'e-on Ernst, 533. 
Lou'doun (low'), General. 831. 
Loii-i'sa, Duchess of Par'ma, 708. 
LoiHs' Blanc (bloh),685. 
Loii'is-bourg (bewrg), 821, 831. 
Loii-is' Cap'et, 154. 
Lou-Is', Cardinal, 454. 
Loii-is' d'Oiitre-Mer, 285. 
Loii-iseof Prus-sia (-sha), 598, 620. 
LoM-S'i-a'na, 513, 794, 795, 864, 879, 900, 

907, 925, 928, 937, 939. 953. 
Loii-is', of Ba'den, 503, 510. 
Loii-is', of Ba-va'ri-a, 675. 
Louis' V., of France, 285. 
Loii-is' VII., of France, 310, 351. 
Loii-is' VIII., of France, 319, 351. 
Loii-is' IX., of France, 316, 326. 
Loii-is' XI., of France, 359, ?64, 378, 379. 
Loii-is' XII., of France, 359, 372, 374, 377. 
Loii-is' XIII., of France, 494, 496, 498. 
Lou-Is' XIV., of France, 492, 494, 498, 

499, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 510, 

512, 513, 794, 795. 
Loii-is' XV., of France, 513, 524, 530, 547, 

555, 556, 624. 
Loii-is' XVI., of France, 547, 556, 557, 560, 

563, 564, 565. 566, 56S. 621, 626, 631. 
Loii-is' XVII., of France, 621. 
Loii-is' XVIII., of France, 621, 625, 626, 

628, 637. 
Loii-is', of Hol'Iand, 612. 
Loii-is' I., of HuN'ga-ry, 383. 381. 
Loii-is' II., of HiiN'ga-ry, 383. 
Loii-is', of Na'ples, 382. 
Loii-is' Plii-lippe', 659, 660, 661, 665, 666, 

672, 673, 683, 871. 
Loii-vois' (-vwa'). Marquis, 503. 
Loii'vre (-ver), 598, 738. 
Lihe'ell, James Rus'seH, 901, 937, 939. 
Lo'wen-haupt (lu'ven-howpt), General, 

519, 520. 
Loy-o'la, Ig-na'ti-us (ski-) 439. 
Lu'beck. 323, 380, 122, 136, 602, 612. 
Lu'ean, 221. 
Lu-ca'ni-a, 117, 196. 
Luc'ca, 584, 598. 
Lu-cerne', Lake, 111. 
Lu'cian (-shan), 232. 
Luck'now, 687. 
Lu-co-mO'nes, 118. 
Lii-cre'ti-us (shi-) Ca'rus. 211. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, Odd, move ; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1017 



Lu-crii'zia (-zha), 57. 

Lii-cul'JQs, 197. 

Lu-do-vi'co, 374. 

Liid'wig (-vig,_) Fer'di-nand, Prince ol 

Pl'Qs-sia (-sha), 599. 
Liid'wig (-vig) I., of Ba-va'ri-a, 670. 
Liid'wig (-vig) II., of Ba-va'ii-a, 749. 
Liid'wig (-vig) IV., of Ger'ma-ny, 341, 

342, 343. 
Liid'wig (-vig), of Thu-rin-gi-a, 323. 
Liid'wig (-vig), the Child, 284. 
Liid'wig (-vig), the Ger'man, 282. 
Liid'wig (-vig), Hie Pious, 282. 
Liiet'tieft, 300, 568. 
Lu'lt-pold (polt), of Ba-va'ri-a, 749. 
Lun'dy's Lane, Battle of, 943. 
Lii'iien-burgft, 323. 
Lfl-ne-v'iUe', Treaty of, 592. 
Lu si-ta'ni-ans, 187. 
LiYtlier-an Churcli, 413, 426, 437. 
Lu'ther-ans, 426, 427, 466, 467, 549, 891. 
Lu'ther, Mar'tin, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 

412, 413, 423, 427, 429, 462. 
Lut'zen (loot'sen), 620. 
Lut'zen (loot'sen), Battle of, 472. 
Lux'em-burg, 645, 721, 725, 754. 
Lux'ein-burg Palace, 738. 
Lii-zerne', 658, 670. 
Ly-cur'gus, 95, 97, 99, 142, 143. 
Lyd'i-a, 68. 

Ly'maii, Phin'e-as, 830, 831. 
Lynch/burg, 918, 919. 
Ly'ons, 408, 573, 628, 665, 680. 
Ly'ons, Council of, 325. 
Ly'ons, University of, 378. 
Ly-san'der, 114. 120. 
Ly-sip'pus, 126. 

Ma-cau'lay (-caw'), Tftom'as Bab'ing- 

ton, 655. 
Mac-ca-bse'us, Ju'das, 144. 
Mc-CleTZan, George Brin'ton, 908, 910, 

911, 922. 
Mc-Cor'mick (ma-), Cy'rus Hall (bawl), 

888. 
Mc-Cosh' (ma-), James, 940. 
Mac-Do-naW, General, 585, 592, 608, 614, 

619, 622. 
Mac-Do-naW, Sir Joftn, 947, 948. 
Mac-don'o»(f/7i, Tftom'as, 872. 
Mc-Dow'eil, Ir'vin (er'), 908, 910, 911. 
Mac-e-dO'ni-a, 88, 104, 107, 120, 127, 128, 

130, 131, 132, 138, 140, 141, 142, 179, 181, 

182, 194, 206, 265, 314. 388. 
Mae-e-do'ni-an (vessel). 868. 
Me-Gif'fert, Ai-'thm; 940. 
Macft-i-a-velTi. Nic-co-10', 376, 462. 
Macfi'i-moff, 692. 

Maeken'zie, Al-ex-an'der SH-dell', 948. 
Mac-ken'zie, Wil'liam (-yam) Ly'on, 

943, 945. 
Mack, General, 584, 600. 
Maek'i-naw, Straits of, 793. 
Me-Kin'ley Bill, 932. 
Mc-Leod' (-lowd'), Rev. Joftn, 810. 
Mac-Ma-MN'- President, 708, 727, 728,729, 

756, 757, 759. 
Mc-M&s'ter, Joftn Bacft, 940. 
Mae-Mi'cftael, Mor'ton, 898. 



Ma-com6', Al-ex'-an'cfer, 872. 

Mad-a-gas'ear, 759. 

Ma-dei'ra, 395. 

Mad'i-son, James, 856, 866, 878, 879, 899. 

Mad'rid, 418, 444, 604, 605, 606, 608, 639, 

722, 757, 761, 762, 763, 779. 
Mae-5e'nas, Ca'ius (-yus) Cil'ni-us, 210, 

211. 
Mag'de-burg (-boorg), 294, 425, 471, 472, 

477, 530, 566. 
Mag-del'la, 688. 
Ma-gel'tan, Fer-nan'do, 402. 
Ma-gen'ta, 707. 
Ma-gen'ta, Battle of, 708. 
Ma-gen'ta, Duke of, 727. 
Ma'gi, 42, 68. 
Mag'na Cftar'ta, 362. 
Mag'na Graa'^i-a (-slii-), 88. 
Mag-ne'si-a (-slii-), 98, 110, 180. 
Mag'nus (-noos) II., of Swe'den, 380. 
Mag'yars, 284, 290, 292, 381, 677, 678, 702, 

753. 
>fa-ha-b/ia'ra-ta, 35. 
Ma/i'di, El, 775. 
Mai-mon'i-des, Mo'ses, 274. 
Mai'notes, 647. 
Maine, 814, 817, 820, 822, 876. 
Maine, River, 716, 718, 721. 
Mai'N-te'noN', Madame de, 508, 510. 
Maj't'land, Governor, 943. 
Ma'ior (-jer) Do'mus, 461, 275. 
Ma-kart', Hans, 657. 
Mal-a-bar', 396. 
Ma-lae'ca, 398. 
Mal'a-ga, 761. 
Mal'ii-koff . 692. 
Mal-e-ven'tum, 166. 
Ma-lay', 24. 
Mal'den (mol'), 870. 
Male-sfterbes', de, 547, 557, 567, 572. 
Mal'mo (-me), Truce of, 677. 
Mal-plii-quet' (-ka'), Battle of, 512 
Mal'ta (mawl'), 50, 318, 585, 593, 641. 
Mal'ta (mawl'), Knights of, 585. 
Mal'thus, T/iom'as Rob'ert, 741. 
Mal'vern Hill, 911. 
Mam'e-lukes, 316, 318, 389, 588, 647. 
Mam'er-tines, 167. 
Mam-mae'a, 235. 
Ma-niis'seft, 56, 65. 
Ma-nas'sas Junction, 910. 
Man'ches-ter, En'gland (ing'), 642. 
Man'ches-ter, New (mi) York, 892. 
Man'da(, 565. 
Ma'nes, 80. 

Man'fred, Prince, 326. 
Man-hat7an Island, 796. 
Man'lielm, 504, 578. 623. 
Ma-nil'i-an Law, 197. 
Ma-nnin' Da-ni-el'5, 707. 
Man-i-to-ba', 947. 
Man'li-us, Tor-qua'tus, 165. 
Mann, Hor'ace, 892. 
Mann'ing, Hen'ry Ed'ward, 772. 
Man'teuf-fel (-toi), Baron, 702, 713,714, 

734, 
Man-ti-ne'a, 77, 113, 120, 121, 125. 
Man'tu-a, 582, 610, 708. 
Ma'nu, 35. 



Ma-nu-el,' Jacques (zhak), AN-toine' 

(-twan'), 637. 
Man-zo'ni (dzo'), Count, 652. 
Mar-a-can'da, 136. 
Ma-ran-ha'o (-ya'oN), 958. 
Ma-raC, Jean (zhaN), Paul (pawl), 563, 

571. 
Mar'a-thon, 76, 102, 103. 
Mar'bode, 214. 
Mar'burg (-boorg), 413. 
Mar-gel', 352, 354. 
Mar-ceTlus (chel'), Mar'cus Clau'di-u? 

(-claw'), 174, 176, 184. 
Mar'ci-a-no-pel, 249. 
Mar-co-man'ni, 214, 216, 230. 
Mar'cus Au-re'li-us (aw-), see Antoni- 
nus. 
Mar'cus Man'li-us, 164. 
Mar-do'ni-us, 101, 107. 
Mii-reN'go, 591,592, 593. 
Ma-rei', 626. 
Mar-fO'ri, 724. 
Mar'ga-ret, of France, 450. 
Mar'ga-ret, of Par'ma, 442, 444. 
Mar-ga-ret, of Thu-rin'gi-a, 330. 
Mar-ga-re'tAe, of Den'mark, 380. 
Ma-ri'a Char'lotte, of Mex'i-cO, 951. 
Ma-ri'a C/iris-ti'na, of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 

763. 
Ma-ri'a C/iris-ti'na, of Spain, 664, 665, 

722. 
Ma-ri-am'ne, 145. 
Ma-ri'a, of Bur'gun-dy, 379. 
Ma-ri'a II., of Por'tu-gal, 547, 641. 
Ma-ri'a, Phi-lip'po, 374. 
Ma-ri'a, Queen of Por'tu-gal, 959. 
Ma-ri-a T/ie-re'sa, of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 

526, 528, 530, 533, 534, 537, 546, 548, 556, 

624. 
Ma-rie'An-toi-net(e' (on -twa-), of France. 

556, 566, 572, 624. 
Ma-rie', of Ba-va'ri-a, 711. 
Ma-rie' Loii'ise, of Frange, 612, 625, 

668. 
Ma-rijrn-a'no (-ya'), Battle of, 374, 416. 
Ma-ri'no, Mar'tin, 722. 
Mar'i-on, Fran'eis, 848. 
Ma'ri-us, Ca'ius (-yus), 189, 190, 191, 192, 

194. 
Ma'ri-tis, the Younger, 191. 
Mark-neis'sen, 290. 
Marl'borough (mawl'b'ro), Duke of, 

510, 511, 512. 
Mar-moNj, Marshal, 599, 608, 621, 625." 
Mar'mo-ra, 88. 
Marne, 623. 

Ma-rof, Clem'ent, 46i. 
Mar-quette (-kef), 793. 
Miirs, 148, 150. 
Mar-sa'la, 710. 
Mar-seiUes, 418, 573, 637. 
Mars, Field of, 256. 
Mar'shall, Joftn, 862. 883. I 
Marsh, C. W., 933, 940, 941. 
Marsh'feld, Battle of, 338. 
Mar's Hill, 97. 
Mar'si'an, 147, 192. 
Mar'ston Moor, Battle of, 486. 
Mar'tin V„ Pope, 347. 



use, urn, up, rude; food, foot; by; cell; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1018 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Marx, Karl, 741, 934. 

Mar'y-land (mer'-), 804, 806, 807, 809, 823, 

856. 893, 923, 937. 
Ma'ry of Bur'gun-dy, 351. 
Ma'ry of Guise, 428. 
Ma'ry Stu'art, 447, 448, 457, 458, 459, 460, 

479. 
Ma'ry, Tu'dor, 434. 

Ma'ry II., of En'gland (ing'), 493,807,826. 
Mas-i-nis'sa, 178, 179, 133, 198. 
Ma'son, Captain Joftn, 822. 
Ma'son, Confederate Commissioner, 921. 
Masons, Free, 638, 639, 640. 
Mass-a-chu'setts, 793, 814, 815, 817, 819, 

820, 821, 822, 830, 835, 836, 837, 854, 892, 

893, 907, 937. 
Mass-a-chii'setts Bay, 814. 
Mas-sag'etae, 70. 
Mas'sa-soit, 814, 820. 823. 
Mas-se-na', 688, 608. 
Mas-sil'i-a, 203. 
Mat-a-mo'ras, 876. 
Math'er, Cot'ton, 821. 
Math'er, In'crease, 821. 
Ma-t/iil'da, of Tuscany, 2E8. 
Mat-ta-tfti'as, 141. 
Mat-Wti'as, 466, 467. 
Mat-tftie'sen, John, 722. 
Mauch (mawk) Chunk, 888. 
Mau'pas (mo'), 680. 

Mau-rice' (mo-), of Bran'den-biirg, 424. 
Mau-rice' (mo-), of Nas'sih;, 958. 
Mau-rice', (mo-), of Sax'o-ny, 423, 424, 425, 

426. 
Mau-ri-ta'ni-a (maw-), 190. 
Mau-so'lus (maw-), 121. 
Max-en'ti-us (-shi-), 239. 
Max-im-i-a'nus, 239. 

Max-i-mH'ian (-yan) I., Duke of Ba- 
va'ri-a. 466. 468, 471, 476, 477. 
Max-i-mil'ian (-yan) Jo'seph I., Duke of 

Ba-va'ri-a, 528, 537. 
Max-i-mil-ian(-yan) Jo'seph I., King of 

Ba-va'ria, 600. 
Max-i-mil-ian (yan) JO'seph II.,Kingof 

Ba-va'ri-a, 675. 
Max-i-mil'ian I., of Ger'ma-ny, 350, 352 

372, 379, 407, 408, 415. 
Max-i-mil'an (-yan) II., of Ger'ma-ny, 

426, 466. 
Max-i-mil'ian (-yan), of Mex'i-co, 921, 

951, 952. 
Max'i-mus, 249. 
May-ence' (-6NS'), 236, 276, 280, 282, 408, 

568, 570, 576, 582, 658, 718, 721. 
Ma'yenne, General de, 456. 
May'er, 740. 
Mayflower, 812. 

Maz-a-rin', Cardinal, 494, 498, 499. 
Ma-zep'^a, 519. 

Maz-zi'nl (mat-se'), 676, 707, 710. 
Meade, George Gor'dou, 912. 
Mec'ca, 266, 267, 258. 
Meck'len-burg, 470, 700. 
Me'di-a, 33, 39, 41, 42, 65, 66, 68, 82, 102, 

123, 134. 
Med'i-ci (-che), 375, 376, 404, 420. 
Med'i-ci (-che), Cos'mG de, 375, 376. 
Med'i-ci (-che), Ma-rc'e' de, 496. 



Me-di'na, 267, 268. 

Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an, 38, 49. 50, 77, 117, 167, 

173, 178, 184, 197, 252, 641. 
Meg'a-cles, 99. 
Meg-a-16p'0-lus, 77, 121, 142. 
Meg'a-ra, 86. 87, 112. 
Me-gid'do, 65. 

Me'lle-med it'll, 765, 767, 768. 
Me'he-met A'li, 647. 
Meis'sen, 339. 
Meis-tersing'Srs, 462. 
Me-lancft'thon, PhU'ip, 409, 412, 413, 425, 

427, 460. 
Me'las, 592. 

Mel'i-koff, Count Lor'is, 770. 
Mel-i'to, 713. 
Mel'kart, 49, 51. 
Mel'lo, Admiral, 959. 
Me'los, 113. 
Me'mel, 603. 
Mem'non, 43. 
Mem'phis, 43, 47, 49, 268. 
Me-nard', Father, 793. 
Men'dels-softn, 658. 
Men'den, Battle at, 533. 
Men-do' za, An-to'ni-6 de, 788. 
Men-e-la'us, 82. 

Me-nen'dez (deth), Pe'dro, 788. 
Me-ne'ni-us A.-grip'pa, 159. 
Me'nes, 47. 

Mengs, Kaph'a-el, 657. 
Men'no, 422. 

Men'non-ites, 422, 824, 826, 891. 
Me'non, 598. 
Men'sehi-koff, Prince, 520, 524, 689. 691, 

692. 
Men'zel (-tsel). 657. 
Mer'ce-des, Ma-rie', 763. 
Mar'Qers-burg Seminary, 891. 
Mer-51-e)', of Can'a-da, 948. 
Mer'cu-ry, 80. 
Mer'mil-lod, Bishop, 760. 
Mer'o-e. 48, 73. 
Me-ro vae-us, 258. 
Mer'o-vings, 258, 260, 261, 275. 
Mer'ri-mac River, 814. 
Mcr'7'i-mac (vessel), 914, 915. 
Mer'ry-mount (-mownt), 814. 
Mer'se-burg (-boorg), 290. 
Merv, 754. 

Mes'en-zeff, General, 770. 
Mes^-po-ta'mi-a, 37, 48, 52, 199, 227, 234. 
Mes-sa-lt'na. 221. 

Mes-se'ne, 77, 86, 95, 110, 112, 121, 143. 
Mes-si'na, 88, 167, 168, 288, 312, 711, 713. 
Me-tau'rus (-taw'), 176. 
Met'caZf, Lord. 946. 
Me-tel'lus, 182, 190, 191. 
Methodist Church, 891, 944. 
Met'ier-nicft, Prince, 620, 635, 639, 645. 

646, 673. 
Metz, 260, 425, 727, 728, 729, 730, 736, 737, 

744. 756, 766. 
Metz'ler, George, 412. 
Meuse (muz), River, 729. 
Mex'i-can War, 876, 924. 
Mex'i-c6. 402, 403, 684, 787, 788, 790. 794, 

864, 866, 876, 878, 903, 911, 921, 941, 949, 

950, 951, 953. 



Mex'I-co (city), 878. 

Mex'i-co, Gulf of. 888. 

Mey, Captain, 796. 

Mey'er-beer, 658. 

Me'za, de, 705. 

MI-am'l, Fort, 794. 

Mi'cM-el An'ge-lo, See BuonaroMi. 

Mf'cfeael Pa-laB^Jl'6-gus, 314. 

Mieh'i-gan, 878, 888. 

Miflil-gan, Lake, 793. 

Mi'das, 131. 

Mid'i-an-Ites, 58. 

Mie-ro-slaw'ski (mye-ro-slav'), General, 

698. 
Jlipn-et' (ya'), 638. 
Mi'gifel, Dom, 640, 641. 
Mi'lan, 255, 279, 321, 344, 350, 372, 374, 377, 

418, 419, 420, 503, 511, 512, 582, 592^ 

676, 708, 747. 
Mi'lan Decree, 240, 685,866. 
Mi'lan, King, 782. 
Mi'lan, Prince, 695, 764. 
Mi-le'sians (-shans), 107. 
Mi-le'tus, 87, 101. 
Mill, John Stu'art, 655, 741, 921. 
Mill Spring, 909. 
Mi'lo, 202, 

Mil-ti'a-des, 101, 102, 103, 110, 
Mil'titz, 407. 
Mil'ton, John, 464, 488. 
Mil'vi-an Bridge, 239. 
Mi'na, 639. 

Mi'nas, of Bra-zil', 958. 
Min'cio (-chO), 708. 
Ml-ner'va, 56, 78. 
Min'ne-sing-ers, 331, 336. 
Min-ne-so'ta, 938. 
Min'o-taur (-tawr), 82. 
Min'u-it, Fe'ter, 796, 798. 
Mi-quel' (-keT), 752. 
Mi-ra-beau' (-bo'), Count de, 560, 564, 

567. 
Mi-ra-mon'. General, 950, 
Mi-ran'da, of Ca-ra'cas, 953, 
Mir'i-am, 54. 

Mis'co, Duke of Po'land, 383. 
Miss'ion-a-ry (Mish'un-) Ridge, 914. 
Miss-iss-ipp'i, 788, 907, 909. 
Miss-iss-ipp'i Bubble. 795. 
Miss-iss-ipp'i River, 793, 794, 795, 828, 834, 

852. 862, 864, 874, 888. 908, 909, 910, 914. 
Mis-so-16N'gfti, 647. 
Miss-oii'ri, 864, 878, 901, 904, 929, 937. 
Miss-oii'ri River, 794. 
Mith-ri-da'tes, 192, 194, 196, 197, 204. 
Mith-ri-da'tie Wars. 192, 197. 
Mit-y-le'ne (-e-), 112. 
Mo-bile', 916. 
Mod'e-na, 664, 707, 709. 
Mod'e-na, Duke of, 582, 668, 708. 
Mo'doc Indians. 938. 
Moe'ris, 47. 
Mce'si-a (-zhi-), 222. 
M6-guls\ 385, 386, 388, 389. 
Mo-hacs' (-hach'), Battle of, 383, 390. 
MS-ham'med, 266, 267, 268. 
Mo-ham'med II., 390. 
Mo-ham'med-ans, 29, 316, 368, 588, 646, 

689. 






Aie, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, piq.ue ; Old, orb, odd, move ; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1019 



Mo-ham'med Pa-slia', 764. 

Mo'hawk River, 828, 830, 846. 

Mo-hi'cans, 821. 

Moft'ra, 406. 

Mol-da'vi-a, 520, 551, 552, 604, 694. 

Mo-li'-ere', 506. 

MO-li'no del Hey, 878. 

Moll'witz (-vitz), Battle of, 526. 

Mo'loc/i, 28, 51. 

Molt'ke, Count von, 716, 727, 732, 734, 

752, 777. 
Momm'sen, 740. 
MoinG-rO', 574. 
MoN-cSj/', 592. 
Mdn-go'li-ans, 24, 31. 
Mdn-i-teur', 593, 658. 
Mdn'i-tor (-ter), 915. 
Monk (muuk), George, 490, 491, 492. 
Monks, 405. 
Mon'mouth, 493. 
Mon'mouth, Battle of, 847. 
Mo-nbn-ga-he'la (-law) River, 830. 
Monotheism, 243. 
Mon-roe' (inun-) Doctrine, 874, 931. 
Mon-roe' (mill-), James, 866, 874, 879. 
Mon-ta'na, 938. 

Mont-ca!m', General, 831, 832, 834. 
Mon-te-bel-lo, 592. 
Mon-te-mo'lin, Count, 723. 
Mon'te-ue-gro, 703, 764, 767, 768. 
Mon'te Not'te, 580. 
Mon'te-r62/' 876. 
Mon-tes-quieu' (-led'), 543, 544. 
Mon'tez, LO'la, 670. 
Mon-te-zii'ma, 402. 
MoNt-fer-rat', 314. 
Mont'fort, Si'mon de, 362. 
Mont-gom'er-y (-gum'), 907, 
Mont-gom'er-y(-gum'),Rich-ard,840,943. 
MdN-ti-jo'(-zho'), Mi-ge-in'e'(-zha-), 684. 
MoNf-mar'tre, 624. 
Mont-mo-ren'ei, General, 420. 
Mbnt'mo-ren'cy, Duke of, 496. 
MdNipen-si-e)'' (-PON-), 723, 725, 763. 
Mont-re-al' (-awl'), 790, 831, 834, 840, 870, 

942, 946. 
Moirts, Siciir de, 791, 792. 
Monti, Admiral Jor'ge (zhor'zha), 958. 
Moore, General, 608. 
Moore, Tftom'as, 654. 
Moors, 272, 279, 367, 368, 370, 441. 
Mo-ra'vi a, 284, 348, 467, 526, 600. 
Md-ra'vi-ans, 826. 
More, Sir Tftom'as, 405, 430. 
Mo-re'a, 76, 646, 647, 648. 
Mo-reau' t-ro'), 578. 585, 591, 592, 620. 
Mo-re'los, 949. 
Mo-re'na, Ma-ri-a'na, 953. 
Mor'gan, Dan'iel (yel), 846, 849. 
Mor-gar'ten, Battle of, 339, 341. 
Mo-ri'a/i, Mount, 62. 
Mo-ril'lo (-yo), General, 955, 956. 
Mo-ri-on'es, General, 762. 
Mor'mon-ism (-mun-), 892, 931. 
Mor-ny' (-ne'), Due de, 680. 
Mo-roe'eo, 723. 
Mor'ris, Gou'ver-neur, 856. 
Mor'ris, Lew'is (180'), 826. 
Mor'ris, Rob'ert, 854. 



Mor'ris-tovvn, 848, 850, 856. 

Morse, Sam'u-el F. B. 741, 888. 

Mor-ti-er' Marshal, 624. 

Mor'ton, of Mer'ry -mount (-mownt), 814- 

Mo'scher-osch, Phi-lan'der von, 478. 

Mos'coio, 385, 519, 522, 551, 614, 616, 618, 770. 

Mo-selte', 502, 728. 

MO'ses, 54. 56. 

Mos'lems, 267, 268, 270, 368, 386. 

Mot'ley, Joftu LO'throp, 937, 939. 

Mountain, 564, 567, 570, 571, 680. 

Mo-zart', Wolfgang (woolf) Am-a-de' 

us, 658. 
Miieftl'dorf, Battle of, 341. 
Mu'en-nic/i, 524. 
Muftl'berg, 424. 
Mu/il'er, von, 744. 
Muftl-hau'sen (how'), 412. 
Mukh tar' Pa-sha', 763. 
Mul'ford, E-li'sha, 940. 
MuJ'ler, Hans, 410. 
Miim'mi-us, 182. 
Mun'da, 204. 

MuN'ger, The'o-dore, 940. 
Mu'nicft, 472, 528, 657, 670, 743, 744. 
Mun'ster, 421, 422, 500. 
Miin-ta-m-ej - ', 335. 
Mun'zer, (Munf), Tftom'as, 410, 412, 421, 

422. 
Mii'rad I., Sultan, 388. 
Mii'rad II., Sultan, 389, 390, 
Mii'rad V., Sultan, 764. 
Mu-rat', Car'o-line, 594. 
Mii-rat', Jo'a-cAim (yo'), 599, 600, 601. 

604, 618, 622, 630. 
Mur'frees-bor-o (-burro), 910, 913. 
Mii-riZ'lo (lyo), Bar-tho-lo-me' £s-te-ban 

(-van'), 466. 
Mur'ner (moor'), T/iom'as, 462. 
Mur'ray, James Stu'art, 458. 
Mur'ray, General, 942, 
Mur'ten (mor'), Battle of, 378. 
Mu'ti-na, 206. 
Mu'tin-ab-bi, 274. 
Mye'a-le, 88, 107. 
My'ce-naa, 77, 83, 
My'las, 168. 
Mys'tics, 334. 
My-thol'o-gy, 28, 78. 

Na-bon-e'tos, 70. 

Na-bo-po-las'sar, 41. 

Nac/i'i-ni6ff, Admiral, 692. 

Na'na Sa'hib. 687. 

Nan'cy, 378. 524. 

Nantes, Edict of, 456, 508. 

Na'pi-er, Charles, 690. 

Na'pi-er, Sir Rdb'irt, 688. 

Na'ples. 88. 288. 292, 323, 325, 326, 328, 329, 
330, 367, 377, 378, 415, 419, 426, 441, 513, 
514. 584, 585, 601, 622, 630, 639, 668, 676, 
707, 710, 711. 

Na-pO'le-on II., 632. 

Na-po'le-on Bo'na-parte. See Bona- 
parte. 

Na-po'le-on III., Loii -is', 594, 601, 656, 672, 
680. 683. 684, 685, 686, 688, 694, 698, 702, 
707, 708, 709, 717, 721, 723, 725, 729, 756, 
921. 



Na-po'le-on, Prince, 773. 

Nar-cis'sus, 220. 

Nar-ra-gan'sett Bay, 817. 

Nar'ses, 274. 

Nar'va, 518. 

Nar-vii'ez (-etli), General, 665, 722, 723. 

Nar-va'ez (-eth), Pam-fi'lode, 787. 

Nase'by, Battle of, 486. 

Nash'viUe, 909, 910, 919. 

Nas'sau (-aw), 600, 721. 

Nas'sau (-aw) Fort, 796. 

Na-tii'lie, Queen, 782. 

Nau'kra-tis (haw'), 44. 

Nau-pac'tus (haw-), 110. 

Nau-voo' (naw-), 892. 

Na-va-ri'no, Battle of, 648. 

Na'vy Island, 945. . 

Nax'os, 78. 

Naz'a-reth, 316. 

Ne'arcft, 138, 140. 

Ne'bo, 56. 

Ne-bras'ka, 864, 904. 

Neb-u-c/iad-nez'2ar, 42, 52, 65. 

Ne-ees'si-ty, Fort, 830. 

Ne'cfto, 48, 50, 65. 

Neck'ar River, 410, 422, 504. 

Neck'er, Jacques (zhak), 557, 558, 560 
561, 564, 595, 655. 

Neer'win-den, 568. 

Neg'ro-ponte, 78. 

Ne-he-mi'ah, 66. 

Nel'son, Doctor, 945. 

Nel'son, Lord, 585, 5S8, 600. 

Ne'me-a, 92. 

Neph'e-le, 82. 

Ne'pos, C6r-ne'li-us, 212. 

Nep'tune, 78. 

Ne're'ids, 79. 

Ne'ri, 375. 

Ne'ro, Clau'di-us (claw'), 221, 243. 

Ner'va, Mar'cus C6c-ee-ius (yus), 226. 

Ner'vi-i, 200. 

Nes'tor, 83. 

Neth'er-lands, 248, 351, 378, 379, 404, 415, 
420, 423, 426, 428, 441, 442, 444, 446, 448, 
448, 452, 459, 477, 499, 504, 511, 513. 528, 
549, 568, 576, 585, 586, 628, 645, 661, 754, 
780. 

Neu'en-burg (noi'en-boorg), 7C2. 

Neus'tri-a, 260, 261. 

Ne'va, 519. 

Nev'in, Joftn, 891. 

New (nu) Am'ster-dam, 797, 798, 799, 821. 

New'berr-y (nu) Library, 939. 

New (nu)Bruns'wiek, 828, 946, 947. 

New'mlrg (nu'), 853. 

New (nu) Car'thage (-thij), 171. 

New'casfle, (nu'), 824. 

New'comb (nu'kum), Simon. 940, 941. 

New (nu) En'gland (ing'), 797, 803, 808. 
812, 814, 817, 820, 822, 830, 844, 846, 848, 
870, 874, 890, 891, 893, 899, 901, 937, 942. 

New'fOMnd-land (nu'), 783, 790, 791, 796, 
806, 834, 852, 948. 

New (nu) France, 790, 791, 792, 794, 795. 

New (nu) Gra-na'da. 953, 956, 957. 

New (nu) Hamp'slure, 814, 822, 854. 

New (nu) Ha'ven, 797, 817,822. 

New (nu) Jer'sey, 826, 828, 842, 844, 854. 



use, urn, up, rude; food, foot; by; cell; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1020 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



New (nu) Jer'sey, College of, 828. 
New (nfi) Lon'don (lun')i 848. 
New'mcm (nu'), J6/ih Hen'ry, 772, 890. 
New (nil) Mex'i-co, 787, 788, 789, 864, 950. 
New (nil) Neth'er-lands, 796,797,826,828, 
New (nu) Or'le-ans, 779, 794, 834, 862, 

910, 912, 932. 
New (nu) Or'le-ans, Battle of, 874, 882. 
New'port (nu'), 823 
New'port (nu'), Captain C/iris'to-pher, 

800. 
New (nil) Spain, 787, 788, 953. 
Newspapers, American, 898. 
New (nu) Swe'den, 798. 
New'ton (nu'), Sir I'saac, 462. 
New'town (nu'), 817, 821. 
New (nu) York (eity), 797, 798, 821, 828, 

831, 836, 840, 844, 847, 850, 852, 854, 890, 

904, 912, 922, 928, 935, 936, 939. 
New (nu) YBrk (state), 792, 823, 826, 828, 

836, 847, 853, 854, 856, 878, 882, 892, 899, 

900, 922, 928, 929, 930, 931, 936, 937, 942. 
NS2/, Marshal, 599, 608, 616, 618, 622, 625, 

628, 630, 632. 
Nez Per-ce', 938. 
Ni-ag'a-ra, Fort, 830, 831. 
Ni-ag'a-ra, River, 86S, 943. 
Ni-ag'a-ra (town), 942. 
Ni-ag'a-ra (vessel). 916. 
Nice, 374, 580, 684, 709. 
Ni-ce'a, 138, 246, 304, 306, 314. 
Nice, Truce of, 420. 
Nic/i'o-las, Archduke, 765. 
Nicft'0-las, Czar, 647, 688, 689, 690, 691, 

702, 753, 780. 
Nicft'o-las V., Pope, 349, 377, 390. 
Nic/i'ol-son, Fran'cis, 805, 807, 809. 
Nic'i-as, 112, 113. 
Nic'o-la, Colonel, 853. 
Ni'co-lai, Cftris'toph Frie'dric/i, 540. 
Nic'o-lay, 940. 
Ni-e6He<\ Jean (zhaN) 793. 
Nic-o-ine'dl-a, 646. 
Ni-cop'o-lis, 765. 
Ni-cop'o-lis, Battle of, 388. 
N2eb'el-ung-en Lzed, 335. 
Nii-eT, Marshal, 708. 
NiffM'tn-gale, Flor'ence, 691. 
Ni'liil-ists, 770, 781. 
Nile, 43, 44, 46. 47, 48, 54, 204, 742. 
Nimes, 637. 
Nim'rod, 37. 

Nin'e-ve/i, 37, 38, 39, 41, 65. 
Ni'nvis, 37. 
N'ir-va'na, 34. 
Nis'roeft, 39. 
No'ii/i, 23. 
Nob'ling, Dr., 747. 
No-bre'ga, 958. 
No'la, 214. 
Nom'ads, 24, 26, 30. 
Nord Al-b'ing'i-a, 380. 
Nor'den-skjold (-sheld), 743. 
Nord'ling-en (nerf), Battle of, 476. 
Nor'foJk, Duke of, 458. 
Nor'foZk, Vir-gin'i-a (ver-) , 915. 
Nor'man-dy, 285, 351, 359, 360, 379, 571, 

573, 791. 
Nor'mans, 284, 285, 286, 288, 298, 379, 790. 



North Car-6-li'na, 790, 807, 808, 823, 908. 

North Da-ko'ta, 864. 

North, Lord Fred'er-ick, 835, 852. 

North Sea, 677. 

Nor-thum'ber-land, 286, 363, 433, 458. 

Northwest Territory, 856, 892. 

Nor'wa?/, 285, 379, 380, 437, 522, 622, 781. 

No'tre Dame, 574, 597. 

Nourse (noors), Jo'el, 888. 

No-va'lis, 648, 650. 

No-va'ra, 639. 

NO'va Sco'ti-a f-slli-), 512, 820, 946, 947. 

Nov'gS-rod, 285, 3S6. 

No'vi-a Do'num, 199." 

No'vi, Battle of, 585. 

Nii'vi Ba-zar', 768. 

Nii'bi-a, 48, 73. 775. 

Nue'<;es (nwa'), River, 876. 

Nu-man'ti-a (-Shi-), 186, 187. 

Nu-man-ti'nus, 187. 

Nu'ma Pora-pil'i-us, 154. 

Nu'mid'i-a, 178, 179. 

Nti'ini-tor, 150 

Nun, 56. 

Nu'rem-bSrg, 421, 472. 

Nymphs, 79. 

Nym-weg'en (-veg'), Peace of, 502, 505. 

Ny'on, 199. 

Ob'e-lisks, 46, 47. 

0-bre-n6'witsch (-vich), Prince Mi'- 
cftael, 694. 

Oc'cJ-dent, 244. 

O'Con'nell. Dan'iel (-yel), 644. 

Oc-ta'vi-a, 221. 

Oc-ta'vi-an, or Oc-ta'vi-us. See Augus- 
tus Caesar. 

Od-a-na'thus, 236. 

O'der, 383, 384, 386, 620. 

O-des'sa, 552. 

O'din, 218, 286, 379. 

O-do-a'cer, 257, 258. 

O'Don'nell, 722, 723. 

O-dys'se-us, 77, 83, 84. 

Od'ys-sey, 84. 

(Ed'i-pus (ed'-), 123. 

CE/j'len-schla-ger, Ad'am, 657. 

(E-no-phy'ta, 111. 

CE'ta, 75, 105. 

O'fen, 503. 

Og'deus-burg, 870. 

0-gee'chee River, 919. 

O'gle-thorpe, James, 809. 810, 811. 

O-hi'O, 866, 892, 928, 929, 937. 

O-hi'6 River, 794, 82S, 830, 831, 852, 860, 
909. 

O-hi'o University, 893. 

O'laf Lap'king, 379. 

Olaf, the Saint, 379.. 

Ol-den-barn'velt, 795. 

Ol'den-burg, 319, 612. 622. 

Ol'den-biirg, House of, 380, 677. 

O-li'va, Peace of, 479. 

Ol'i-ver, James, 888. 

OHi-vi-e?-', 686. 

Ol'mutz, 566, 677, 679, 700, 708. 

O-lym'pi-a, 77, 92, 130. 

O-lym'pi-ads, 92. 

O-lym'pi-an, Games, 92, 105, 127. 



O-lym'pi-us, 252. 

O-lym'pus, 75, 78. 

O-lyn-thi-a, 88, 120, 128. 

■O'mar, 268. 

O'mar Pa-sha', 690. 

Om-mi'ads, 268, 271, 272. 

O-nei'da, Lake, 792. 

On-o-mar'c/ius, 128. 

On-ta'ri-o, Lake, 792, 870. 

On-ta'ri-o, 947. 

Op-e-cAan'ca-nowffft, 802. 

O-pim'i-us, 189. 

0-por't6, 639. 

Op'pen-heim, 472. 

Ops, 150. 

Op'ti-miitss, 186, 188, 191. 

Oracles, 251. 

Oi'ange, 500. 

Or'ange, Fort, 796. 

Or'ange, House of, 661. 

Oi'ange, Mau-rice' (mo) of, 447, 448. 

Or'cinge-men, 644. 

Or'ange, Wil'liam (yam) of. See William 

of Orange. 
Or'cus, 80. 

Or'e-gon, 864, 876, 938. 
O-rel-la'na (-ya'J, 413. 
O-res'tes, 256, 257. 
O'ri-ent, 29, 30, 31, 243, 244, 404. 
Or'i-gen, 247. 
O-ri-no'co River, 400, 958. 
O-ri-za'ba (tha'va), 951. 
6r-lean'ists, 685. 
Or-le-ans' (-6N'), 358, 496, 504, 561, 568, £72, 

666. 
Or-le-ans' (-on'), Diet of, 450. 
Or-le-ans' (-on'), (island), 832. 
Or-le-ans' (-on'), Maid of, See Joah ol 

Arc. 
Or-le-ans' (-on'), Siege of, 450. 
Or-le-ans' (-on') War, 504. 
6r-loff', Gre-gor', 549. 
Or'muz, 398. 
Or'muzd, 66. 
O-ron'tes, 143. 
Or'phe-us, 82. 
6r-s'i'ni, 376 

6r-s'i'ni, Fe-li'ce (-che), 685, 707. 
6r-te'ga, 723. 
6r-te'ga, General, 950. 
Orthodox Church, 890. 
O-sage' Indians, 938. 
Os'born (-burn), Sir Dan'vers, 828. 
Os'can, 147. 

Os'car II., of Swe'den, 754, 781, 782. 
O-si'ris, 46. 

Os-man' Pa-sha', 765, 766. 
Os'sian (osh'), 539. 

Os'so-li, Mar'ga-ret Ful'ier (fool'), 897. 
Ost-end' Conference, 906. 
Os'ter-mann,524. 
Os'ti-a, 56. 

Os-we'go, Fort, 830, 831. 
Oth'man, 268, 388. 
O'tho, 222. 
Ot'to-car, 338. 
Ot'to-man Empire, 372, 374, 390, 421, 694, 

695. 
Ot'to, of Frey'sing, 335. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, odd, move; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1021 



Ot'to I., of Ger'ma-ny, 290, 292, 381. 
Ot'to II., of Ger'ma-ny, 292. 
Ot'to III., of Ger'ma-ny, 292, 294. 
Ot'to IV., of Ger'ma-ny. 324. 
Ot'to I., of Greece, 648, 695. 
Ot'to, of Nord'heim (norf), 296, 300. 
Ot'to, of Wit'tels-bacft, 324. 
Ot'to, Prince of Ba-va'ri-a, 749. 
O-tum'ba, Battle of, 402. 
Oude'narde, Battle at, 512. 
Oii-di-noC, 625. 
O-van'do, 400. 
O'ver-beck, 657. 
Ov'id, 211. 

Ox-eii-sttern, Ax'el, 373. 
Ox'ford, 405, 434, 772, 818. 
Ox'ford movement, 890. 

Fa-cAO'mi-us, 331. 

Pa-cif'ic Ocean. 402, 783. 

Piick'en-ham General, 874. 

Pa'der-born, 279, 280. 

Pad'u-a, 255, 298, 372. 

Pa'dus, 147. 

Pa-ez' (-eth')i General, 956. 

Pa-ga-ni', 251. 

Paganism, 243, 248, 251, 262. 

Pa-ger-ie' (zher-), Tasch'er de la, 580, 
594. 

Page, Tftom'as Nel'son, 939. 

Pali'len (par'), Count, 593. 

Pa-lae-61'o-gus, Mi'cfta-61, 314. 

Pa-lais' Roy-al'. 561. 

Pa-lat'i-nate, 427, 466, 467, 477, 502, 504. 

Pal'a-tine Hill, 150, 210, 221, 235. 

Pa-ler'mO, 168, 288, 324, 710, 711. 

Pal'es-tine, 38, 70, 132, 268, 302, 316, 318, 
689. 

Pa-les-tri'na, 464, 466. 

Pal'las A-the'ne, 70, 78, 220. 

Pal-la-vi-ci'no (-che') Tri-vul'zI-0, 639, 
707. 

Paim'er-ston, Lord, 642, 688. 

Pa(m, of Nii'rem-burg, 602. 

Pfll-my'ra, 236, 238. 

Pa'lo Al'to, Battle, of, 876. 

Pa'los, 398. 

Pam-pe-lti'na, 279. 

Pan-a-ma' Canal, 778, 930. 

Pan A-mer'i-can Congress, 932. 

Pan'dects, 262. 

Pan'du, 35, 

Pan-no'ni-a, 236. 255, 280. 

Pan'the-on, 210, 583. 

Papacy, 280, 288. 

Pa-pi-neau' (-no), -Lou-is', 944, 945. 

Pa-pin 'i-an, 232, 234. 

Pa-pir'i-us, 166. 

Pap'j>en-heim, Count von, 472, 

Pa-ra-guay' (-gwi'), 956, 959. 

Pa'ri-a/i, 33. 

Par'is, 248, 356, 420, 439, 450, 453, 454, 456. 
498, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 570, 572, 
5T6, 589, 589, 595, 597, 598, 602, 60S, 618, 
624, 632, 659, 665, 671, 673, 680, 684, 725, 
726, 728, 729, 730, 732, 734, 737, 743, 753, 
754, 778, 792. 

Par'is, Congress of, 694, 707. 

Par'is, Count of, 757. 



Par'is, of Troy, 82. 

Par'is, Parliament of, 556. 558. 

Par'is, Second Peace of, 632. 

Par'is, Treaty of, 625, 630, 772. 

Par'is, University of, 638. 

Parliament, Bareboues, 490. 

Parliament, Long, 482. 

Parliament, Kump, 488, 491, 492. 

Fark'man, Fran'cis, 939. 

Par'nia, 514, 582, 598, 625, 664, 668, 707, 

709. 
Par-me'ni-6, 131, 132, 136. 
Par-nas'sus, 76, 80, 106. 
Par'nell, Charles Stew'art (stu'), 776, 

783. 
Pa'ros, 78, 102. 
Parr, Cath'er-ine, 432. 
Par-rfta'si-us (-sill-), 127. 
Par'the-non, 111. 

Par-then'o-pi-em Republic, 584, 585. 
Par'thi-a, 143, 197, 207, 221 , 230, 234, 235. 
Pas'cal, Blai-se', 507. 
Pas'cal II., Pope, 300. 
Pas'cal III., Anti-Pope, 322. 
Pas-kie'witsch (-vich), Prince, 663, 678, 

690, 696. 
Pas'sau (-sow), Treaty of, 425, 426. 
Passover, 54. 

Pas-tor'i-us, Fran'cis, 824. 
Pat'a-go'ni-a, 953. 
Pat'kul (-kool). 519. 
Pat'mos, 78. 
Patricians, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 

164. 
Pa-tri-mo'ni-um Pe'tri, 275. 
Pa'tro-cin-i-o, Sister, 723. 
Pa-tro'clus, 83. 
Pat7er-son, Eliz'a-betli, 601. 
Pat'ier-son, General, 908. 
Paul (pawl), Apostle, 243. 
Paul, (pawl), Czar. 534, 585,591, 592, 593. 
Paul (pawl) III., Pope, 420, 423, 425, 438. 
Paul (pawl) IV., Pope, 438. 
Pau'lus (paw'), Jurist, 232. 
Pau'lus (paw'), Lu'ci-us (-shi-) JU-mll'l- 

us, 174, 181, 184. 
Pau-sa'ni-as (paw-), 107, 108, 110, 114. 
Pa-vi'ii, 264, 276, 279, 418. 
Pa-vi'a, Battle of, 418. 
Pa-vi'a, General, 762. 
Pea'bod-y Library, 939. 
Peasant War, 352. 
Pec'ci (Pet'che), Cardinal, See Leo 

XIII., Pope. 
Pe'dro II., of Bra-zil', Dom, 959. 
Pe'droIV., of Por'tu-gal, (Lot Brazil') 

641, 959. 
Pe'dro, of Por'tu-gal, The Stern, 368. 
Pei-xo'to (-so'), 959. 
Pe-la'gi-us, 247. 
Pe-las'gi, 81. 

Pe-lis-si-e»'', General, 692. 
Pel'Za, 127. 

Pel'K-oo, Sil'vS-a, 639, 652. 
Pe-Iop'i-das, 120, 121. 125. 
Pel-O-pon-ne'sus, 75, 76, 78, 81, 87, 95. 96, 

107, 112, 113, 119, 120, 121, 131, 142, 186, 

251, 265, 646. 
Pel-o-pon-ne'si-iin War, 111, 112, 125. 



Pe'lops, 81. 

Pe-lu'si-um, 49, 203. 

Pem'ber-ton, Genera], 912. 

Pe-na'tes, 80. 

Pen-con' (piiN-soN), Vincent, 958. • 

Pen'dle-ton, of O-hi'o, 929, 030. 

Pe-nel'o-pe. 83. 

Pe-ne'us, 75. 

Pen-in'su-lar (-ler) War, 604. 

Penn, Han'na/i, 826. 

Penn'syl-va'ni-a, 823, 826, 842, 847, 853, 

854, 856, 860, 899, 900, 904, 933, 936, 937, 

942. 
Penn'syl-va'ni-a, University of, 893. 
Penn, Wil'liam (-yam), 807. 823, 824, 826. 
Pe-nob'scot, 874. 
Pe-nob'scot Bay, 796. 
Pe-nob'scot River, 823. 
Pensions, 924, 931. 
Pe-o'ri-a, Lake, 794. 
Pepe, Wil'liam (-yam), 639. 
Pe'quOd Indians, 821. 
Per'cy Hotspur, 363. 
Per-dic'cas, 141. 
Per'ga-mos, 143, 194. 
Per-i-an'der, 98, 99, 100. 
Per'i-eles, 110, 111, 112, 125, 126. 
Pe-ri-er' Cas-i-mir', 756. 
Per-i-ce'-ci, 87, 93, 94, 120. 
Per'kins Institute, 893. 
Pe)'-r6C, Georges (zhorzli), 793. 
Per'ry, Ol'i-ver Haz'ard, 870, 941, 943. 
Per'j-y-vilte, 910. 
Per-sep'o-lis, 74, 134. 
Per'se-us, 180, 181, 182, 231. 
Per'si-a (-shi-), 49, 52, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 81, 

99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, 111, 118, 119, 

120, 121, 123, 124, 130, 131. 132, 134, 140, 

236, 238, 243, 248, 262, 268, 386, 389. 
Per'si-an (-shi-) Gulf, 398. 
Per'ti-nax, 234. 

Pe-rii', 403, 787, 930, 953, 956, 957. 
Pe-run', 266. 
Pe-ru'si-a, 148, 207. 
Pes-ca'ra, 218. 
Pes-chi-e'ra, 708. 
Pes-ta-loz'zi, (lot'se),540. 
Pestft, 722. 

Pe'tSr, Apostle, 243, 255. 
Pe'ter, Mar'tyr, 437. 
Pe'ter of A'mi-ens (-aN), 302. 
Pe'ter III., of Ar'a-gon, 330, 367. 
Pe'ter, of Castile', the Cruel, 367. 
Pe'ter I., of Rus'sia (sha), the Great, 

516. 517, 518, 519, 520, 522, 524. 
Pe'ter II., of Rus'sia (-sha), 524. 
Pe'ter III., of Rus'sia (-sha), 534. 
Pe'ter, of Vin'e-a, 326. 
Pe'ters-burg, 918. 
Pe'ter, Hie Hermit, 304. 
Pe-ti-6N', 565, 571. 
Pe-toe'f'i, Al-ex-an'der, 657. 
Pe'trarcft, 336, 343. 
Pe'tri, 436. 

Pe-tro'ni-us Max'i-mus, 256. 
Pfalz (pfalts) New'burg, (noi'boorg), 

504. 
Phse'drus, 211. 
Pha'lanx, 130. 



use, urn , up, rude; food, foot; by; <;ell ; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1022 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Phar'a-mund, 258. 

Pba'raOA, 43, 46, 48, 52, 54. 

Pliar'i-sees, 144. 

Phar'na-ces, 197, 204. 

Pha'ros, 204. 

Pilar -sa'li-a, 75, 203. 

Phar-sa'lus, 179. 

Phid'i-as, 92, 111, 126. 

Phi'do, 96. 

Phil-a-deTplii-a, 796, 799, 824, 826, 831, 

836, 837, 844, 847. 850, 853, 854, 856,858, 

860, 890, 892, 893, 902, 912, 936, 938. 
Plill-a-del'plius, 143. 
PM'le'tas, 136. 
Phil'ip, Ar'abs, 236. 
Phil'Ip-ists, 427. ' 

Pliil'ip, Indian King, 820. 
Pliil'ip of Bur'gun-dy, Sonof Max-i-mil'- 

iau (yan) of Aus'trl-a (aws'), 379. 
Pliil'ip, ol Bfir'gun-dy, the Bold, 378. 
Pliil'ip, of Bfir'gun-dy the Good, 356, 359, 

378. 
Pliil'ip II., of France, 312, 324, 351, 360. 
Pliil'ip IV., of France, 339, 341, 351, 352. 
Pliil'ip VI., of France, 352. 
Phil'ip, of Ger'nia-ny, 324. 
Phil'ip of Hesse, 410, 412, 413, 421, 423, 

424. 
Pliil'ip II., of Ma-cedf/iii-a, 125, 127, 128, 

130, 131, 132. 
Phil'ip III., of Ma-ce-do'ni-a, 179, 180. 
Phil'ip of Or-le-ans (-on'), 513. 
Phil'ip of Par'ma, 514, 528. 
Phil'ip II., of Spain, 370, 421, 426, 434, 

440, 441, 442, 446, 448, 452, 456, 459. 
Pliil'ip III., of Spain, 370. 
Phil'ip V., of Spain, 510, 511, 512, 513. 
Phil'ip-o-pel, 770. 
Plli-IIp'jpi, 128, 206, 207. 
Pliil'ip-pine Islands, 402. 
Phil'ip, son of Per'se-us, 182. 
Phi-lis'tines, 38, 56, 58, 132. 
Phil-o-me'lus, 128. 
Phil-O-pce'nien, 143, 180. 
Pliips, Sir Wil'liani (-yam), 793, 821. 
Pho-cse'a, 87, 127, 128. 
Pho'ei-on, 142. 
Pho'cis, 76, 105, 127, 128. 
Phce-nic'i-a (-nish'), 28, 42, 49, 50, 51, 52, 

62, 70, 77, 104, 132, 184. 
Phoe'nix Park, 776. 
Phra, 46. 
Phrix'us, 82. 
Phul, 38. 
Phy'les, 99. 

Fi-as'-ti, House of, 384. 
Piche-grfi', Charles, 576, 578,580, 583,596, 

597. 
Picts, 226, 234, 261. 
Pied'niGnt, 374, 420, 510, 580, 639. 
Pierce Frankiin, 904. 
Pi'e-ro, of Flor'ence, 376. 
Pilgrims, 812, 814. 
Pill'nitz, Castle of, 565. 
Pi-10'ty (-te), Karl Tfte'6-dor von, 657. 
Pinclc'ney, Charles C. 862, 866. 
Pin'dar, 92, 100, 131. 
Pin'dus, 75. 
Pine Ridge Indians, 938. 



Pip'in, Donation of, 275, 279. 
Pip'in, of Her'is-tal, 261, 271, 275. 
Pip'in, the Little, 275, 276, 279. 
Pip'in, Son of Lud'wig (liit'vig) the 

Pious, 282. 
Pi-ra'us, 76, 108, 113, 120. 
Pir'na (per'), 530. 
Pi'sa, 341, 375. 
P'i'sa, Council of, 346. 
Pi-sis'tra-tus, 98, 99. 
Pitts, Brothers, 888. 
Pitts'bfirg, 830, 831. 
Pitts'bfirg Landing, 909. 
Pitt, the Younger, 568. 
Pitt, Wil'liani (yam), 532, 594, 601, 8:8, 

831, 834, 835, 838, 847. 
Pi'us II., Pope, 377, 390. 
Pi'us IV., Pope, 438. 
Pi'us VI., Pope, 549, 582, 584. 
Pi'us VII., Pope, 586, 609, 622. 
Pi'us IX., Pope, 666, 676, 720, 748, 758, 

761. 
P'i-zar'ro, Fran'cis, 403, 787. 
Piz'zo (pet'so), 630. 
Pliicid'i-a, 254. 
Plan-tag'6-nets, 359, 364. 
Pla-tse'a, 76, 102, 107, 112, 120. 
Pla'to, 118, 124, 145, 248. 
Platts'bfirg, 872. 
Plau'tus (plaW), 184. 
Plebeians, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164. 
Plev'na, 766, 767. 
Plin'y, the Elder, 226. 
Plin'y, the Younger, 227, 230. 
Plum'bi-Sres, 707. 
Plii'tarcft, 230. 
Plfi'to, 78. 

Plym'outh, 811, 814, 817, 820, 821, 823. 
Plym'outh Bay, 812. 
Po, 147, 171, 172, 251, 622. 
PO-ca-hon'tas, 800. 
PSe, Ed'gar Al'lcra, 897. 
Poi-ti-ers' (pwa-), 271. 
Poi-ti-ers (pwa-), Battle of, 352. 
PiVland. 265, 296, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 

388, 390, 426, 437, 452, 478, 479, 518, 524, 

551, 552, 553, 554, 568, «02, 614, 626, 630, 

660, 662, 663, 688, 696, 698. 
PoJe, Cardinal, 432, 434. 
PO-lipn-ac' (-yak'), 562,659. 
Po-li-or-lce'tes, 141. 
Polk, James JTnox, 864, 884, 893. 
Pol'Ii-o, 210. 
Pol'lux, 82. 
PO-lyb'i-us, 182, 212. 
PO-lyc'ra-tes, 98. 
Polygamy, 31. 
Polytheism, 78. 

Pom-bal', Marquis de, 546, 547, 958. 
P6m-e-ra'ni-a, 265, 472, 477, 502, 522, 614. 
Pome'roy, Seth, 830. 
Fom-pa-dour' (poN-), Marquise de, 530, 

532, 555. 
Pom-pe'ii (-ye), 226. 
Pom-pe'ius (-yus), Onse'iis, 195, 197, 198, 

199, 202, 204. 
Pom-pe-i-6p'6-lis, 197. 
Pom'pey, 196, 203, 206. 
Pon'ce (-tha) de Le-oN', 787. 



Po-n'i-a-tow'sk'i (-toV), Jo'seph, 554. 

Pon'ti-ae, 834. 

Pon'ti-us, 166. 

PoN-trin-courf' (-traN-), 791. 

Pon'tus, 192, 194, 197. 

Pope, John, 911, 9E8. 

Pop'ftam, Sir Jo/in, 822. 

Poi'ci-a, 207. 

Por-sen'na, Lars, 58, 59, 130. 

Porte, 552. 

Por'ter, Da'vid Dix'on, 916. 

Pur'ter, No'aft, 940. 

Port Hud'son, 912. 

Port'land, 823. 

Pfir'to R'i'co, 400, 953. 

POr'to San'to, 395. 

Port Roy'al, 791, 792, 810, 914. 

Ports'mouth, 823. 

Por'tu-gal, 187, 272, 367, 368, 395, 396, 398, 

404, 441, 448, 462, 547, 604, 608, 630, 638, 

639, 640, 723, 725, 773, 779, 783, 787, 958, 

959. 
Po'rus, 138. 
Po-se'i-don, 78, 87, 92. 
Po'sen, 630, 663, 746. 
Pos-tliu'mi-us, 166. 
Po-tem'kin Prince, 550, 552. 
Pot-i-dse'a, 112. 

PO-to'mac, Army of the, 908, 918. 
Po-to'mac River, 858, 874, 908, 910, 911, 

918. 
Pots'dam, 600. 
Pots'dam Guard, 525. 
Pow'ell, Chief Justice, 943. 
Pow'ell, Major, 941. 
Pow-ha-tan', 800, 802. 
Prae-nes'te, 194. 
Prae-to'ri-an Guards, 219, 220, 222, 224, 

234, 235, 261. 
Pra'ga, 554. 

Prag-mat'ic Sanction, 526. 
Prague, 466, 467, 526, 528, 663. 
Prague, Battle of, 532. 
Prague, Peace of, 476, 718. 
Prague, Treaty of, 732. 
Prague, University of, 343, 753. 
Priis-lin' (-1&N') Duchess de, 671. 
Pratt Library, 939 
Prax-it'e-les, 126. 
Pre-moN-tre', Order of, 332. 
Pren'tice, George Den'i-son, 898. 
Pres-by-te'ri-an Church, 429, 435, 479, 

486, 488, 492, 806, 890, 944. 
Pres-by-te'ri-ans, Seotch, 808. 
Pres-by-te'ri'ans, United, 891. 
Pres'cott Colonel Wil'liam (yam), 838. 
Pres'cott, Wil'liam (yam), Hick'ling, 

937. 
Press'burg (boorg), 528. 593, 718. 
Press'burg (-boorg), Peace of, 600,601. 

609. 
Press Law, 700. 
Pre-vost', Sir George, 872. 
Pri'am, 82, 83. 

Prid'eaux (-6), General, 831, 
Pride, Colonel, 486. 
Pride's Purge, 486. 
Prim, General, 723, 724, 725. 
Prince Ed'ward's Island, 947. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1023 



Prinqe'ton, 828, 853. 

Prince'ton Seminary, 891. 

PrO'bus, 238. 

Proc'tor, General, 870. 

Prohibitionists, 930. 

Prol-e-ta'ri-at, 156. 

Pro-per'ti-us (-shi-), Sex'tus Au-re'li-us 
(aw-), 211. 

Pro-pon'tis, 88. 

Prop-y-lse'um, 111. 

Protestants, 412, 421, 423, 424, 425,436, 
439, 440, 447, 466," 467, 468, 481, 482, 525 
551, 637. 

Pro-vence' (voNS'), 319,420, 624. 

Proverbs, 66. 

Prov'i-denee, 938. 

Pru'sa, 388. 

Pru'si-as, 180. 

Prus'sia (-slia), 265, 384, 385, 426, 478, 479, 
502, 520, 536, 551, 552, 553, 554, 565, 567, 
576, 578, 593, 598, 599, 601, 602, 603, 612, 
614, 620, 622, 626, 630, 632, 636, 645, 646, 
678, 679, 680, 688, 691, 700, 702, 704, 705, 
706, 708, 713, 714, 716, 717, 718, 720, 721, 
725, 728, 732, 743, 744, 945, 747, 748, 750, 
761, 777, 784. 

Pruth, River, 689, 764. 

Priitz, 739. 

Prynme, Wil'liam (-yam), 481. 

Pryt'a-nes, 99. 

Pryt-a-ne'um, 99. 

Psaims, 60, 66. 

Psam-met'i-cftus, 48, 49, 72, 73. 

Ptii/i, 46. 

Ptol'e-mies, 142, 143, 144. 

Ptol'e-my I., of E'gypt, 131, 141, 143. 

Ptol'e-my II., ol E'gypt, Phil-a-del'- 
phus, 167. 

Ptol'e-my X., of Egypt, 203, 204. 

PQb'li-us, 199. 

Pti-gat'seheff, 551. 

Bull'man (pool'), George Mor'ti-mer, 
941. 

Put-to' wa (pol-), Battle of, 519, 524. 

Pun'ic Wars, 167, 171, 179, 212. 

Pu'ra, 138. 

Pu'ri-tans, 429, 435, 481, 486, 492, 806, 807, 
816. 

Pusch'kin (poosb'-), Al-ex-an'der, 657. 

Pus'ey, Ed'ward B., 890. 

Put'nam, Is'ra-el, 830, 831, 839. 

Putt'ka-mer (poof-), von, 750. 

Pyd'na, 181. 

Py'los, 77, 83, 112. 

Pym, John, 482, 

Pyr'a-mids, 47. 

Pyr'a-mids, Battle of the, 588. 

Pyr'e-nees, 172, 199, 203, 252, 271, 498, 510, 
574, 637, 639. 

Pyr'rftus, 165, 166, 167 

Py-thag'6-ras, 100. 

Pyth'i-a, 90. 

Qua'di, 230. 

Quak'ers, 807, 818, 819, 820, 824, 826, 828, 

891. 
Quatre-bras' (katr-), 630. 
Quebec', 535, 790, 792, 794, 795, 831, 840, 

942, 947. 



Que-bee' Act, 837. 

Queen's College, 828. 

Queens'town, 868, 943. 

Que-re'ta-ro (ka-), 952. 

Ques-najf' (ka-), FraN-cois (-swa'), 545. 

Quin'cy (-zi), Jo-si'aft, 894. 

Qui-neC (ke-), Ed'gar, 665, 737. 

Quir'i-nal, 760. 

Qui-ri'nus, 152. 

Qui-ri'tes, 152. 

Qui-ro'ga (ke-), Jo-se' (yo-), 638, 639. 

Qui'to (ke'), 954. 

Quix'ote, Don, 462. 

Ka, 46. 

Ea-belais', FraN-cois' (-swa'), 464. 

Ea'chel, 52. 

Ra-c'ine', Jean (zhaN), 586 

Kad'a-gais, Duke, 251. 

Ka-detz'ky (-ke), Count, 676, 706. 

Rad-is-soN', 793. 

Ra'dom, Confederation of, 551. 

Rad'z'i-vil, Prince of, 662. 

Rag'lan, Lord, 690, 692. 

Ra'hel, 739. 

Rai-nald', Archbishop, 322. 

Ra'leigh (raw'la), 920. 

B.a,'le\ffh (raw'), Sir Wal'ter (wawl'), 

800. 
Ra'ma, 36. 

Ra-ma'ja-na (-ya-), 35. 
Ra-mel', General, 637. 
Ra-me'ses, the Great, 48. 
Ra-m'i2'Jies (-ye'), Battle of, 511. 
Ra-mo-l'i'n'i, Le-tit'za (-tish'), 594. 
Ra-mo-ri'no General, 664. 
Ean'dolph, Jo/in, 855, 899. 
Ran'ke, Le'o-pold von, 740. 
Raph'a-el, 377, 464. 
Rap-id-an' River, 918. 
RaSeh'id, 764. 
Ras'tadt, 583. 585. 
Ras'tadt', Peace of, 513. 
Rat-taz'zi (tat'se), Ur ba'no, 712. 
Rauch (rowk), Fred'er-iek Au-gus'tus 

(aw- j, 658. 
Rau'mer (row'), Frie'dricft, 650. 
Ra-vajl-lac' (-yak'), Fran'cois (-swa), 

457. 
Ra-ven'wa, 214, 251, 252, 254, 255, 258, 262, 

264, 275. 
Raw'don, Lord, 849. 
Ray'mond, Hen'ry Jar'vis, 898. 
Rat/'mond, of Tou-loiise', 306, 319. 
Re-bek'aft, 53. 
Rec'61-let, 792. 
Red Bank, 844. 
Re'dif Pa-sha', 765. 
Red Sea, 48, 50, 54, 688. 
Red'witz (-vitz), Os'car von, 739. 
Reed, Hen'ry, 894. 
Reformation, 374, 405, 409, 412, 426, 437, 

440, 459, 460, 645. 
Re'gens-burg, (-boorg), 410, 468, 470, 535. 
Reg'gio (rad'), 711. 
Reg'u-lus, 168. 
Re-ho-bo'am, 62. 
Rei'c/i-en-bacii, Countess, 663 
Reign of Terror, 571, 573, 578, 584. 



Rei'nach, Baron de. 778. 

Rein'kens, Bishop, 745. 

Reins'berg, 526. 

Reis, Phil'ip, 941. 

Re'mus, 150. 

Re-my, (me'), Don, 356. 

Rens'burg (-boorg), 680. 

Reus'se-laer School, 893. 

Re-ques'ens (reg-nes'senz), 444. 

Re-sa'ca de la Pal'ma, 876. 

Retz, Cardinal de, 498. 

Reii'ben,56. 

Reuch'lin (Roich') John, 404, 405. 

Reu'ter (roi'), Fritz, 739. 

Revolution, American, 834, 924. 

Revolution, French, 565, 635, 638, 659,661 > 

662, 663, 664. 
Re-vo-lii-ti-oN (-ts'i-), Plaije de la, 568. 
R/iap'so-dists, 84, 99. 
RAe'a Sil'vi-a, 150. 
Rfte'gi-um, 88. 
Rheims (raNS), 339, 358, 6-37. 
R/te'tri-a, 95. 
Rhine, 200, 212, 214,239, 247, 248, 252, 280, 

337, 412, 414, 422, 568, 576, 582, 583, 592, 

601, 622, 623, 630, 663, 679, 721, 725. 
Rftine Confederation, 598, 601, 602, 609, 

614, 622. 
Rhode Is'land, 817, 819, 823, 854, 892. 
Rhodes, 77, 88, 126, 198, 268, 318, 390. 
Rfto'dos, 52. 
Rhone, 171, 172. 
Ri-car'do, Da'vid, 741. 
R'i-ca'so-li, Baron, 712. 
Rich'ard, of Corn'wall (-wawl), 337. 
Rich'ard I., of En'gland (ing'-J, Cceur 

de Li-oN', 312, 324, 360. 
Rich'ard II., of En'gland (ing'-), 363. 
Rich'ard III., of En'gland (ing'-), 363, 

364. 
R'iche-boiirjr', E-mile' de, 806. 
Riph'e-h'eii. Cardinal, 472, 476, 494, 496. 

498, 506, 792. 
Rich'e-lieu, Duke of, 532. 
Rich'e-Heii River, 792. 
Rich'mond, 806, 848, 908, 910, 918, 919. 
Rich'ter, Fried'ricft, 650. 
Ric'i-mer, 256. 

Ridg' way-Rush Library, 938. 
Rid'ley, NicA'o-las, 434. 
Ri-e'go, Colonel, 638, 640. 
Riehl, 739. 
Ri-el', 947, 948. 
R'i-en'z'i, Co'la di, 376. 
Riet'sehel, 658. 
Ri'ga, 516. 

Ri'ley, James WAit'comb (-cum), 939. 
Ri'6 fee'co, Battle at, 606. 
Ri'o de la Pla'ta, 953, 956. 
Ei'o Gran'de do Siil, 959. 
Ri'o Gran'de, River, 794, 876. 
Ri'o Ja-nei'rS, 958. 
Rit'^er, Au'guste (ow'goost) Hein'ricft, 

740. 
Eiz'zi-o (rit'se-o), 457. 
Ro-a-noke', Island, 800. 
Rob'ert, Artist, 658. 
Rob'ert, of Nor'man-dy. 306. 
Eo-ber-val', Stem de, 790, 791. 



use, urn, up, rude ; food, foot ; by ; (jell ; N=ng ; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1024 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Ro'bes-pien-e dg, 567, 571, 572, 574, 578. 

Rob'in-son. John Bev'ei-ly, 943. 

Rob'in-son, Rev. Jo/in, 812. 

Ro-cham-beau' (-shoN bo'), 853. 

Roche-fori', 632. 

Ro-chelie', 496, 792. 

R6ch'es-ter Seminary. 892. 

Rock'y Mountains, 794. 

R6d-er-i'go, 270, 271. 

Rod'ney, Admiral, 852. 

Roe'bling, Wasli'iug-ton (wosh') Au- 
gus'tiis (aw-), 893. 

ROg'erll., ofSic'Hy, 2B8. 

Rog'ers, Sam'u-el, 652. 

Rog'ers, Captain, 831. 

RcYland, 280. 

Ru-land Hon') de la Pla-tiere (tyer')' 
564, 566,571. 

Ro'land, Madame, 565, 571, 655. 

ROl'lo, 285. 379. 

Ro'man Catholic Church, 276, 282, 408. 

Ro-mance' Languages, 335. 

Ro'man Hierarchy, 428. 

Ro-ina'noft House of, 516, 662. 

Rome, 47, 77, 78, 143, 145, 147, 150. 152, 154, 
156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 
166, 167, 168, 171, 173, 174, 176. 178, 179, 
180, 182, 183, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192, 194, 
196, 197, 198,199. 202, 203, 204, 208, 210, 
212, 213, 214, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224. 226, 
231, 232. 234, 235, 236. 238, 240, 243. 244, 
248, 254, 255, 256, 258, 262, 264, 265, 280, 
292, 294. 298, 300, 321, 329, 344, 376, 390, 
406, 410. 420, 430, 4S4..439, 450, 546, 584, 
586, 609, 612, 666, 6"6, 685, 710, 712, 713, 
720, 746. 753, 779, 780. 

Ro'mer (re'), O la'us. 679. 

Rom u-lus, 150, 152, 154. 

Rom'u lus, Au-gus tu-lus (aw-), 256, 257. 

Ron ces-val'les, 280. 

RoN-sin' (-saN'),573. 

Roon, General von, 716. 

Roque (rok), Jean (zhau) FraN-cois' 
( swa') de la, 790. 791. 

Ro'sa munde, 264. 

Ro'sas, de, Dictator, 959. 

Rosch'er (resli), 741 

ROse'ber ry, Lord, 776, 783. 

Ro'se-crans, Wil'liam (yam) Starke, 
910, 913. 

Roses, Wars of the, 363, 364. 

Ross'bacii, Battle of, 532. 

Ross, Rob'ert, 874. 

Ros'si, 676. 

Ros-siffn-ol' (-yol'),573. 

Rossi'ni, 658. 

Ros-topi scliin', Count, 616. 

Rot'ier dam, 745. 

Rott'man, 421. 

Roii-en' (-On'), 358. 

Roii-fter', 685. 

Rou-ma'ni-a, 694, 767, 782. 

Roii-me'li-a, 767, 770. 

Roundheads, 482. 

Roiis-seau' (-so'), Jean (zhan), Jacques 
(zhak), 540, 543, 544, 545, 655. 

Rox'an-a, 136. 

Roy-er' (rwa-ya'), COMard', 63S. 

RCi'bens, 464. 



Ru'Di-a-nus Cro'tus, 405. 

Ru'bi-con, 202. 

Ruck'ert, 650. 

Rii-di'ni, Marquis d'i, 779. 

Ru'dolph, Crown Prince of Aus'tri-a, 
(aws'-), 753, 780. 

Ru'dolph, of Bur'gun-dy, 294. 

Ru'dolph I., of Ger'ma ny, 338. 

Ru'dolph II„ of Ger'ma-ny, 466, 467. 

Rii'dolph of Swa'bi-a, 298. 

Ruf'fo, Cardinal, 585. 

Rii-fi'nus, 251. 

Ru'gen, Island of 522. 

Rimes, 218, 379. 

Rii'prec/it, of Ger'ma-ny, 344. 

Rii'prec/it, Priuce of En'gland (ing'-), 
486. 

Ru'rie, House of, 385. 

Ru'ric, of Rus'sia (-sha), 285, 385. 

Rus'sell, Lord Wil'liam (-yam), 493. 

Rus'sell, Lord John, 642, 921, 944,945,946. 

Rus'sia (-sha), 265, 285, 381, 385, 383. 522 
524, 534, 549, 551, 552, 553, 554, 585, 591, 
593, 598, 614, 619, 622, 626, 630, 636, 648, 
662, 663, 677, 686, 688. 690, 695, 696, 698, 
708, 741, 744, 748, 752, 753, 754, 763, 764, 
765, 767, 768, 770, 771, 772, 777, 780, 789, 
874, 921, 931. 

Rus'sia (-sha), Red, 384. 

Rus'tem (rods'), 274. 

Rut'gers College, 828. 

Rut'ledge, Ed'ward, 856. 

Ruy'ter, De, 490. 

Ry'er-son, A-dol'phus Eg'er-ton, 944. 

Rys'wick, Peace of, 505. 

Saa'dT. 274. 

Saal'feid (felt), 602. 

Saiir, 502. 

Saar'bruck en, 727. 

Sa-bel'li, 147, 148, 166, 192. 

Sab'ines, 147, 148, 150, 152, 211. 

Sac/is, Hans, 462. 

Sac-ra-men'to River, 890. 

Sad'o'u.-cees, 144. 

'Sa-do'wa (-va), Battle of, 716. 

Sa-giis'ta, 762, 763, 779. 

Sa-gtin'tum, 171. 

Saint An'tfto-ny, Falls of, 794 

Saint Au'gus-tine (aw'), 2.")4. 

Saint Bar-thol'o-mew (-niu), Massacre 

of, 438, 452. 
Saint Ben'e-dict, Order of, 332. 
Saint Ber'nard, 172, 279, 592. 
Saint Clair, Ar'thur, 844, 860. 
Saint Cloud (clowd), 590. 
Siiint CroiE, 791. 

Saint Denis (dne), Battle of, 450. 
SaiNi Denis (dne), Cathedral of, 275, 

456. 
SaiNi Gall, Cloister of, 332, 414. 
Saint George, Bank of. 372. 
SaiNi Ger-rmuN (zlier-), Treaty of, 450. 
SaiNi Go-tAard', 592, 668. 
Saint (sent) He-le'na, 632. 
SaiNi Jean (zliaN), M6n(, 632. 
Saint .Toftn d'Acre (dakr), Siege of, 588. 
Saint John, Hospital of, 318. 
Saint John, Island, 799. 



Saint Joftn, Kniglitsof, 318, 341, 390, 593. 
SaiNi Just (zhust), 567, 571, 574, 578. 
Saint Law'rence River, 790, 792, 793, 794, 

828. 
SaiNi Leu, Duchess of, 626. 
Saint Loii'is, Church of, 560. 
Saint Ma-lo', 790, 791. 
Saint Mar-gae-rite' Island, 757. 
Saint Mark's Church, 322, 370. 
SaiNi Mar-tin' (-taN), 957. 
Saint Ma'ry's School, 807. 
Saint Paul (pawl), College of, 958. 
Saint Paul's (pawls), 481. 
Saint Pe'ter's, 280, 300, 377, 406. 
Saint Pe'ters-burg, 516, 519, 522, 549, 551, 

554, 690, 768, 770. 
SaiNi Pi-gire', Jacques (zhak), 655. 
SaiNi Pri-viii', Battle of, 728. 
SaiNi Si'mon, Count de, 741, 810. 
Saint So-phi'a, Church of, 262, 390. 
Sa'is, 44, 48, 49. 
Sa-kon-ta'la, 30. 
Sal'a-din, 310, 312. 
Sal-a-man'ca, 439, 608, 723. 
Sal-a-man'ca, University of, 367. 
Sal'a-mis, 76, 106, 107. 123. 
Sal-man-as'sar IV., of As-syr'I-a, 38. 
Sal-me'ron, 761, 762. 
Sa'Iem, 816, 817, 821. 
Sa-ler'no, 2i8, 292, 308. 
Sa'lic Law, 352, 664. 
Salis'bwr-y (sawlz'), Lord, 776. 
Sfil'lust, 211. 
Sa-lo'mo, 288. 
Siil-setie', 36. 

Salt (sawlt) Lake City, 892. 
Salz'burg (salts' boorg), 525, 628. 
Salz'mann, 540. 
Sam-ar-cand', 386, 389. 
Sa-ma'ri-a, 38, 65, 66. 
Bam'nites, 147, 14S, 165, 166, 192, 194. 
Sa-mo'a, 931. 
Sa'mos, 78, 87. 
Sa-mo-thrace', 78, 181. 
Sam'son, 56, 58. 
Sam'son, Monk, 413. 
Sam'u-el, 58. 

San'cAo I., of Por'tfl-gal, 368. 
Sand (sant), Carl, 645. 
Sand, George, 656. 
Siin'dys. George, 802. 
San Fran-cis'co Bay, 789. 
San Fran-cis'co River, 958. 
San'he-drim, 144. 
San Ja-cin'to, 950. 
Sail Juste (zhiist), 426. 
San Pau'lo (paw'), 958. 
San Re'mo, 750. 
San Siil'va-dor, 400. 
San'serit, 35. 

SaNS Cti-loties, 567, 572, 573. 
San Se-bas-t"i-an', 724. 
San Ste-fa'no, 767. 
San-ta An'nii, General, 876, 949, 950. 
San-ta'rem (-reN). 368. 
San'ta Ro'sa, 639. 
San-ti-a'go, 958. 

San'to Do-min'go, 400, 788, 927, 957. 
Sap-pho', 100. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, odd, move; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1025 



Siir'a-eeus, 270, 271, 272, 292, 298, 306, 316, 

318, 325. 
Sii-ra-gos'sa, 279, 511, 60S. 
Sa'raft, 52. ■ 
Sar'a-nac River, 872. 
Sa-ras-va'ti, 32. 
Sar-a-to'ga, 846, 849, 942. 
Sar-da-na-pa/lus. See Assurhadon II. 
Sar'din-i-a, 171, 325, 367, 374, 513. 576, 630, 

639, 664, 691, 706, 707, 708, 709, 711. 
Sar'dis, 68, 101, 103. 
Sar'gon I., of Assyr'i-a, 37. 
Sar'gon II., of As-syr'i-a, 38, 51, 65. 
Sar-ma'ti-cms (-shi-), 265. 
Sa-ro'ni-an Bay, 106. 
Sas-san'i-des, 235. 
Sass'bacft, 502. 
Sas'su-liisch, Ve'ra, 770. 
Sa-tol'lii', Ai-cli bishop, 937. 
Sat'urn, 150. 
Sat-ur-ni'iius, 191. 
Sa'tyrs (-ters),80. 
Saul (sawl), 58. 

Sav'age Sta'tion, (-shim) Battle of, 911. 
Sa-van'naft, 811, 818, 914, 915, 919. 
Sa-van'maft River, 810, 919. 
Sa-v.iiffu-y' (-ye'), 740. 
Sa-vO-ua-ro'la, 376. 
Sa-voy', 374, 37S, 420, 504, 513, 580,664,684, 

709. 
Sa-voy', House of, 339, 374, 707, 710, 744. 
Saxe, Marshal, 528. 
Sax'o-ny, 218. 261, 277, 279, 2S0, 2S4. 296, 

298, 319, 321, 348, 350, 381, 406, 408, 410, 

412, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 472, 476, 477, 

519, 526, 530, 533, 534, 602, 622, 626, 630, 
663, 673, 679, 705, 716, 718, 728, 752. 

Say'brook, 821. 

Say, Le-ON', 759. 

Scaev'o-la (seV) Mu'ci-us (-sl)i-), 159. 

Scsev'O-la (sev') t PontiTex Maxim us, 195, 

Scan'der-beg, 390. 

Scan-di-ml'vi-a, 285, 286, 379, 380, 754. 

Scel-e-ra'ta, Vi'a, 156, 157. 

Scha'dino, Jo'liarm (yo') GOtf'fried 

(-fret), 657, 658. 
Schaff-hau'sen (-lioW), 414. 
Schaff, Fhil'ip, 891, 940. 
Scham'yl, 696. 
Scharn'horst, 612, 620. 
Scbart'lin, 423. 
Scheming, von. 540. 
Schil'ter, Fred'er-ick von, 539, 540, 650, 

658, 701. 
Seliill, Mayor von, 610. 
Scliip'ka, Pass, 765, 767. 
Selile'gel, Au-gus'tus (aw-), 648. 
Selile'gel, Fried'ricA 648. 
Schlei'er-ma-eher, 733. 
Scles'wig, 290, 294, 380, 436, 470, 477, 478, 

520, 677, 680, 684, 704, 705, 706, 713, 714, 
717. 744. 

Sehmal'kald. 421, 423. 

Schmer'ling, 702. 

Scliom-berg (shoN-), Marshal, 494. 

Schop'per (slief), Pe'ter, 395. 

Scho'pen-hau-er (-how), 740. 

Schu'bert, 658. 

Schul'ze (sho6rtse)-De'li(2sch, 741, 



Schii'mami, 658. 

Schurz (shoorts), Carl, 927, 940. 

Sctay'lers, 796. 

ScAwy'ler, Fort, 846. 

Sctay'ler, Phil'ip Jo/in, 844, 846. 

Sc/iiij/l'kill River. 798, 826. 

Schwan't/ia-ler (shvan'), Lud'wig (loot'- 

veg) Mi'cftael, 65S. 
Schwartz (shvarts), Ber'tAOld, 395. 
Sehwartz'eu-berg, Priuce vou, 614, 622, 

623. 
Schwe-rin', Count von, 526, 703. 
Sclnvytz (shvits), 339. 
Scip'i-o, jEm'i-li-a'nus (em-), 187, 189. 
Scip'i-o, Cor-ne'li-us, 172, 176, 178, 179, 

180. 184, 188. 
Sco'lots, 74. 
Sco'pas, 126. 
Scot, Dred, 906. 
Scot'land, 362, 364, 366, 428. 429, 448, 458, 

479, 481, 488, 490, 494, 652, 782, 808,826. 
Scots, 226, 234, 261. 
Scott, Win'Keld, 876, 908. 
Scott, Sir Wal'ter (wawT), 652. 
Sco'tus, Duns, 334. 
Scrib'ner's Magazine, 939. 
Scroo'by, 812. 814. 
Scyth'i-ans, 74, 100, 265. 
Se-bast'iau (ynn), Doiti, 441. 
Seb-as-to'pol, 689, 690, 091. 692, 694. 
Se-dan (doN') Battle of, 729. 
See'konk River, 823. 
See'land, 478. 
Se-gest', 213. 
Seine, 351, 623. 
Se-i-sacft-thi'S, 97. 
Se-ja'nus, 219, 220. 
Sel-eu-ci'a, 143. 
Se-leu'cids, 143, 144,197. 
Se-leu'cus, 141. 142. 
Sel-juk' Turks, 302. 
Sel-la'si-a (-shi-), 143. 
Sem'i-noles, 864, 878. 
Se-mir'a-mis, 37, 42. 
Sem'ites, 521. 

Sem'pacl), Battle of, 339, 344. 
Sein-pro'ni-us, 172. 
Sen'e-ca, 221. 
Sen-nacft'e-rib. 38, 65. 
Sen-ti'nuni, 166. 
Se'poys, 687. 
Sep'tu-a-gint. 144. 
Sepulchre, Holy, 689. 
Seq'ua-ni (sek'wa-), 200. 
Se-ra'pis, 143. 

Ser-ra'no, 723, 724, 725. 761, 762. 
Ser-to'i'i-us Quin'tus, 194, 195. 
Ser-ve'tus, Mi'c/iael, 437. 
Ser'vi-a, 694, 763, 764, 767, 768, 770,782. 
Ser'vi-us Tul'li-us, 156. 
Se-sos'tris, 48. 

Sev'en Pines, Battle of, 910. 
Seven Years War, 528. 536. 
Se-ve'rus, Sep-tim'i-us, 234. 
Ss-vilte', 367, 608, 724. 
Se-vjer', John, 848. 
Sew'all (su'), SAm'u-el, 821. 
Sew'ard (su'), Wil'liam (-yam) Hen'ry, 

904, 924, 931. 



Sex'ti-us Lu'ci-us (-shi-), 164. 

Ses/'mour, Jane, 432. 

Seyd'litz, 532. 

Sfor'za (sfort'sa), Francis, 374. 

Sfor'za (sfort'sa), Max-i-mil'ian (-yan), 

419, 420. 
Shack'a-max-on, 262. 
Sliaftes'bur-y, Earl of, 493. 
Shakes'peare, Wil'liam (-yam), 363, 464, 

539, 648. 
Shal-ma-ne'ser IV. ,65. 
Slia-re'zer, 38. 
Sharp, Ja'cob, 936. 
Sliarps'burg/i, 911 . 
Shat'tttcks, 820. 
Shays, Dan'iel (-yel), 854. 
She'cftem, 64. 
Shel'burne, Earl, 852. 
Shel'by, General, 848. 
Shel'iey, Per'cy Bysshe, 654. 
Shem, 23. 

Slien-an-do'a/i Valley, 908, 910. 911, 918. 
Sher'i-dan, Phil'ip Hen'ry, 918. 
Sher'man, Rog'er, 856. 
Sher'mau Silver Bill, 932, 933. 
Sher'man, Wil'liam (-yam) Te-cum'seft, 

878, 912, 914, 917, 919, 920. 
Shi'10/i, 909. 
Ship Island, 910. 

Shir'ley (sher'). Wil'liam (yam), 830. 
Si-be'ri-a, 385, 516, 520, 663, 780. 
Sib'yl-line Books, 157. 
Sib'yls, 251. 
Si-cam'bri, 212. 
Si-cil'i-an Vespers, 330. 
Sic'Il-y, 50, 84, 88, 96, 98, 166, 167, 168, 170, 

171, 174, 178, 254, 270, 288, 323, 325, 326, 

328, 367, 377, 378, 415, 511, 513, 514, 584, 

585, 601, 666, 676, 707, 710, 711. 
Sick'ing-en, Franz, 410. 
Sie'y-on (sish'), 77, 86, 87. 
Si'don, 49. 52, 312. 
Sid'ney, Al'ger-non, 493. 
Si-do'ni-a, Me-di'na, 448. 
S.eg'fn'ed, 336. 
Sie'mens, 741. 
Si'e-yes, Abbe, 560, 634. 
Si'gel, Franz, 918. 
Sig'is-inund of Ger'ma-ny, 344, 348, 349, 

382, 388. 
Sig'is-mund, of Po'land, 3S5. 437. 
Si'la, 196. 
Sil'a-rus, 196. 

Si-le'si-a (-shi-), 526, 528, 533, 534, 536. 
Si-le'si-an (-shi-) War, 526, 528. 
Si-lis'tri-a, 690. 
Silk Culture, 262. 
Sil'vi-us, ^E'ne-us, 348, 349, 377. 
Sim'coe, Joftn Graves, 942. 
Sim-i-0'ne, Cardinal, 748. 
Simms, Wil'liam (-yam) 611 'mure, 897. 
Si-mon'i-des, 92, 100. 
Si-moN', Jules (zhfll), 755, 758. 
Si'mon, of Ju-de'a, 144, 224. 
Sim'plon, 592. 
Simp'son, James, 692. 
Si'nar, 54. 
Sin-o'pe, 88, 118. 690. 
Sioux, Indians, 791, 938. 



use, urn, up, riide; food, foot; by ; cell ; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



65 



1026 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Sirens, 79. 

Sis'e-ra, 58. 

Sis-to'va, 765. 

Sifting Bull (bool), 265, 438. 

Si-waft', 73. 132. 

Six'tus V., Pope, 439. 

Skalds, 285. 

Skel'ton, John, 815. 

Skier-nie-wic'ze (skyer-ne-vet'sa), 748. 

Sko'be-leff, General, 766. 

Slavery, 803, 811, 821, 899. 

Slavs, 265, 266,' 280, 284, 290, 292, 323, 380, 
384, 702, 753, 780. 

SUdell'. Joftn, 921. 

Slough 'ter (slaw'), Governor, 826. 

Smer'dis, 73. 

Smith, Ad'am, 547, 741. 

Smith, Captain Joftn, 800, 802. 

Smith College, 937. 

Smith, Colonel, 838. 

Smith, Hcip'kin-son, 939. 

Smith, Jo'seph, 892. 

Smith'son, James, L. M., 894. 

Smo-lensk', 516, 519, 616, 618. 

Smyr'na (smer'), 87. 

Smythe. General, 868. 

SO-bi-es'ki, Joftn, 503, 518. 

S6-cin'i-ans, 437, 551. 

SO-ci'nus, Faus'tus, (laws'), 437. 

Soe'ra-tes, 114, 116, 118, 124, 145, 146. 

SO-fi'a. 770. 

Sois-soss' (sw;\s-),258. 

Sol-fer.'i'no, 70S. 

So'li, 197. 

Sul'0-mfin, of Is'ra-el, 62, 224. 

Sol'6-inon, the Magnificent, 390, 392. 

SO'loil, 70, 96. 97, 98, 99. 100. 

So'lo-tlmrn, 760. 

Som'er-set (sum'), Duke of, 432. 433. 

Soin'mer-ring (sem'), 741. 

SGn'der-burg(s6Gn'),Glucks'burg,Cftris'- 
tian (-chan) von, 704, 705. 

Soph'ists, 114, 116. 124, 136. 

Soph'6-eles, 123, 124. 

Soph-O-nis'be, 178. 

So'ter, 143. 

Soii-bise', Prince of, 532. 

Soiilt, Marshal, 599, 608, 632. 

Soii'sa. Mar'thi de, 958. . 

Soii'sa Tho'me de, 958. 

Southamp'ton (-hainp'), 812. 

South Car-G-li'na, 807. 808, S09, 810, 823, 
848, 849, 852, 853, 901, 902, 904, 906, 937. 

South Darko'ta, 864. 

South'ey (sowth'), 652. 

South Sea, 402. 

Spaan, 167, 171, 176, 179, 187, 191, 195, 203, 
204, 239, 244, 249, 252, 254, 271, 272, 
279, 367, 368, 374, 398, 400, 402, 403, 404, 
419, 421, 426, 437, 441, 444, 448, 450, 452, 
472, 503, 504, 505. 510, 547, 576. 598, 
604, 60S, 630, 636, 637, 638, 646, 664, 722, 
723, 725, 761, 762, 763, 779, 787, 788, 789, 
795, 808, 834, 847, 852, 860, 862, 864, 874, 
' 949, 950, 951, 953, 957, 958. 

Spain, Art and Literature, 462. 

Span'dau (-dow), 422. 

Span'ish Succession, War of the, 510. 

Sparks, Ja'red, 897. 



Spar'ta, 77, 87, 89, 92, 94, 95. 96, 97, 99, 

101, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 

114, 119, 120, 121, 125, 142, 143, 183. 
Spar'ta-eus, 196. 
Speke, Joftn Han'ning, 742. 
Spen'cer, Her'bert, 655. 
Spey'er, 282, 300, 412. 
Sphac-te'ri-a, 112. 
Spicft-er'er Heights, Battle of, 727. 
Spi'el'ha-zen Frte'dricft, 739. 
Spi-no'za, Ben'e-diet, 739. 
Spit'tler, 540. 
Spo-le'ti-um, 173. 
Spotts'wood, Al-ex-au'der, 806. 
Stad'e-co-ne, 790. 
Stael, Madame de, 595, 655. 
Stam'bu-loff, 782. 
Stamp Act, 835. 
Standard Oil Trust, 934. 
Stand'ish, Captain Miles, 814. 
Stan-is-la'jfs, Les-czin'ski (lesh-chin'), 

518, 524. 
Stau-fs-la'-us, Po-ni-a-tow'ski (-toV), 591, 

654. 
Stan'ley, Hen'ry Mor'ton, 742, 941. 
Stan'ton, Ed'wiu Mc-Mas'ters, 907, 922, 

925. 
Staps, 610. 
Star Chamber, 482. 
Stark, Joftn, 830, 816. 
Starn'berg, Lake, 749. 
Star of the West, 907. 
Stau'pitz (stow'), 406. 
Sted'ni-ger, 319. 

Sted'man, Ed'mund Clar'ence, 939. 
Steen, Jan (yan), 781, 782. 
Stein, Baron, 610, 612, 619. 
Stein'metz, 727. 
Sten'bock, Genera], 520. 
Ste'phen (-ven), of Blois (blwa), 630. 
Ste'phen (-ven) III., Pope, 275. 
Ste'phens (venz), 687. 
Ste'phens (-venz), Al-ex-an'der Ham'z'l- 

ton, 922. 
Ste'phen-son (-ven-) George. 888. 
Ste'phen (-ven), the Saint, 292, 381, 382. 
Steppes, 74, 552. 
Stet-tin', 477, 516, 716. 
Steu'ben, Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (yam), 

847. 
Ste'vens. A'bel. 940. 
Stew'art (stu'), Al-ex-ah'der Tur'ney, 

927. 
Stey'er-mark, 333, 466. 
Stil'i-cfto, 198, 251, 252: 
Still'wa-ter (waw-), 846. " 
Sto'a, 110, 145. 
Stock'holm, 436, 437. 604. 
Stod'aard, Kich'ard Hen'ry, 939. 
Sto'ics, 145, 230. 

Stul'bei'g, Fn'ed'ricft Le'0-pold, 540. 
Sto'lo, Li-cinl-us, 164. 
Stone, of Mar'y-land (mer'!, S07. 
Stone River, Battle of, 910- 
Sto'ny Point, 847, 848. 
Storms, Cape of, 396. 
StOugh'ton, Wil'liam (yam), 821. 
Stowe, Hai"ri-et Beech'er, 939. ■ 
Stra'bo, 212. 



Stra-chan', Joftn, 943, 944. 

Strafford (-urd), Tftom'as Went' worth 

(-WUTth), 481, 482. 
Stral'sund (-soont), 470. 516, 522, 604,610. 
Stras'bflrg, 248, 282, 424, 426, 502, 505, 512, 

730, 737, 744, 756. 
Strauss (straws) Da'vid Frze'dricft, 739. 
Strel'itz, 385. 

String'ftam, Si'las Hor'ton, 914. 
Strii'en-see Jo'hanu (yo'), Frte'dricft, 

547, 548. 
Strii've of Ba'den, 676. 
Stry'mon, 107 

Stu'arts. 362, 364, 435, 479, 492, 494, 516. 
Stu're, Sten, 380, 437. 
Stu're, Sten, the Younger, 380. 381. 
Stutt'giirt (stoof), 65S, 670. 679. 
Stwy've-sant, Pe'ter, 797, 799. 
Sub-treasury, 886. 
Sfi-chef', Loii is' Ga'bri-el, 608. 
Sii'dra, 33, 
Sue, .Eu'gene, 656. 
Sue'vi (swe'), 212, 216, 251, 252. 
Sii-ez' Canal. 695, 773. 
Sii-lei'man Pa'sha', 767. 
Sul'Zy, Due de, 456, 791, 
Sul-pi5'i-us, 192. 
Siilt'ner, Ber'tha von, 739 
Sii-ma'tra, 754. 
Su-nier'i-an, 37. 
Sum'ner, Charles, 904, 927. 
Sum'ter, Fort, 907. 
Sum'ter, Tftom'as, 848. 
Sun'da Islands, 398. 
Sunday, 246, 573, 595. 
Su'ni-um, 102. 
Sun'tal, 280.. 

Su-pe'ri-or (-er), Lake, 890. 
Sii'sa, 73,74, 100, 101, 106, 134, 140, 334. 
Sii-san'na, 41. 

Sii-wa'roff (-va'), Count, 552, 554, 586. 
Swa'bi-a, 284, 296, 344, 350, 412, 421, 426, 

599. 
Swan-tow'it, 265. 
Swe'den,379, 380, 381, 436, 437,471,473, 

474, 477, 478, 479, 499, 502, 522, 592, 598, 

604, 622, 657, 754, 781, 959. 
Swenek-feld'ers, 826. . 
Swet/n, the Lucky, 286. 
Swiss Confederation, 781. 
Swiss Guards, 566. 
Swiss League, 339, 344, 350. 
Swit'zer-laiid, 199, 339. 351, 356. 378, 414, 

415, 416, 427, 428, 450, 452, 477, 584, 585, 

586, 594, 597, 601, 670, 671, 709, 725, 760, 

780, 781. 
Sword, Order of the, 385, 426: . 
Sy-a'gri-us, 258. 
Syd'en-ftam, Lord, 946. 
SylTa, Cor-ne'li-us, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 

195,198. . 
Sym'ma-cftus, 258. 
Synod, Holy, 524. .' 
Synod of Doit, 448. 
Sy'phax, 178. 

Syr'a-cuse,-88, 113, 166,. 167, 174, 178. 324. 
Syr'i-a, 28, 38,42,47.48,70.141,142,143, 

144, 197, 199, 213, 268, 302, 318, 386, 389, 

390, 588. 



Ale, care, am, ayrn; final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, odd, move; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1027 



Sys-sit'i-a, 94. 
Sz'i'getA, 392. 

Tna'fe, Count, 779. 

Tac'i-tus Ca'ius (-yfis) Cor-ne'li-us, 214, 

216, 219, 226, 227, 238. 
Ta-gi'na, 264. 
Ta-la-ve' ra. Battle of, 608. 
Tal'bot (tawl'), Tftom'as, 943. 
Tal'ley-rand, Prince, 563, 566, 597, 619, 

624, 630. 
Tal-li-en' (-an'). 578. 
Tam-ei'-lane', 389. 
Tam'ma-ny Hall, 931. 
Tan'a-gra. 
TaN'cred, 304, 324. 
Tank 'mar, 290. 
Tan'nen-bgrg, Battle ot, 3S4. 
Tar'a-ko, 39. 
Ta-ren'Mnes, 166. 
Ta-ren'tum, 88, 166, 167, 176, 292. 
Ta'rik, 270. 

Tarle'ton, General. 849. 
Tar-pe'ian (-yau) Rook, 161. 
Tar-quin'i-i, 148. 
Tsir-quin'i-us, A'runs, 159. 
Tar-quln'i-us, Col-la-tl'niis, 157, 158. 
Tar-quin'i-us, Pris'cus, 156. 
Tar-quin'i-us, Su-per'bus, 156, 157, 158, 

159. 
Tar'slrish, 51. 
Tar'tars (-ters), 386. 
Tar'ta-riis, 78, 80. 
Tar'siis, 248. 
Tas'so, 377, 462. 

Tau'ler (tow'-), Jo'hann (yo')i 334. 
Tau'rus (taw'-), 180, 549. 
Ta-yg'e-tus, 77, 93. 
Taj/'Ior, Zac/i'ii-ry, 876, 878, 903, 904. 
Te-cum se/i, 866,878. 
Te'ge-a, 77. 

Teg-ner' E-sai'as (-za'),657. 
Te-hua-can' (-wa-), 951. 
Te-huan-te-pec' (-wan-) Isthmus ot, 950. 
Te-ja'da (-ha'), Ser'dO de, 952. 
Te'jas, 264. 
Tel'a-mon, 171. 
Tel-el-KS'bir, 775. 
Tel'e-ma-e/ius, 83, 507. 
Tem'pe, 75. 

Tem'plar (-pler),° Knights, 318, 340, 341. 
Tein'ple, Order of the. 318. 
Ten'iers (-yerz) Da'vid, 464. 
Ten-nes-see', 854, 896, 908, 909, 919, 925, 

937, 939. 
Ten-nes-see' River, 909. 
Ten-nes-see' (vessel), 916. 
Ten'ny-son, Al'fred, 654. 
Ter'ence, 184. 
Ter'ra Fir'ma (fer'), 957. 
Ter'ry, Al-fred, Howe, 916. 
Ter-tul'fi-an, 247. 
Tesch'en, Peace of, 537. 
Tes'la, 941. 

Tet'zel (-sel), Jo'liann (y<V), 406. 
Teu-to-biir'ger (toi-) Forest, 213, 214, 

279. 
Teii-to'iil-ans, 190. 
Teu-ton'ie Knights, Order of, 318. 



Teu'tons, 265. 

Tew'fik (tu') Pa-slia', 774. 

Tex'as, 787, 795, 864, 876, 900, 902, 903, 907, 

937,"950. 
Tex'el, 795. 
Thack'e-ray, Wil'liam (-yam) Make'- 

peace, 655. 
Tha'les, 99. 
Tliap'sus, 204. 
Tliii'sos, 52, 78. 
Thas'si-lo of Ba-va'ri-a, 280. 
Thebes, 39, 48, 49,73. 76, 81, 82,89,105, 

111, 120, 121, 127, 130, 131. 
T/ieiss, 255. 

The-mis'to-cles, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108. 
The-oc'ri-tus, 145, 211. 
The-o-da'tus, 262. 
The-6-do'ra, 262. 

The'6-dore, of Ab-ys-sin'I-a, '688. 
Tlie-od'o-ric, 257, 258, 262. 
The-o-do'si-iis (-shi-), Fla'vi-us, 249, 251. 
The-og'nis, 100. 
Tlie-o-pha'ni-a, 292, 
The-rain'e-nes, 114. 
T/ier-in'i-d8r'i-ans, 578. 
Ther-mop'y-lse (-6-), 75, 105, 128, ISO. 
The'se-us, 76. 82. 
Tlies'pi-se, 105. 
Thes-sa-lo-ni'ca, 251. 
Thes'sa-ly, 75, 83, 104, 107, 110, 127, 180, 

251. 388, 646. 
TAI-bet'. 32. 
Tln-ers',Lou-is'i-flolph'. 638. GS5, 736, 737, 

738, 755, 756, 757, 758. 
Thirty Tyrants, 114. 
Thirty Years' War. 466, 477, 4R4. 496. 
Tftom'as, George Hen'ry, 909, 912, 919. 
Tftom'as' General (of France), 738. 
TAomp'sou, John Poii'lett, 945, 916. 
Thor, 218. 
TA6rn,3S. 524,553. 
T/iorn , Peace of, 384. 
T/ior'vvald-sen (wawld-), Al'bcrt Ber'tel 

658. 
Thrace, 88,104, 107, 112, 113, 119, 191, 239, 

214. 
Thras-y-bu'lus, 114. 
Three Emperors, Battle of, 600. 
Thii-cyd'i-des, 92, 124, 125. 
T/iu-rin'gi-a, 276, 279, 280, 332, 339, 350, 412, 

477, 602. 
Thurn (torn), Count von, 4G7. 
Thus-nel'da, 213, 214. 
Ti'ber, 147, 150. 156, 158, 159, 160, 166, 167. 

189, 22i, 298. 326. 
Ti-be'ri-us, 186. 213, 214. 219, 220. 
Ti-be'ri-as, Battle of, 310. 
Ti-buTlus, 211. 
Ti-ci'no (-Che'), 708, 781. 
Ti-ci'nus River, 172. 
Tick'nor, George, 894. 
Ti-con-der-6'ga, 831, 83S, 844. 
Ti'eck, Lud'wig (Ioot'veg), 648, 650. 
Tig'lath Pi-le'ser II., 3S, 65. 
Ti-gra'nes, 197. 
Ti-gran-o-cer'ta, 197. 
Ti'gris, 37, 134, 143, 248, 390. 
Til'clen Library, 938. 
Til'deu, Sam'u-el Jones, 928, 



Til'ly, Count vOn, 466, 467, 4CS. 470, 471 

472. 
Til'sit, 750. 

Til'sit, Peace of, 603, 630. 
Ti-mo'le-on, 167. 
Ti-no'va, 765. 
Tip-pe-ca-noe'. 878. 
Tip-per-a-ry, 783. 
Ti-iard', 778. 
Ti-rynth'. 77. 
Tis-sa-pher'nes, 118. 
Tis'za (-so), 753, 779. 
Ti'tnns, 78. 
Titlieland, 227, 217. 
Ti'tian (tish'), 372, 464. 
Ti'tus, Emperor, 224, 226. 
Ti'tus Man'li-us, 165. 
Ti'tus Ta'ti-us (-shi-), 152. 
Tm. 218. 
Tod'16-ben (tot'), Franz (frants) ft'du- 

ard ('doo-art), 691, 692. 
Toe-kce'li, Em'mer-icft, 503. 
Tog'gen-berg (boorg), 413. 
To-kay', 382. 

To-len-ti'no, Battle of, 630. 
To-len-ti'no, Peace of, 582. 
To-lo'sa, 254, 272. 
Tol'stoi, Count, 657, 780. 
Tom'y-ris, 72. 
Ton-quin' (-ken'), 759. 
Ton'ty (-te), Hen'ry, 794. 
Tooin&s, Rob'ert, 903, 926. 
To-pe'te, Admiral, 724, 702. 
Tor'gau (-gow)., Battle of, 534. 
To'ries, 493, 512, 568. 
To-ron'to. 943, 945. 
Tor'ries, Inquisitor, 955. 
Tor'res Ve'dras, 60S. 
Tor'sten-son, Count, 477. 
Tot'i-la, 262, 264. 
Toii'lon, 573, 637. 
Toti-Ioiise, 608, 637. 
Tours, 271, 730. 
Tower of London, 364, 460. 
Traf-nl-gar',600. 
Tra'jan, 226, 227, 230. 
Trans-vaol', 773. 

Tran-syl-va'ni-ii, 381, 426, 504, 722, 753. 
Tra-pe'zi-um, 118. 
Tras-i-me'ne, Lake. 148, 172. 
Tre'bi-a, 172, 585. 

Treu'de-len-biirg, Frie'dric/i A'doll, 740. 
Ti-en-poN(' (-aN-), 796. 
Trent, Council of, 423, 424, 425, 43S. 
Tren'ton, 842. 
Trent, (vessel). 921. 
Tre'poff, General, 770. 
Tri-bo'ni-an, 262. 
Tribunes, 58, 59, 60. 
Trl'bur, 298. 
Tri-coii'pis, 782. 
Tri-ent' (-aN'), 720. 
Trin'i-ty Church, 890. 
Trip'o-li, 390, 860. 
Tri'tons, 79. 

Tro-chu', Loii-is' Jules (zlml), 730, 734. 
TiO'jcm War, 82, 83, 86. 
Troinp, Cor-nel'ius (-yds) von, 490 
Trou'ba-doiirs, 319, 336. 



use, urn , up, rude ; food, foot ; by ; cell ; N=ng ; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1028 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Troy, 81, 82, 83, 84, 131, 147. 

Troves (trwa), 558. 

Trucu'sess (triit'), von Wald'burg 

(vald'b66rg),412. 
Tru-jil'lo (-liel'yo-), 956. 
Trux'ton, Thom'as, 862. 
rschan'da-la, 33. 
rscher-kiisz'ky Prince, 765. 
Tu'bing-en University of, 421. 
Tuc-son', 789. 
Tu'dor. Ma'ry. 
Tuil-er-ies' (twel), 563, 565, 567, 571. 583, 

594, 62S, 73S. 
Tul'lus, Hos-til'i-us. 154. 
TQ'nis, 16S. 270, 316, 390. 420. 759. 
Tu-renne'. Marshal. 477, 493, 499. 
Tur-gen'ieff, Ivan', 657, 
Tur-gor. Baron, 547, 557. 
Tu'rill. 374, 502. 511. 639, 707, 711, 713. 
Tur'key. 551, 552, 646. 647. 648. 688, 689, 

690, 695, 763, 764, 767, 768, 770, 772. 780, 

7S2. 
Turks. 306. 308, 318. 350, 372. 376, 332. 383, 

385, 336. 338, 3S9, 390, 392. 404, 420. 421, 

440. 503. 520. 551, 5SS, 593, 614, 646, 648, 

753, 763. 765. 
Turn er, Jo'seph, 658. 
Tus'ca-ny 375. 582, 676, 707, 709. 
Tus cu-lum. 
Twain, Mark, 939. 
Tweed, " Boss."' 92S. 
Ty'ler. J6An.876, 902. 
Ty'ler, MO'ses Coit. 940. 
Ty'ler, Wat (wot). 356. 
Tyrants. 97, 98. 100. 
Tyre. 3S, 42. 49, 50, 51. 52. 64, 132, 312. 
Tyr'ol, 191, 342. 423, 425, 510, 528, 600, 609, 

610. 62S. 720. 
Ty-rone. Earl of, 460. 
Tyr-toe'us, 95. 

UA'land (-lant) Jo'hanu (yo') Ludwig, 

(loot'veg), 650. 
Vh'vicfi. 730, 756. 
tJ'kraine, 519. 
tl'fi-Ias, Bishop, 249. 
Ulm (oolm). 326. 424, 600. 
tJl'pi-an, 232, 23-5. 
Ul-ri'ca, E-le-a no'ra. 522. 
tjl'ricft, Duke, 421, 424. 
C-lys'ses. S3. 

Om-bri-a' (Com-), 166, 176, 192. 
Cn'ion (-yin). Seminary, 891, 937. 
TT'ni-ta ri-an Church. S90. 
O-m'ted States, 687, 761, 77S. 779, 783, 7S8, 

828, 847, 852, S54, 856, S5S, 862. 
O-ni'ted States Bank, SS3, 384. 
C-ni'ted States (frigate), 863. 
Uu-ter-wal'deii (oon-ter-val'), 339. 
TTp-sa'Ia, 436. 

Cp-sS'la, University of, 3S0. 
Ur'bon II., Pope, 302. 
tr'ban IV., Pope, 326. 
tj'ri, 339. 
O-rl'a/i, 60. 

Crii-guay (-gwa), 956. 
tJs'se-finx, Wll'liam (-yam), 795, 796, 798. 
U'tah (-taw). S92. 
C'ti-ca, 50, 178. 



O-to'pi-a, 430. 
U-tra-quists, War of, 34S. 
tJ'trecAt, 379. 
U'trecftt, Treaty of, 512, 513. 

Va-dl-e)'' : 578. 

Vae'ri-ger (va'), 285. 

Vais'ja (-ya), 33. 

Va-las'co, 7S8. 

Va-len'ci-a (-shi-), 511, 723, 956. 

Va'lens, 248, 249. 

Val-en-tin'i-an I., 248. 

Val-en-tln'I-an II., 249. 

Val-en-tin'i-an III., 254, 255. 

Va-le'ri-us, Mar'cus, 165. 

Val-lial'la, 219. 

Val-la-do-lid' ( ya-tho-leth'), 400. 

Val'ley Forge, 847, 84S, 856. 

Val-my' (-me'), Battle at. 568. 

Val-ois' (-wa'). House of, 352. 

Val-pa-rai'so, 932. 

Van Bu'ren, Mar'tin, 880, 882. 886. 

Vfm'dals, 216, 246, 251, 252, 254. 255, 256, 

262. 
Van Dam, Eip. S26. 
Van-damme' (vox), Count. 6S0. 
Van Dyck, Sir An't/io-ny, 464. 
Vane, Hen'ry, 817. 
Van Rens'se-ter, General, 86S. 
Van Rens'se-lsers. 796. 
Van Twil-fei'j Wal'ter (wawl'), 796. 
Va-reimes', 564. 
Wrings, 379. 
Var'nii, 690. 
Var'ua, Battle of, 390. 
Varn'ha-gen (fam'), von En'se, 739. 
Var'ro, Ta-reu'ti-us (-shi-), 174. 
Vii-rii'na, 34. 

Va'rus, Lu'ci-us (-shi-), 230. 
Va'rus, Quin-til'lus, 213, 214. 
Vas'sax College, 937 
Vas'sy, 450. 

Vat'i-cau, 377, 5S6, 720, 748. 760, 772. 
Vau-bau (vo-bax'), Marquis de, 499. 
Ve'da, 34, 35. 
Ve'ga de Lo-pe. 464. 
Ve'ii (-yl), 14S, 159, 160, 162, 164. 
Ven-dee' (vox-). La, 573, 665. 
Ven-dome' (vox) Column. 738. 
Ven-e-zue'la (-zwe'). 953. 956, 957. 
Ven'ice, 2-5, 314. 370, 372, 374. 377, 382, 

5S2, 5S3, 600, 62S, 676, 677, 707, 712, 713, 

717. 720. 
Ven'ice, Congress at, 322, 323. 
Ve'nus, 77, 79. 
Ve'nus de mi'lo, 127. 
Ve'nus. Medi-ce'an. 127. 
Ve-nu'si-a (-shi). 176. 
Ve'ra Criiz, 78S, S76, 950, 951. 
Ver-cel'lte, 191. 
Ver-oin-get'o-rix, 200. 
Verd, Cape de, 390. 
Ver'di. 653. 
Ver-dux, 568. 

Ver-dus, Treaty of, 282, 284. 
Ver-gennes' (-zhen') Count de. 846, 852. 
Ver-ff-ni-aud' (nye-o'), Pi-erce, 564. 
Ve-iTgn-a-no (-ya-), 713. 
Ver-mont', 846, 947. 



Ver-nei', Hor'ace, 658. 

Ve-ro'ua, 255, 279, 372, 5S2, 676, 70S, 7^8, 

790. 
Ver-sae'Hes, 499, 506. 525, 528, 537, 557, 560, 

561, 563, 729, 732, 734, 737, 754. 
Ver-vins' (-vaN'), Peace of, 456. 
Ves-pa'si-an (-zhi-), Fla'vi-us, 222, 223, 

224, 226. 
Ves-puc'ci (-poot'che), A-me-ri'go, 400, 

958. 
Ves'ta, 80, 150. 
Ves'tals, 251. 
Ve-su'vi-us, 165, 226. 
Ve-tu'ri-us, 166. 
Vicks'burg, 910, 912, 918. 
Victor IV., Anti-Pope, 321. 322. 
Victor Am-a-de'us, of Spain, 5S0. 
Victor Em-man'u-el. of It'a-ly, 639, 677. 
. 707, 70S, 709, 710, 711, 712, 7l7, 720, 725, 

760, 761. 
Vic-to'ri-a, Gua-da-lii'pe (gwa-), 950. 
Vic-tO'ri-a, of Eu'gland (ing'), 642, 664, 

687, 688. 
Vl-en'na, 390, 467. 474, 477, 503. 549, 585, 

591, 600, 609, 673, 677, 716, 768, 779. 
Vl-en'na, Congress of, 625, 628, 645, 660, 

661, 662, 767. 
Vl-en'na, Peace of, 609. 
Vi-en'na, Treaty of, 706. 
Vi'kiugs, 2S5. 379. 
Vi-la-gos' (-16-gosh'), 678. 
Vil'la (-ya) Fran'ca, Peace of, 708. 
Vil-la'ni, 335. 
Vilie-Aar-doii-in (-as'), Geof-froy' (zho- 

frwa'), 335. 
Vine, iZo-tel' de, 565. 
ViUe-maih*', A'bel Frax-cois' (-swa'), 

638. 
ViUe-roi' (-rwa'), Marshal, 511. 
Vil'liers (-yerz),, George. 479. 
VtWi-ga^n-on' (-yox'), 958. 
Vin-ceimes', Sfeiir de, 560. 
■\nn'cent, Cape, 852. 
Vin'ci (-die), Le-o-nar'do da, 464. 
Vi-noy', General, 734. 
Vir'chow (-ver'), Ru'dolf, 741. 
Vir'gil (-ver'), 210, 658. 
Vir-gin'i-a (ver-). 791, 797, 800, 802, 804, 

S06, 807, 80S, 809, 812, 814, 823, 830, 835, 

841, 850, 856, 890, 900, 902, 908, 912, 914, 

925, 937. 
Vir-gin'i-a (ver-), of Rome. 162. 
Vir-gin'i-a (ver-), University of, S93. 
Vir-gin'i-us (ver-), 162. 
Vir-i-a'thus. 187. 
Vis-con'ti, 374. 

Vis'tu-la, 3S3. 384, 426, 452, 518.602. 
Vi-tel'fi-us, Au'lus (aw'), 222, 223. 
Vit'i-ges, 262. 
Vit-to'ri-a, 608, 722. 
Vla-di'mir. the Great, 385. 
Vo'gel (fo'), of Leip'zig (-tsig), 742. 
Voi-wo'de-schaft, 384. 
Vol'ney, 655. 
Vol'scI, 147, 157, 160, 165. 
Vol'ta, 740. 

Vol-taire, 526, 543. 544. 545, 549, 638. 
Vosges (vdzh), 252. 
Vul'gate, 247. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final; eve. obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, 6rb, odd, move; 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



1029 



Waadf land, 584. 

Wa-chu'sett (-waw-) (vessel). 916. 

Wad'alng-ton (wod') Wil'liam (-yam) 

Henri' (aN), 758, 759, 767. 
Wade Ben'ja-min Frank'lin, 904. 
Wag'ner (sleeping car), 941. 
Wag'ner, Rich'ard, 658. 
Wa'gram, (va') Battle of, 609. 
Waitz (vitz), 740. 
Wal'de-mar (wol') I., of Den'mark, 

380. 
Wal'de-mar (wol') II., of Den'mark, 

3S0. 
Wal'de-mar (wol'] IV., of Den'mark, 

3S0. 
Wal-den'ses (-wol-), 319, 50S. 
Wal'der-see (vol'), Count, 777. 
Wales, 362, 782, 783, 826. 
Wales, Prince of. 362. 
Wa-lew'ski(va-lev'), 694. 
Wal'ker (waw'), Fran'cis Ani'a-sa, 940. 
Wal'lace (wol'is). Wil'liam (-yam), 362. 
Wal-la'efti-a (wol-), 551, 552, 604, 694. 
Wal'Zen-stein (wol'), Al'bert of, 466, 468, 

470, 471, 472. 473, 474, 476. 
Wal'li-il (vol'), 254. 
Wall (wawl) Street, 828. 
Wal'pole (wol'). Sir Rob'ert, 835. 882. 
Wal'ter (wawl'), the Penniless, 304. 
Ward (wawrd), General Ar'te-mas, 839. 
Ward (wawrd), Wil'liam (yam), 

George, 772. 
War'ner. (vvawr'), Charles Dud'ley, 949, 
War'ner (wawr'), Seth, 838. 
War'ner (wawr') Silver Bill, 929- 
War'ren (wor') Jo'seph, 838. 
Wart'biirg (varf), 326. 336, 408, 409, 645. 
War'tfta (varf), (river), 383, 384. 
War'saw (wawr'), 518, 524, 553, 554, 602, 

603, 614, 630, 662, 663. 664, 696, 698. 
War'saw (wawr') Battle of, 478. 
War'saw (wawr'), University of, 696. 
War'ten burg (var), 622. 
Wash'ing-ton (wosh'), George, 804, 82S, 

830, 831, 838, 839, 840, 842, 844, 846, 847, 

848, 850, 854, 856, 858, 860, 862, 864, 866, 

879, 894, 897, 899, 956. 
Wash'ing-ton (wosh') (city), 874, 808, 

907, 908, 910, 912, 918, 921, 922, 932, 937. 
Wash'ing-ton (wosh') (state), 864, 911. 
Wash'ing-ton (wosh'), Treaty of, 927. 
Wasp (w6sp) (vessel), 86S. 
Wa-ter-lGG' (waw-), 630, 032, 634. 
Watt (wot), James, 514, 741. 
Waj/'land, Fran'cis, 940. 
Wayne, An't/io-ny, S48, S00. 
Web'er, Baron von, 658. 
Web'ster, Dan'iel(-yel), S80, 884, 887, 901. 
Weed, Thiir'low, 898. 
Wee'liaw'ken (monitor), 915. 
Weins'berg (vfns'), 320. 
Weis'sen-burg (vf'sen-boorg). 727. 
Weiss'haupt (vis' hovvpt), Adam, 546. 
Welf of Sehwa'bi-a, 294. 
WelJes'ley, Ar'thur, See Wellington. 
Welies'ley College, 937. 
Wel'lington, Duke of, 608, 630, 632, 634, 
Wen'ces-las (-lawss), 343, 344. 
Wends, See Slavs. 



Went'worth (-wurtli), T/iom'as, 481. 
Wer'der (ver'), Au'gust (ow'goost), von, 

730. 
Wer'ner of Km'burg (-boorg), 294. 
Wer'ner (artist), 658. 
We'ser, 277, 598. 
Wes'ley. Charles, 810. 811. 
Wes'ley, J6/m. 810, 811. 
Wes'ter-mann, 573. 
West'ern Empire, 239, 240, 249, 251, 255, 

257. 
West'ern Reserve, 892. 
West In'dies, 400, 404, 641, 7S7, 791, 800, 

826, 834, 852, 902. 
West' min-ster Abbey, 362. 
West-more'Iand, Duke of, 45S. 
West-plul'li-i, 337, 533, 603, 610, 622, 

777. 
West-pha'li-5, Peace of, 448, 476, 477. 
West Point, 848. 
West Point Academy, 893, 911. 
West Vir-gin'i-fi.'(ver-), 908, 937. 
Weth'ers-Keld, 821. 
Wetz'lar, (vets'), 536.' 
Wey'precht, 743.- 
Yfheel'wright (hweT), Kev. JoAn, 817, 

822. 
Whigs (hwigs), 493, 512, 642. 
White'field (hwif), Rev. George, 806, 
White'hall (hwft'hawl), 4S8. 
White (hwit) Mountain, Battle of, 467. 
Whit'man (hwit'), Walt (wawlt),939. 
Whit'ney (hwif), E'lf, SS6. 
Whifney (hwif), Wil'liam (-yarn), 

Vwlght, 941. 
Whifiier (hwif), Joftn Green'leaf, 939, 

904. 
Wie'land, CAris'toph Mar'tin, 539. 
Wi-el-o-pol'ski, Count, 696, 698. 
Wies'loc/t (ves'), 468. 
Wies'nar (ves'), 477. 
Wil'ber-foi(;e, Wil'liam (-yam), 642. 
Wil'der-ness, 918. 
Wil'i-e-ka (vel'),552. 
Wilkes, Charles, 921. 
Wil'kie', Da'vid, 658. 
Wil'liam (-yam) and JIa'ry College, 805. 
Wil'liam (-yam), Count of Ilul'laud, 

314, 326, 337. 
Wil'liam (-yam) V., Duke of Bruns'- 

wick, 610. 
Wil'liam (-yam) VII., Duke of Bruns'- 

wick, 663, 719. 
Wil'liam (-yam) II., Elector of Hesse 

Cas'sel, 663. 
Wil'liam (-yam) Hen'ry, Fort, 831. 
Wil'liam (-yam) I., of En'gland (ing'), 

the Conqueror, 286. 
Wil'liam (yam) III., of En'gland (ing'), 

494, 500,807. 814,620, 826. 
Wil'liam (-yam) IV., of En'gland (ing'), 

642. 
Wil'liam (-yam) I., of Ger'ma-ny, 702, 

703, 716, 717, 720, 725, 726, 729, 732, 745, 

747, 749, 752, 780. 
Wil'liam (-yam) II., of Ger'ma-ny, 750, 

777. 
Wil'liam (-yam) I., of Hol'land, 628. 
Wil'liam (-yam) III., of Hol'land, 754. 



Wil'liam (-yam), of Or'ange, 442, 444, 

446, 447. 
Wil'liam (-yam) of Tyre, 335. 
Wil'liams (yams), Ro'ger, 817, 823. 
Wil'ming-ton, 916. 
Wil'mot, Da'vid, 903. 
Wil'na, 614. 

Wil'son, of France, 760. 
Wil'son Bill, 933. 
Wil'son, James, 856. 
Wimp'fen (vim'pfen), Battle of, 468. 
Wimpf-fen' (vaNp-fas), fim-mau'u-el 

Fe'lix, 729. 
Win'disch-gratz (-via'), 677, 678. 
Wintf'sor, 821. 

Wind'diorst, Lud'wig (loot' veg), 743. 
Win'fred, 275. 

Wiuk'el-man, Joftn, 538, 539. 
Wink'el-ried (ret), Ar'nold von; 344. 
Win'rich (ven'), of A'uip'rode, 3s4. 
Win'sor, Jus'tine, 940. 
Win'throp, JoAn, 816, 817, 821. 
Wirt (wert), Wil'liam (-yam), 897. 
Wis-con'sin, 878. 
Wis-con'sin, River, 793. 
Wis'niar, 516. 
Witchcraft, 821. 
Wif e-na-ge-mot, 286. 
Wi-tepsk' (ve-), 614. 
Wi-tid'za (ve-tlts'che), 270. 
Wif tels-bacfc, House of, 537. 
Wif ten-berg, 406, 408, 409, 410. 
Wif u-kind (vet), 279, 280. 
Wo' dan, see Odin. 
Wohl'ge-mutft (vol') 781. 
Wolf (wo61f),CArfs'tian, (-Chan), 525, 526. 
Wolfe (woolf), James, 535, 831, 832. 
Wolfe's (woolf's) Cove, 832. 
Wolse'ley (woolz'), Gar'net Jo'seph, 

773, 775. 
Wol'sey (wool'), Cardinal T/iom'as, 430. 
WoOd, Jeth'ro, 888. 
Wool'sey, The'o-dore Dwi.a/it, 940. 
Wool'son, Con'stan(;e Fen'i-more, 939. 
WoT-eester, 490, 491. 
Words'worth (wurdz'wQrth). Wil'liam 

(-yam-), 652, 894. 
Worms (vorms), 255, 282, 300, 408. 
Worms (vorms), Diet of, 350. 
Worth (wiirth),727. 
Wrang'el (vrang'), Count, 477, 478. 
Wrang'el (vrang'), Field-marshal, 705. 
Wul'len-we-ber (vool'), 422. 
Wurm'ser (voorm'), 582. 
Wurfem-bcrg (vflrf), 421,599, 600,622 

673, 679, 718, 726, 732. 
Wtirz'burg (vurts'boorg), 412, 578. 
Wyc'lif, JoAn, 346, 363. 
Wy-o'ming Valley, 854. 
Wythe, George, 856. 899. 

Xan-t/iip'pus (zan-), 168. 
Xa-vi-ei" (sha-), Sil'va, 858. 
Xen'o-phon (zen'), 118, 119, 125. 
Xerx'es (zerks'), 103, 104, 105, 107, 270. 
Xi-me'nes (zi-), Cardinal, 368. 

Yale College, 821. 
Ya-moii'na, 33. 
Yax'ar-tes, 72. 



use, flrn, up, riide ; food, foot ; by ; Qell ; N-ng ; italic letters silent or obscure. 



1030 



ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



Ya-zoo', 912. 

Yeard'ley, Sir George, 802. 

Yem'en,782. 

York, 234. 

York, Count, 622. 

York, Duke of, 492, 493, 586, 824, 826. 

York, House of, 363, 364. 

York, General, 619. 

York, On-ta'ri-6, See Toronto. 

York River, 803, 910. 

York'sln're, 362. 921. 

York'town, 850, 910. 

Young, Brig'ftam, 892. 

Young, Charles Au-gus'tus (aw-), 941. 

Yp-si-lan'ti Al-ex-ari'der, 646, 647. 

Yp-si-lan'ti, De-ine'tri-us, 647. 



Zseft-ring'en, House of, 339. 

Za'ma, 179. 

Zed-e-ki'iift, 65. 

ZeHer (tsel'), Ed'ward, 740. 

Zend-A- ves'ta, 66. 

Zends, 66. 

ZeN'ger, 826. 

Ze'no, 145. 

Ze-no'bi-a, 238. 

Ze-rub'ba-bel, 66. 

Zeus, 78, 81, 92, 108. 

Zeus Am'mon, 73, 132. 

Zeux'is, 127. 

Zi'on (-un),60. 

Zis'ka, 348. 

Znalm, Truce of, 609, 610. 



Zo'la, 657. 

Zoll've-rein (tsdl'fe-), 664. 
Z0-r6-as'ter, 66, 74. 
Zorn'dorf (tsorn'), Battle of, 533. 
Zu'ny, 392. 
Ziig. 339. 
Zii-lu'a-ga, 950. 
Zii'lus,773. 

Zun'i-ga, (thoon'ye-), 444. 
Zu'rich (tsu). 339, 405, 413, 414, 709. 
Zu'ricli (tsu'), Battle of, 586. 
Zu'lfcll (tsu'), Council of, 413. 
Zwic'kau (tsvik'kow),409. 
Zvviug'li (tsving'), Ul'rich (601'), 1413, 
414, 426, 427. 



Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; use, urn, up, rude ; food, foot; 
by; cell; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 



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